PROPERTIES OF METALS AND THEIR STRUCTURE

Prof.O.PRABHAKAR

METALLIC CRYSTAL STRUCTURE

The atoms are arranged in space to form solids. In a crystal the atoms are arranged in a
repeated periodic fashion in three dimensions over long distances. If this periodic
arrangement is absent in a solid material it is called amorphous or noncrystalline.
Diffraction technique is used by metallurgists to determine whether a solid material is
crystalline or amorphous. If the atoms are replaced by their centre points, the resultant
periodic arrangement of points is known as lattice.

Crystal structure Axes Angles

Triclinic abc       90o
Monoclinic abc  =  = 90o  
Orthorhombic abc  =  =  = 90o
Hexagonal a=bc  =  = 90,  = 120o
Rhombohedral a = b =c  =  =   90o
Tetragonal a=bc  =  =  = 90o
Cubic a = b =c  =  =  =90o
Table Seven Crystal Systems.

The crystal lattices observed in metals and alloys are many primitive translation lattices,
displaced in relation to each other. They are mostly close packed and highly symmetrical.
The common ones observed in metallic systems are described in the following sections.

Body-centred cubic space lattice

The atoms are located at the corners and one atom at the centre of a cube as shown in
Figure:3-1(b). Alpha-iron, alpha-chromium, molybdenum, lithium, sodium etc. have
body-centred cubic space lattice.

Face-centred cubic space lattice

The atoms are located at the corners and at the face centres as shown in Figure: 3-1(c).
Most of the metals like copper, silver, gold, aluminium, lead, gamma iron etc. show this
type of structure.
Figure Cubic system. a: Simple Cubic b: Body Centred Cubic (B.C.C) c: Face Centred Cubic
(F.C.C)

1.1.1. Close packed hexagonal space lattice

A typical hexagonal close packed structure is shown in Figure:

3-2 and is found in metals like magnesium, zinc, gamma-
titanium etc.
Figure: Hexagonal Close Packed lattice (H.C.P)

METALLIC STRUCTURE

Most of the metals are usually crystalline in the solid state and they are polycrystalline.
These crystals in the polycrystalline materials are known as 'grains'. With the help of an
optical microscope at a magnification between 50 and 1000 the features of the grains can
be observed and the structure is known as 'microstructure'. If the structure is observed
even by the naked eye or at a very low magnification, less than 10 times, it is known as
'macrostructure'. However, the atomic arrangement inside these grains is known as
'crystal structure'. The microstructure revealed by the optical microscope has been used
by materials engineers to control the properties of materials.

In the liquid state most of the metals have mutual unlimited solubility. After solidification
they may form solid solutions, that is either may be dissolved in the other in the solid
state, or chemical compounds or may produce mechanical mixtures of the two
components A and B in the case of binary systems. When a solid solution is formed, the
solute atoms (the component that is dissolving) may substitute for a part of the atoms in
the lattice of the solvent and this is known as substitutional solid solution. Sometimes the
solute may be accommodated in the interstices of the solvent lattice and then the resulting
solid solution is known as interstitial solid solution.

If the amount of solute atoms present exceeds the solubility limit, then the excess solute
atoms form an independent phase or a compound.

SOLIDIFICATION

Figure 0-1: Figure shows dendrite arm spacing,

quiaxial grains and columnar grains.

When the liquid metal is allowed to cool, solid starts depositing

on small centres of solid already existing in the liquid melt known
as nuclei. These nuclei may be present in the liquid melt or may
be added deliberately (grain refinement). When the solidification
is complete, the structure reveals grains which may be equiaxial
or columnar. Inside these grains the growth pattern can be seen
and is usually in the form of dendrites. In addition the solidifying
melt undergoes segregation. All these three terms, grains size, dendrite arm spacing and segregation are described below.

Grain Size

Grain size represents a measure of the mechanical properties of materials. In some

materials the grain size can not be altered subsequently after solidification. Hence the
solidification should be controlled to produce the desired grain size. At room temperature
finer the grain size the higher the strength and ductility. Grain refinement during
solidification improves the mechanical properties of most of the alloy systems. For high
temperature applications, coarse-grained structure is preferred.

Dendrite Arm Spacing (DAS)

Each dendrite is like a tree possessing a primary arm, secondary arms and tertiary arms.
In the case of equiaxed solidification, the distance between two primary arms is
approximately equal to the grain size and the secondary arm spacing is known as the
‘Dendrite Arm Spacing”(DAS, Fig:3-3)). This DAS controls the mechanical properties of
the castings just like the grain size. The smaller the DAS better he mechanical properties
of the casting.

Segregation

The variation in composition from point to point in a component is known as segregation.

If this variation exists over short distances (~microns) then it is known as
mirosegregation and if the variation exists over large distances then it is known as
macrosegregation. Microsegregation may be eliminated by a suitable heat-treatment. The
presence of segregation will affect the further processing of metals and alloys.

PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

INTRODUCTION

Fabricated components need to have some minimum properties so that they can be used
in service. The properties of materials also affect the processing method that is employed
for manufacture. During manufacture the properties of the materials are constantly
altered. These are utilized to obtain the final or the end properties in the material which
are the desired or the recommended properties for a given service condition.

Each manufacturing method has advantages and limitations. Cost is another important
factor that an engineer has to consider. Finally the acceptance or the rejection of the
finished component is decided based on the basis of conformation to the specifications.
 Classes of properties

The following tests are carried out on the components to determine their suitability for
service and also to control the manufacturing process.

1. Mechanical Properties.
2. Electrical Properties.
3. Magnetic Properties.
4. Thermal Properties.
5. Optical Properties.
6. Wear properties.
7. Dimensional details (Metrology).

Significance of properties on design

Design is the methodology through which a new concept or idea is transformed into a
product that can be manufactured. The number of materials available to the design
engineer is vast, somewhere in the range of 40000 to 80000 types of materials are
available. Materials properties are important at each stage of design.

LOADING SYSTEMS AND MATERIAL FAILURE

Material Failure
A material is considered failed when it can no longer perform the jobs that it is designed
to perform. Yielding and fracture are the two of the commonest types of failures. When a
ductile material is loaded above its yield point plastic or permanent deformation results in
the component. This will make the part unusable. Under certain service conditions the
component may completely fracture making it unsuitable for use. Temperature, the state
of stress and the rate of loading will determine the type of fracture that occurs in a
material. The type of fracture may be classified in a broad way as:

1. Ductile fracture.

2. Brittle Fracture.
Figure 2-0-1: TYPES OF FRACTURES.
Fig.2-1 shows the three types of fracture that occur in materials subjected to tensile
loading. The extent of plastic deformation shown by the material before fracture takes
place distinguishes the ductile and the brittle fracture. In engineering practice this value is
usually taken as around 10 percent elongation. Ductile materials show substantial plastic
deformation before fracture and these exhibit ductile mode of failure. The terms ductile
and brittle are only relative. A material that under normal condition fails under ductile
manner may fail in brittle manner if the temperature, strain rate or the stress state is
altered as these affect the ductility also. The fracture process is a two step process. First a
crack is formed and secondly this crack grows. If once a crack is formed its further
growth takes place without any further increase in the stress level, it is known as unstable
crack growth. On the other hand if the growth of the crack takes place only if the applied
stress is increased then it is known as stable crack growth. Brittle fracture that takes place
in ceramics or in metals at low temperatures is usually unstable crack growth. Ductile
fracture exhibited by metals at room temperature is usually accompanied by stable crack
growth.

Ductile Fracture

The features of a ductile failure can be seen both at the microscopic and macroscopic
levels. If one looks at a steel specimen subjected to tensile testing the macroscopic
features of ductile fracture can be observed. It is the cup-and-cone type of fracture that
takes place. If the material is very ductile it can also show a rupture type of failure. Under
Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) more detailed information regarding the ductile
fracture can be obtained. They are the dimple formation. . These dimples are one half of
these microvoids formed and separated during the fracture process. The shape and the
orientation of these dimples indicate the type of loading applied on the specimen that
caused the failure.

Brittle Fracture

Compare to ductile fracture the brittle fracture reveals much less features on the fractured
surface. The crack grows very rapidly and the crack surface is relatively planar. The
crack grows in a direction perpendicular to the applied tensile stress. Sometimes Chevron
(V-shaped) markings or ridges may appear on the fractured surface which may be
observed with the naked eye. When the brittle fracture takes place along specific
crystallographic planes the crack passes through the grain and it is termed as cleavage.
The type of fracture is known as transgranular. In some alloys the fracture may go along
the grain boundary and in that case it is known as intergranular type of fracture.
 TESTING

Tensile Test

Ref: Callister

Figure 0-2: Stress-Strain curve in a tensile test for a ductile material.

The tensile test yields the mechanical properties of a material tested in tension. It is one
of the most frequently employed test. First the tensile specimens have to be made as per
some standard. They have the following features: The tensile test specimen has a larger
head at its end and the central portion, called gauge length, has a smaller and uniform
cross sectional area than the head portion. This is to guarantee that plastic deformation
and fracture will be confined to this portion. The tensile test piece is pulled with the help
of a test machine. The force that is applied is measured with the help of a dynamometer
and the elongation in the specimen is continuously measured with the help of an
extensometer fixed to the gauge length portion of the specimen. The load versus
extension curve is plotted from which the stress - strain curve is obtained by knowing the
geometric dimensions of the specimen. A typical stress-strain curve obtained for a
metallic material is shown in Fig: No: 2-2. The material properties are obtained from this
curve by measuring its various features. It should be borne in mind that the shorter the
gauge length the higher the value of the percent elongation determined.

A-B = Elastic Range

B = Elastic Limit: Above this point plastic deformation occurs.
C = Yield point
B-G = Work hardening region.
E = Ultimate tensile strength.
F = Fracture strength.
 Modulus of Elasticity

In Fig.2-2 the initial portion of the curve shows a linear portion where the stress and the
strain are related by an equation
=E Equation 0-1
where the proportionality constant is known as the 'Modulus of Elasticity' or ‘Young's
Modulus’ and has the units of MPa. This range is known as 'Elastic range' and the
specimen will come back to its original size once the load is removed. Engineers design
the structures in such a way that they do not suffer permanent deformation and the extent
of elastic deformation is determined by the value of 'E'. Some typical values for some
well-known materials are given in Table No:2-1. Modulus of elasticity of all plastics is
low compared to most metals. Drawn Nylon filaments have a tensile strength of 345 MPa
which is actually greater than some low strength steels. Nylon is crystalline. It is used as
insulator. It is light in weight, has easy colorability and used in fiber reinforced plastics. It
is also known as Young's Modulus and is represented as E. This is the slope of elastic or
the initial part of the stress - strain curve.

Aluminium alloys 69 GPa

Copper base alloys 97 to 130 GPa
Gray cast iron 82 to 130 GPa
Steel 190 to 205 GPa
Cemented carbide ~345 GPa

Table 0-1 : Some Typical Modulus of Elasticity of materials.

Yield Strength

In the stress-strain curve as the stress is increased, it is observed that the slope of the
initial line changes and this point is known as ‘proportionality limit'. At this point the
material behaviour changes from elastic to plastic behaviour and it is not easy to
determine this point accurately particularly very ductile materials like aluminium. So we
choose a point on the curve where the specimen shows a definite amount of permanent
deformation, say 0.2 %. The engineering stress corresponding to this value is termed as
‘yield strength'. The design criteria depend on this material property.

Factors that increase the yield strength of materials at room

temperature

Features of the microstructure that prevent the movement of dislocations like:

i) Grain boundary
ii) Precipitates
iii) Alloying additions will increase the strength. At elevated temperatures the grains
start sliding one over the other and hence large grains are preferable. Precipitates
and alloying additions also improve the high temperature strength.

Tensile Strength

When the specimen is loaded beyond the proportional limit the specimen undergoes
elongation and the specimen length increases. The material becomes strong or hardened
and further deformation is achieved by increasing the stress and this is known as 'strain
hardening'. At some point instability sets in and a neck is formed in the specimen which
has a reduced cross sectional area. Deformation is concentrated in this zone and
ultimately the specimen fractures. To calculate the stress we take into account the
original area of cross section and the stress thus calculated is known as engineering
stress. The engineering stress representing the maximum value on the stress-strain graph
is known as the tensile strength or the ultimate tensile strength.

Ductility

The ability of a material to deform without fracture is termed as ductility.

L f L o
PercentageElongation  X100
Lo
L f  Specimenlength at the time of fracture Equation 0-2
L o  Original specimen length

Ductility can also be determined by measuring the change in the cross sectional area.

Ao  A f
Percentage reduction in area  X 100
Ao
where Ao  Original area of cross section and Equation 0-3
A f  Final area of cross section in the neck at the time of fracture.

Resilience and Toughness

Resilience is the area under the stress-strain curve up to the elastic limit from zero load. It
represents the energy that is recoverable.
 Toughness

This is the total area under the stress- strain curve starting from load up to fracture. This
value represents the ability of the material to absorb energy without fracture. It has the
unit of work.

True Stress-True Strain

When the tensile test is carried out the specimen is constantly deforming and the cross
sectional area is constantly decreasing. True stress is calculated based on the actual area
of the specimen during the progress of the test. In a similar way the strain calculated
based on the actual length of the specimen during test is known as True Strain.

Compression Testing

Certain materials like are stronger in compression than in tension. For example cast iron
or concrete has a compression strength that is twice its tensile strength. The compression
test is carried out much the same way as the tensile testing.

Transverse Rupture Testing

This test is usually employed for brittle

materials where the tensile testing
poses difficulties. So for brittle
materials like concrete this test is used.
The specimen is supported at two
points.

Figure 0-3: (a) Three point and (b) four-

point bending tests.
In the three point test the force P is
applied at the centre of the specimen.
The specimen bends and the upper is
half is under compression and the lower experiences tension. Failure occurs when the
maximum tensile stress exceeds a certain value and it is called the rupture strength. It is
calculated by the following formula:
3Pl
 r Equation 0-4
2bh 2

If the testing is carried out as per four-point test, the rupture strength is calculated using
the following equation:
 Pl
 r Equation 0-5
bh 2

The modulus of rupture is a function of the testing method and is highest in three point
bending. The four-point test gives a lower value of the rupture strength but a more
consistent value is obtained.

Shear Testing
This test is usually carried out for bolts and rivets.
P
 Equation 0-6
2A

Where  = Shear stress and A = Area

Hardness Testing
Hardness is a measure of the ability of a material to resist penetration of the near surface
material. Hardness is proportional to material properties like strength. A number of
hardness values may be determined depending upon the indenter and the load employed.
For a given load the indenter will penetrate a larger depth in a softer material than in a
harder material. This depth or in some cases the size of the indentation made is taken as a
quantitative measure of the hardness value. The type of material will determine the
method that is selected. It is difficult to convert from one value to another. Some of the
commonly employed hardness tests are described below.

Brinell Hardness Test

A steel ball is impressed (10 mm in diameter) on the material

whose hardness is to be determined. For harder materials a
tungsten carbide ball is used. After the load is applied the
indentation area made on the specimen is measured and the
Brinell Hardness Number is given by the formula:
Figure 0-4:Brinell Hardness

BHN  
Load in kg
Equation 0-7
Area of impression in mm 2

This test gives consistent results. Modern microprocessor based

equipment are self-loading. Thin material can not be tested by this
method.
 Rockwell Hardness Test

This is also an impression test. It has 10 kg as minor load and 60, 100 or 150 kg as the
major loads. Differential depth between the minor and the major loads is then directly
read by a dial gauge as a Rockwell hardness number on an arbitrary scale. The value is
given as HRA, HRB or HRC etc. depending on the load and the indenter selected. The
indenter may be a ball or a diamond cone. This Rockwell hardness test is the most
widely used test in the industries.

Figure 0-5:Rockwell Harness

Vickers Hardness Test

A diamond pyramid is used as the indenter. From the measured

values of the diagonals of the indentation made the area is
calculated. Again by dividing the force applied by the area of
indentation made the hardness number is estimated and reported as
HV or HVN.
Figure 0-6: Vickers Hardness

Scratch Hardness Testing

The earliest test was Moh's test which is a scratch test to estimate the hardness of brittle
geological samples. In the Moh's scale the hardness varies from 1 to 10. Diamond is 10
and corundum is 9, Talc is 1.
MINERAL MOH’S HARDNESS HARDNESS, KG/MM2
NUMBER
Talc 1 23
Gypsum 2 30
Calcite 3 100
Fluorite 4 160
Apatite 5 400
Orthoclase 6 600
Quartz 7 810
Topaz 8 1200
Corundum 9 1860
Diamond 10 7800

Table 0-2 : Moh's Hardness Values

Fatigue Testing

In fatigue testing the loading is cyclic or repeated application of load. Even though the
applied load is not very high to cause permanent deformation, the repeated application
damages the material leading fatigue failure. A majority of industrial failures are caused
by fatigue (about 90%). Fatigue of metallic materials is characterized by three stages.
I stage: In the initial stages, very small cracks are initiated.
II stage: Subsequently after the specimen is subjected to many more loading cycles, the
crack grows. The crack surface formed during this stage appears smooth and polished.
III stage: In the last stage before the fracture of the specimen, the area of cross section
bearing the load is constantly reducing and at a certain stage the cross sectional area
remaining connected is so much reduced the stress developed exceeds the yield stress and
sudden brittle fracture occurs. The fractured surface developed during this stage shows a
well-defined grain structure. Moving parts and parts that are subjected to vibrations are
exposed to a greater risk of fatigue failure.

Endurance Limit

This is also known as the fatigue limit. This is the highest, completely reversed stress
whose repeated application can be endured by a component for an indefinitely large
number of cycles without leading to failure. Steels show an endurance limit which is
about 50 percent of the tensile strength. Non-ferrous materials like aluminium, copper
and magnesium alloys do not show any well defined endurance limit.

Fatigue Strength

Fatigue strength is the stress that can be applied on a component for a specified number
of cycles without causing failure.

Creep Testing

At temperatures above 0.5 X Melting point of the metal or an alloy the material exhibits
different kind of mechanical behaviour with higher ductilities and lower strength values.
At these elevated temperatures creep deformation becomes important and creep tests are
conducted at elevated temperatures to determine material properties and behaviour. In
this creep test the continuous deformation of a material under a constant applied load as a
function of time is measured. Usually these tests are conducted at elevated temperatures.
A typical curve recorded in a creep testing is shown in Fig:2-7.

Creep Strength

It is the stress required to produce a predetermined creep rate (strain rate) in the test
piece. This represents the straight-line portion in the creep curve or the steady state
creep. As an example the creep rate is specified as 2 percent in 20000 hrs.
 Stress Rupture Strength

Stress rupture strength is the stress required to produce failure or rupture at the end of a
specified values of temperature and time.

Figure 0-7: Typical stress versus strain curve obtained in a creep test.

Impact testing

Dynamic load is suddenly applied by a swinging pendulum type arrangement on a test

specimen with a notch. This test is conducted at different temperatures so that the brittle-
ductile transition in the material can be followed.

Figure 0-8: Impact Specimens

Charpy Test: The pendulum strikes the specimen and the

energy absorbed by the specimen is determined. A
keyhole notch is employed (Fig:2-8).

Izod test: The specimen is loaded as a cantilever by the

swinging pendulum. The notch is made at 45o with a
radius of 0.010 in at the bottom (Fig:2-8).
 Fracture Toughness

Figure 0-9: Fracture Modes

Fracture Mechanics is the study and description of a material property related to fracture
resistance. Fracture Toughness is a material property and is expressed as the Stress
Intensity Factor, K. The stress intensity describes the stress field surrounding the tip of an
ideal sharp crack in a linear elastic material. The local stress at the crack tip is greater
than the stress in the area without flaw. If this stress exceeds a critical value, crack can
advance. In the case of brittle materials, this leads to uncontrolled and catastrophic failure
of the component.
Tests are conducted to determine the fracture toughness of materials and the plane-strain
fracture toughness KIC is given by the equation

K IC  C   a c Equation 0-8

where C is a dimensionless parameter that depends up on the specimen geometry and

crack geometries and has usually a value of 1.0 and ac is the critical flaw size below
which fracture will not take place at the given stress level. The suffix 'I' in KIC represents
the mode I type of crack displacement as shown in Fig. No: 2-9. KIC is useful in
predicting catastrophic failures particularly materials that are not very ductile or brittle.
 DISCONTINUITIES

The quality of a component is essentially determined by two factors:

1. The metallurgical microstructure.

2. The defects or the discontinuities in the material that will adversely affect its
performance.

The naturally occurring ore is treated in the metallurgical plants to obtain metals and
alloys which are used for further processing to produce the components of the desired
shape. In every stage there is the likelihood of introducing defects in the specimen which
might make it unsuitable for service. To employ nondestructive evaluation in an effective
manner it is necessary to understand the nature and the type of defects that occur.
Discontinuities affect the safety and the performance of components. In general
discontinuity is defined as "the interruption of the typical structure, such as a lack of
homogeneity in the mechanical or metallurgical or physical characteristics of the
material". On the other hand 'defect' or a 'flaw' has an undesirable connotation namely
that the discontinuity makes the component unsuitable for use and hence is rejected.

Origin of discontinuities and failure modes

Discontinuities differ in their ability to harm the structure or the component. The factors
that influence the decision whether a particular discontinuity is harmful or not are:

1. Size.
2. Sharpness.
3. Orientation relative to the applied load.

Planar defect such as cracks, lamellar tears, lack of fusion and lack of penetration have a
stress raising effect which is very damaging to the component. If the applied stress opens
the crack wider that orientation of the discontinuity is more harmful. Surface or near
surface discontinuities may be three times more detrimental than a similarly shaped
discontinuity that is buried.

Inherent discontinuities

The raw materials used in the manufacture of components may have defects. For example
the billets or the sheet metals used in the manufacture of steel components may have
defects like slag inclusions, gas porosity, inclusions, laminations etc. These defects are,
however, maintained below the accepted levels. Further processing sometimes may
accentuate the deleterious nature of these defects.

Process-induced discontinuities
The fabrication processes like casting, welding, forming etc. introduce a number of
discontinuities in the component. Some of them are discussed below.

Figure 0-10: Discontinuities

Porosity

This takes place during solidification in castings or in welds and mostly associated with
gas entrapment. Shape, size and the location of these pores determine their ability to
impair the service life of the component. The porosity normally occurs as uniformly
distributed, cluster, linearly aligned or elongated types. In the case of castings it generally
has an adverse influence on strength and elongation. However in the steel welds, it is
reported up to 3 percent porosity static strength is not very much affected but the ductility
is affected adversely. Porosity does effect the fatigue behavior of materials particularly if it
exists on the surface. Creep properties are affected only to the extent of the reduction in
the cross sectional area due to the presence of porosity. Porosity up to a certain level is
tolerated in the accepted casting and welds and is not considered as harmful as planar
cracks.

Slag Inclusions

Oxides or other non-metallic materials get entrapped in castings or in welds during

solidification and they may occur as isolated slag inclusions or as stringers or continuous
line. The effect of slag inclusions on the static strength and elongation properties is only
to the extent the cross sectional area is reduced. Toughness is generally taken to be
unaffected by the presence of slag inclusions up to 4 percent by volume. However, slag
inclusions affect the fatigue properties adversely particularly if it located near the surface.
 LACK OF FUSION, LOF, OR LACK OF PENETRATION, LOP

These kinds of discontinuities occur in welds. They may be planar or volumetric. In this
case also the effect of lack of fusion or lack of penetration on static tensile properties is
only to the extent the cross sectional area is reduced. However their influence on fatigue
properties is considered to be significant.

Cracking

This is most dangerous discontinuity. Many conditions like, heat-affected zone,

solidification conditions, hydrogen assisted cracking etc. promote crack formation.
Cracking may also initiated by other discontinuities during loading. Generally cracks are
considered very damaging to the component and so repair or salvaging operation is
carried out.

Ranking of Discontinuities

If the discontinuities are ranked in increasing order of their adverse effect on the service
life of a component, it may be as follows:
1. Porosity.
2. Slag.
3. Cracks.

Service-induced discontinuities

Many defects are introduced or the previously existing discontinuities tend to grow
during service. Under static loading the cracks or discontinuities do not grow unless the
environmental conditions are altered. Under alternating loading conditions and the
components exposed to high temperature the cracks have a tendency to grow. When the
size of the crack reaches the critical size satisfying the KIC condition the normal or static
failure takes place.

FACTOR OF SAFETY

The manufacturing techniques and the basic alloy itself will introduce some uncertainty
in the properties determined. The design engineer assumes a reduced value of the
material property to factor the uncertainties experienced. In the case of ductile materials
the yield strength is divided by a number, N, greater than one, and the resulting value
known as working stress, w is used for design calculations. In the case of brittle
materials, the tensile strength is divided by the safety factor to obtain the working stress.
1

2
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4
SAND CASTING

6
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8
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10
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12
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14
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SHELL MOULDING

16
17

18
 19

INVESTMENT
CASTING

20
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22
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26
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30
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END

32
 Heat Treatment of Steels

Dr K Venkateswaran PhD

Chief Executive
Advanced Heat Treatment Services
Maraimalai Nagar
Mob - 09444012548
E-Mail: advsin@yahoo.com
CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS

FERROUS
METALS

NON-FERROUS

POLYMERS MATERIALS COMPOSITES

CERAMICS
CLASSIFICATION OF Fe-BASED ALLOYS

Plain carbon steels

Fe-based alloys Alloy steels

Cast Irons
BEHAVIOR OF OF Fe-based ALLOYS

Iron –important source of all engineering

alloys
Allotropic metals – useful for heat
treatment for developing different
mechanical and metallurgical properties
Changes its magnetic properties – alpha
iron is magnetic
Malleable and ductile – useful properties
for metal working, fabrication and
manufacturing
12/28/2009 AML 5
IRON CARBON PHASE DIAGRAM
IRON CARBON PHASE DIAGRAM
IRON CARBON PHASE DIAGRAM

• Austenite- 2% C max :
not stable in room
temp.,
• Cementite-Fe3C-6.67%
C : hard &Brittle

• Ferrite -0.025% C max:

soft
• Pearlite – 0.80% C max
: Ferrite+Cementite

• Ledeburite – 4.3% C
Eutectic Mix of A+C
 The Iron-Iron Carbide
Eutectoid System

12/28/2009 AML 9
 Eutectoid Microstructures
• Just like the eutectic systems there are a number of
different “morphologies#” for the two phases in a
binary eutectic alloy.
• The most common morphology for eutectoid areas
in the Fe-Fe3C system is lamellar. (This is because
most steel is relatively slowly cooled through the
eutectoid phase transformation.)

12/28/2009 AML 10
Evolution of Eutectoid Steel Microstructure

• H y p o e u t e ct o i d
Hyp
Hypereutectctoid

12/28/2009 AML 11
IRON CARBON PHASE DIAGRAM
Fe-C PHASE DIAGRAM
DETERMINATION OF PHASES
FORMATION OF PEARLITE
HYPER- EUTECTIOD STEELS
PEARLITE PHASES
HYPO-EUTECTIOD STEELS
HYPER-EUTECTOID STEEL (1.4%C)
HEAT TREATMENT OF STEEL

• Full annealing
• Spheroidizing
• Stress-relief Annealing
• Process Annealing
• Normalizing
HEAT TREATMENT OF STEEL

• Hardening
• Tempering
• Austempering
• Case Hardening:
carburizing (gas, liquid)
• Nitriding
• Flame and Induction Hardening
HEAT TREATMENT OF STEEL
FULL ANNEALING

Heat the steel to the proper temp and

cool slowly through the transformation
range – furnace Cool

Purpose: to refine the grain, induce

softness, improve electrical and
magnetic properties, to improve
machinability
SPHEROIDIZING

Heat and cool alternately between temp that

are just above and just below the lower
critical line
Prolonged holding at a temp just below the
lower critical line
Purpose :
- to improve machinability by producing
spheroidal form of carbide in a ferritic
matrix
SPHEROIDIZING
STRESS-RELIEF ANNEALING

Carried out below the lower critical

line(550-650 C)

Useful in removing residual stresses

due to heavy machining or other cold
working process

Also called as subcritical annealing

PROCESS ANNEALING

Carried out between 550- 650 C

Used in sheet and wire industries

Softens the steel for further cold

working
NORMALIZING

Heat approximately 40 c above upper critical

temp followed by cooling in still air to room temp

To produce a harder and stronger steel than full

annealing

To improve machinability,modify/refine cast

dendritic structures, refine and homogenize
grains

Final heat treatment in some applications

ANNEALED AND NORMALIZED MICROSTRUCTURE
EFFECT OF CARBON CONTENTS ON HARDNESS
EFFECT OF C CONTENTS ON MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
HARDENING

Development of Martensite
structure (carbon trapped in a
body centered tetragonal
structure)
Martensite 2500x

Higher cooling rates

(quenching) compared to other
process

Revealed as white needlelike 1% carbon steel

water quenched
/acicular structure in
micrographs
HARDENING … Depends on

• Carbon %
• Heating rates and time
• Quenching media
• Quenching rate
• Dimension of the part
(cross section)
• Surface conditions
MARTENSITE TRANSFORMATION
CASE HARDENING

• To develop a hard wear resistant surface (case)

and relatively a soft tough inside (core)
• METHODS
• Carburizing
• Nitriding
• Carbonitriding
• Flame hardening
• Induction Hardening
• C,N,CN methods add Carbon/Nitrogen/or both
• FH,IH do not change the chemical
composition, must have 0,30 % C or higher
BASIC REACTIONS
CARBURIZING

• Pack Carburizing
• Liquid Carburizing
• Gas Carburizing

• Gas carburizing:
• CO2 gas reacts with steel surface
• GCF and SQF are used for mass production
• Batch/ Continuous production is possible
• Carburizing temp around 900 c
GAS CARBURIZING

Advantages

Accurate case depth

Lower cost
Less time due to direct quenching
Closer quality control
Greater flexibility of operation
Automation and efficient operation
NITRIDING

•Case hardening of alloy steel in

ammonia and dissociated ammonia
mixture
•Formation of nitrides
•At 480-650 c for required time
•Increases wear resistance and
hardness
•Applied to medium carbon steel
NITRIDING

• Advantages: • Disadvantage:

• Very high hardness • Long operation

• Less distortion and times
cracks
• High wear • Alloy steels with
resistance Al,Cr,Va and Mo
• No machining can be nitrided as
/finishing is reqd thy form nitrides
• Economical for
mass production
CARBONITRIDING

- is a process of heating parts in an

atmosphere of natural gas and
ammonia
in a 3:1 proportion at critical temp
followed by Q and T

- Temp ranges from 550-950 C

- Increases wear resistance

FLAME HARDENING
COMPARISON HT vs CH
BASIC REACTIONS
CASE HARDENING
MICROSTRUCTURE
MICROSTRUCTURE
HARDNESS
CAST IRON

• Ferrous alloys with greater than 2 wt% Carbon

• 3% Silicon for control of carbide kinetics
• Have relatively low melting points and liquid phase
viscosities

• Classification:
• White Cast iron :white crystalline fracture surface hard&brittle due
to Fe3C
• Gray cast iron: gray fracture surface 2-3% Si promotes graphite
than Fe3C
• Ductile Iron: 0.05% Mg to GCI,spheroidal graphite pptn.Ductility is
increased
• Malleable Iron: White CI heat treated to produce nodular graphite
ppts
CAST IRON
TYPES OF CAST IRONS
TYPES OF CAST IRONS
TYPES OF CAST IRONS
EFFECT OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS
EFFECT OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS
PHASE DIAGRAM
EFFECT OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS
MICROSTRUCTURE
WHITE CAST IRON

• Fe3C + pearlite

• Hard, brittle

• shows a “white”
crystalline fractured
surface

• Excellent wear
resistance

• High compressive stress

MALLEABLE CAST IRON
GRAY CAST IRON
GRAY CAST IRON
GRAY CAST IRON
GRAY CAST IRON
GRAY CAST IRON
DIFFERENCE
NODULAR CAST IRON
NODULAR CAST IRON
HEAT TREATMENT CONTROL
APPLICAIONS
Thanks
For Your Kind
Attention