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Unit - 8 Climate Change

Structure of the Unit:
8.0 Objectives
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Consequences of Climate Change
8.3 Global Warming
8.4 Green House Effect
8.5 Green House Gases
8.6 Ozone Layer, its Depletion and Ozone Hole
8.7 Carbon di oxide Fertilization
8.8 Sea Level Rise
8.9 Copenhagen Summit (2009) and Montreal Protocol
8.10 Summary
8.11 Glossary
8.12 Self -Learning Exercise
8.13 References
8.0 Objectives
After going through this unit you will be able to
• Understand about climate change and major Global
problems
• know the concept of Green House Effect and Green House
Gases

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• understand the Ozone Layer and its Depletion about Ozone

hole
• find out the consequences of climate change

8.1 Introduction

The most significant global environmental problem faced by the

world community is related to‘Global Environmental Changes’
(GEC). Alterations in both physico chemical (Abiotic) and
biological (Biotic) components of the biosphere by human,
resulted in environmental degradation world over. Major
environmental problems, that are infact the manifestation of the
degraded environments at global level include air and water
pollution, loss of biodiversity, global warming,ozone depletion,
emission of green house gases at alarming increasing rate,
deforestation etc.
The probable net result of global warming would be climatic
changes at local, regional and global levels. The international
communities are scared of catastrophic adverse effect of future
climatic changes on different spheres of man and nature e.g. sea
level changes, submergences of island nations and major coastal
low lands, atmospheric dynamics including evaporation and
precipitation, global radiation balance, photosynthesis and
ecological productivity, plant and animal community, human
health and wealth and many more. The major sources of global
environmental problems have been identified as rapid rate of
industrialization and urbanization, population growth at
alarming rate, advancement in productive technology; major
land use changes etc and efforts are taking for tackling this
alarming problem of global warming leading to climatic changes.

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8.2 Consequences of Climate Change

There are many evidences of climate change; these evidences

draw the attention at locally and globally. studies of climate
were done in past and it is compared with present climatic
conditions to prove that climate is changed with time, by various
experiments, impact assessments, study of rocks, ice cover, sea
levels, radio tagging, analysis of coral rings, tree rings over the
time etc. The few facts that indicate the change in atmosphere
are-
• Temperature of the earth increased in last few decades called
global warming.
• Widening of Arctic Ozone hole and depletion of ozone layer.
• Oceans are warm leading to sea level rise in different
localities.
• Glaciers and snow covers are melting down.
• Arctic ice cover is shrinking in depth and extent.
• Seasonal changes are observed.
• Climatic condition is altered.
• Extreme and erratic weather conditions leading to flood,
drought, famine and various diseases.
• More intensive and longer droughts are observed
• Change in vegetation pattern
• Threatened ecosystem, communities and livelihood,
• Loss of land due to inundation and erosion increased flooding
and salt water intrusion.

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• Effect on coastal agriculture, fisheries, aquaculture, and

tourism
• Social economic impacts of climate changes on human
civilization

8.3 Global Warming

Global warming refers to gradual rise in atmospheric and ground

surface air temperature and consequent change in global
radiation balance caused mainly by anthropogenic processes
leading to climatic change at different levels (Local, Regional and
Global). It may be pointed out that the pattern of global rise in
air temperature has been studied and reported by different
scientists and agencies but their results are not uniform.
Radioactive forcing, as defined and used by intergovernmental
panel on climate change(IPCC,1990), refers to the effects which
green house gases have in altering the energy balance of the
earth atmosphere system’(GWP) is used as a tool to compare the
relative warming effect of different gases. There are some
differences of opinions, however, about the extent of rise in
earth’s temperature due to increasing CO2 levels.
Some analysts believe that changes in the earth’s mean
temperature will be apparent by 2050, when the temperature
would increase by 1.5 to 4.50C. According to one projection,
changes will be the least in the tropics and the most at the poles.
It has been estimated that the overall increase in the surface air
temperature over the past one hundred year has been about
0.050 C to 0.70 C. It was mentioned that rise of 20 C temperature
was recorded in the Indian Ocean during 1997-1998 which
caused catastrophic coral bleaching leading to 70% death of
corals in the Andaman Nicobar and Lakshadweep islands.

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Various models have been developed to predict global rise in air

temperature. The general circulation model developed by
S.Manabe and R.T Wetherald (1975) predicts that if the present
amount of carbon dioxide of the atmosphere is doubled, the
temperature of the earth’s surface will increase by 2.90 C.

8.4 Green House Effect

There are two common meanings of the term "greenhouse

effect". There is a
"natural" greenhouse effect that keeps the Earth's climate warm
and habitable. There is also the "man-made" greenhouse effect,
which is the enhancement of Earth's natural greenhouse effect
by the addition of greenhouse gases from the burning of fossil
fuels (mainly petroleum, coal, and natural gas).

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Fig. 8.2 : A modern Green House

The "greenhouse effect" of the atmosphere is named by analogy
to Green house which get warmer in sunlight, but the
mechanism by which the atmosphere retains heat is different. A
greenhouse works primarily by allowing sunlight to warm
surfaces inside the structure, but then preventing absorbed heat
from leaving the structure through convection i.e. sensible heat
transport. The "greenhouse effect" heats the earth because
greenhouse gases absorb outgoing radiation energy, heating the
atmosphere which then emits radiation energy with some of it
going back towards the Earth.
Greenhouse gases keep the Earth warm through a process called
the greenhouse effect. CO2 gas in the atmosphere perform major
role of heating up of the atmosphere, due to trapping of infrared
rays (from the sun).The sun rays consist of UV, visible, and
infrared radiations.
Solar radiation at the frequencies of visible light largely passes
through the atmosphere to warm the planetary surface, which
then emits this energy at the lower frequencies of infrared
thermal radiation. Infrared radiation is absorbed by greenhouse
gases, which in turn re-radiate much of the energy to the surface
and lower atmosphere. The mechanism is named after the effect
of solar radiation passing through glass and warming a green
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house, but the way it retains heat is fundamentally different as

a greenhouse works by reducing airflow, isolating the warm air
inside the structure so that heat is not lost by convection.
Thus increasingCO2 levels tend to warm the air in the lower
layers of atmosphere on a global scale. Nearly 100 years ago
theCO2 level was 275 ppm. Today it is 350ppm and by the year
2035-2040 it is expected to reach 450ppm. Every year the world-
wide concentration of CO2 is increasing of a rate of 0.75ppm, and
the temperature is rising at a rate 0.050C per year. If this
continues, the world will go on warming up more and more. This
could ultimately melt the glaciers polar icecaps and result in
flooding of many low lying areas.
The Green house effect is a process by which thermal radiation
from a planetary surface is absorbed by atmospheric gases and
is re-radiated in all directions. Since part of this re-radiation is
back towards the surface and the lower atmosphere, it results in
an elevation of the average surface temperature above. If
greenhouse gases not trapping the heat in the atmosphere, the
Earth would be a very cold place.
Earth’s natural greenhouse effect makes life possible. However,
human activities, primarily the burning of fossil fuels and clearing
of forests, have intensified the natural greenhouse effect,
causing global warming.
History- The existence of the greenhouse effect was argued for
by Joseph
Fourier in 1824. The argument and the evidence were further
strengthened by Claude Pouillet in 1827 and 1838. In 1917
Alexander Graham Bell wrote “The unchecked burning of fossil
fuels would have a sort of greenhouse effect”, and “The net
result is the greenhouse becomes a sort of hot-house.”

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Fig. 8.3 : Green House Effect

Greenhouse gases as sort of a "blanket" for infrared radiation --
they keep the Earth's surface and lower layers of the atmosphere
warmer, and the upper layers colder,
Mechanism- The Earth receives energy from the Sun in the form
UV, Visible and near IR radiation, most of which passes through
the atmosphere without being absorbed. Of the total amount of
energy available at the top of the atmosphere (TOA), about 50%
is absorbed at the Earth's surface. Because it is warm, the surface
radiates far IR thermal radiation that consists of wavelengths
that are predominantly much longer than the wavelengths that
were absorbed (the overlap between the incident solar
spectrum and the terrestrial thermal spectrum is small enough
to be neglected for most purposes). Most of this thermal
radiation is absorbed by the atmosphere and re-radiated both
upwards and downwards; that radiated downwards is absorbed
by the Earth's surface. This trapping of longwavelength thermal
radiation leads to a higher equilibrium temperature than the
atmosphere were absent.

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8.5 Green House Gases

By their percentage contribution to the greenhouse effect on

Earth four major gases are-
Water vapours 36-70%
Carbon dioxide 9-26%
Methane 4-9%
Ozone 3-7%
Others (SOx,NOx,CFCs)
About 80-90% of the Earth's natural greenhouse effect is due to
water vapour and clouds. Most of the rest is due to carbon
dioxide, methane, and a few other minor gases. While the
remaining gases in the atmosphere (e.g. nitrogen, oxygen) also
absorb and emit a small amount of infrared radiation, their
radiative effect on temperature is so weak that they can be
neglected. While methane is a much more potent greenhouse
gas than carbon-di-oxide, there is far less of it in the atmosphere.
The major non-gas contributor to the Earth’s Greenhouse Effect,
clouds, also absorbs and emits infrared radiation and thus has an
effect on radiative properties of the atmosphere.
Strengthening of the greenhouse effect through human activities
is known as the enhanced greenhouse effect. This increase in
radiative forcing from human activity is attributable mainly to
increased atmospheric carbon dioxide level. According to the
latest Assessment Report from the Inter governmental Panel on
Climate Change, "most of the observed increase in globally
averaged temperatures since the mid-20th century is very likely
due to the observed increase in anthropogenic greenhouse gas
concentrations". CO2 is produced by fossil fuel burning and other
activities such as cement production and tropical deforestation.
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Measurements of CO2 from the Mauna Loa observatory show

that concentrations have increased from about 313 ppm in 1960
to about 389 ppm in 2010. It reached the 400ppm milestone on
May 9, 2013.The current observed amount of CO2 exceeds the
geological record maxima (~300 ppm) from ice core data. Over
the past 800,000 years, ice core data shows that carbon dioxide
has varied from values as low as 180 parts per million (ppm) to
the pre-industrial level of 270ppm Paleoclimatologist consider
variations in carbon dioxide concentration to be a fundamental
factor influencing climate variations over this time scale.

Fig. 8.4 : The Keeling Curve of atmospheric CO2

concentrations
CO2-Major amount of carbon di oxide is released in atmosphere
from burning of fossil fuel, consumed in furnaces of power
plants, industries, domestic cooking ete. In our country on
average thermal power plants are likely to release around 50
million tonnes of CO2 each year in the atmosphere. CO2 is also
emitted during volcanic eruptions. To some extent an increase in
CO2 level in atmosphere increases the photosynthesis rate and
consequently plant growth, acting as fertilizers especially in hot
tropical climates. However an increase in CO2 concentration in
atmosphere may result in to disastrous effects also as green
house effect. Since CO2 is confined exclusively to the
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troposphere, its higher concentration may act serious pollutants,

it is form a layer thus functions like the glass panels of a green
house, allowing the sunlight to filter through but preventing the
heat from being re radiated in outer space. This is called green
house effect. CO2 increases the earth temperature by 50% while
other is responsible for another 20% increase.
Table-1 : Green House Gases & their Sources
S.No. GHG’s Sources

Burning of solid waste, wood, fossil fuel,

1. CO2 deforestation

2. CH4 Organic waste deposition,(land fills and

livestock farming)Production and transport of
fossil fuel.

Refrigeration, Solvents, foams, general

3. CFC’s propellants

NOx &
4. SOx Agricultural and industrial processes.

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Fig. 8.5 : Grapical Report of increase in Key Green House gases (in IPCC 2007)
IPCC 2007 report shows that most of the increase of the last
thousand years has occurred in the past 200 years. The radiative
forcing of these gases is related to their concentration.
Methane (CH4) - The chief source are sulphur springs, volcanic
eruptions, organic waste deposition and decaying vegetation ,
animal matter,(aquatic habitats) combustion processes as stove,
furnaces, open fire(forest),burning coal mines, power plants,
production and transportation of fossil fuel, etc.
Sulphur compounds- From amongst several other major sulphur
compounds in the atmosphere, the oxides of sulphur are the
most serious pollutants. The chief sources of oxides of sulphur
are the combustion of coal and petroleum. Thus most of the
oxides come from thermal power plants and other coal based
plants and smelting complexes. Automobiles also released SO2 in
air.
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Nitrogen Oxide- Even in unpolluted atmosphere, measurable

amount of nitrous, nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide is present.
These are produced by combustion of oxygen and nitrogen
during lightening discharges and bacterial oxidation of
ammonium in soil.
Chloro floro carbon-These are themajorpollutants responsible
for depletion of ozone layer, CFCs are widely used as coolants in
air conditioners and refrigerators, cleaning solvents, aerosol
propellants and in foam insulation. It is also used in fire
extinguishing equipments. Depletion of ozone would lead to
serious temperature change on the earth and consequent
damage to life support system.

8.6 Ozone Layer, its Depletion and Ozone Hole

Fig. 8.6 : Ozone in Earth’s Atmosphere

An allotrope of oxygen is produced in the upper layer about
20km above the earth surface in the atmosphere from oxygen
gas by the absorption of ultraviolet light. Air in the upper layer is
quite rich in ozone. Ozone checks the entry of ultraviolet light
from sunlight; otherwise sunlight would destroy many of the
organic materials necessary for life. Life would not have evolved
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or existed in the present form, if the UV light were not checked

from reaching to the surface of the earth. Thus ozone formation
has helped in the existence of human life in the present form. If
ozone layer in the atmosphere is depleted, then the harmful UV
radiation (coming from the sun) would reach to the earth. These
UV radiation would; (1) damage the plants (2) cause diseases like
skin concer in animals and men and(3) ultimately cause the
gradual destruction of life on the earth.

Fig. 8.7 : Mechanism of Ozone Layer Depletion

It is universal that the ozone layer in the stratosphere protects
us from the harmful UV radiation from sun. The depletion of this
O3 layer by human activities may have serious implications and
this has become the subject of much concern over the last few
years. Ozone is also formed in the atmosphere through the
chemical reactions involving certain pollutants (SO2, NO2,
aldehydes) on absorption of UV radiations. The ozone near the
earth’s surface in the troposphere creates pollution problems.
Ozone and other oxidants such as peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) and
hydrogen peroxide are formed by light dependent reactions
between NO2 and hydrocarbons. Ozone may also be formed by
NO2 under UV radiations effect. These pollutants cause
Photochemical Smog. The atmospheric ozone is now being
regarded as potential danger to human health and crop growth.
What makes ozone a destroyer as well as a protector needs to

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be elaborated to have a clear picture of its bio potency from

human welfare view point.
Cause of Depletion of Ozone Layer
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are the exhausts of supersonic
aircraft and jumbo jets flying in the upper atmosphere. These got
accumulated at high altitudes and undergo decomposition,
under the influence of ultraviolet radiation. One of the main
decomposition products is chlorine. Each atom of chlorine so
released reacts with more than 105 molecules of ozone
converting ozone in to oxygen. Consequently gradual depletion
of ozone layer takes place and the effective capacity of ozone
layer to stop ultraviolet radiation from entering the environment
diminishes.

Fig. 8.8 : Gases responsible for Ozone Layer Depletion

Table-2 : Important CFCs and their uses

CFC Uses

Frean-11(CCl3F) Refrigeration, aerosol- cleaning

propellants, foams, air
conditioning
Frean-11(CCl3F2) Refrigeration, aerosol- cleaning
propellants, foams, air
conditioning, sterilization.

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Ozone Hole-Ozone depletion describes two distinct but related

phenomena observed since the late 1970s: a steady decline of
about 4% in the total volume of ozone in earth’s stratosphere,
and a much larger springtime decrease in stratospheric ozone
around Earth's Polar Regions. The latter phenomenon is
referred to as the ozone hole. The details of polar ozone hole
formation differ from that of mid-latitude thinning but the most
important process in both is catalytic destruction of ozone by
atomic halogens. The main source of these halogen atoms in the
stratosphere is photo dissociation of man-made halo carbons.
These compounds are transported into the stratosphere by
winds after being emitted at the surface. Both types of ozone
depletion were observed to increase as emissions of
halocarbons increased.

Fig. 8.9 : Ozone Hole

CFCs and other contributory substances are referred to as
ozone-depleting substances (ODS). Since the ozone layer
prevents most harmful UV wavelengths (280–315 nm) from
passing through the earth atmosphere, it is observed and
projected decrease in ozone generated worldwide concern,
leading to adoption of theory Montreal Protocol that bans the
production of CFCs, halons, and other ozone-depleting chemicals
such as carbon tetrachloride and trichloroethane. It is suspected
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that a variety of biological consequences such as increases in

sunburn, skin cancer, cataracts, damage to plants, and reduction
of plankton’s populations in the ocean's Photic zonemay result
from the increased UV exposure due to ozone depletion.
The Antarctic ozone hole is an area of the Antarctic stratosphere
in which the recent ozone levels have dropped to as low as 33%
of their pre-1975 values. The ozone hole occurs during the
Antarctic spring, from September to early December
Biological Effect of Ozone depletion
Biological effects
The main public concern regarding the ozone hole has been the
effects of increased surface UV radiation on human health.
Ozone depletion would magnify all of the effect of UV on human
health effects, both positive (including production of Vitamin D)
and negative (including sunburn, skin cancer, and cataracts). In
addition, increased surface UV leads to increased tropospheric
ozone, which is a health risk to humans.

(a)Cancer
The most common forms of skin cancer in humans, basal and
squamous cell carcinomas have been strongly linked to UVB
exposure. Scientists have estimated that every 1% decrease in
long-term stratospheric ozone would increase the incidence of
these cancers by 2%.
Another form of skin cancer, malignant melanoma, is much less
common but far more dangerous, being lethal in about 15–20%
of the cases diagnosed. The relationship between malignant
melanoma and ultraviolet exposure is not yet fully understood,
but it appears that both UVB and UVA are involved. Because of
this uncertainty, it is difficult to estimate the impact of ozone
depletion on melanoma incidence.
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(b) Cortical cataracts

Epidemiological studies suggest an association between ocular
cortical cataracts and UVB exposure, using crude approximations
of exposure and various cataract assessment techniques. In this
highly exposed group of predominantly white males, the
evidence linking cortical opacities to sunlight exposure was the
strongest to date. Based on these results, ozone depletion is
predicted to cause hundreds of thousands of additional cataracts
by 2050.
Increased surface UV leads to increased tropospheric ozone.
Ground-level ozone is generally recognized to be a health risk, as
ozone is toxic due to its strong oxidant properties. The risks are
particularly high for young children, the elderly, and those with
asthma or other respiratory difficulties. At this time, ozone at
ground level is produced mainly by the action of UV radiation on
combustion gases from vehicle exhausts.
Vitamin D is produced in the skin by ultraviolet light. Thus, higher
UVB exposure raises human vitamin D in those deficient in it.
(c) Effects on crops
An increase of UV radiation would be expected to affect crops. A
number of economically important species of plants, such as
rice, depend on
cynobacteria residing on their roots for the retention of nitrogen.
Cynobacteria are sensitive to UV radiation and would be affected
by its increase. "Despite mechanisms to reduce or repair the
effects of increased ultraviolet radiation, plants have a limited
ability to adapt to increased levels of UVB, therefore plant
growth can be directly affected by UVB radiation.
Location of hole-Some people thought that the ozone hole
should be above the sources of CFCs. However, CFCs are well
mixed globally in the Troposphere and stratosphere. The reason
for occurrence of the ozone hole above Antarctica is not because
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there are more CFCs concentrated but because the low

temperatures help form polar stratospheric clouds. In fact, there
are findings of significant and localized "ozone holes" above
other parts of the earth.

8.7 Carbon di oxide Fertilization

CO2Fertilization means ‘Enhancement of plant growth or the net

primary production by CO2 enrichment that could occur in
natural or agricultural systems as a result of an increase in the
atmospheric concentration of CO2’.
Recent study by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) (2001, 2007) indicate that greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions and resultant atmospheric concentrations have led to
changes in the world‘s climate conditions including temperature
and precipitation. The implications of climate change and
atmospheric GHG concentrations for crop yields, and economic
welfare has stimulated many studies. A wide variety of findings
have arisen regarding the effect of climate change on crop yields.
Many studies find that climate change alters mean crop yields
In addition to being a greenhouse gas, carbon dioxide (CO2) plays
a central role in one of our planet’s most important chemical
cycles: the one involving photosynthesis and respiration. Green
plants take in CO2 and emit oxygen (O2) while making food. We
respires eat the food, inhale O2, burn the food for energy, and
exhale CO2.
So, CO2 in the atmosphere is essential to green plants — in fact,
as atmospheric CO2 concentrations increase, green plants
become more productive. We call this the fertilization effect,
and generally it’s a good thing because:

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•
It helps dampen the effects of CO2 emissions we humans
generate (because the more CO2 in the atmosphere, the
more productive green plants are and the more CO2 they
draw down);
•
It helps crops grow faster because they are among the
myriad plants fertilized by CO2
Of course, increased CO2mean an overall increase in crop yields
since we must aware of other factors in the confounding effects
of climate change (e.g., heat stress, changing precipitation
patterns, increasing weather variability, rising sea levels). The
overall impact of crop yields will be a mixed bag, And some new
research suggests negative points in the fertilization effect‘s in
place of positive effect on crops. Sure, increased CO2 will make
crops more productive, but the quality of the crops may be
degraded.
The term 'carbon dioxide fertilization' as it applies to the area of
the environment can be defined as 'The enhancement of the
growth of plants as a result of increased atmospheric CO2
concentration. Depending on their mechanism of
photosynthesis, certain types of plants are more sensitive to
changes in atmospheric CO2 concentration.
Carbon fertilization is a theory that states increased CO2 resulted
by global warming would cause a positive agricultural
productivity in certain geographical locations, instead of
negative which global warming advocates seem to claim. The
CO2 fertilization effect is not going to “save” us from the
consequences of global warming. News coverage has focused
almost solely on the “greening” angle of increased levels of
atmospheric CO2 and neglects to mention negative impacts of
climate change that are highly detrimental to human agriculture
and plant ecosystems in general. Climate impacts like drought,
floods, extreme weather, shifting seasons, and increasing ranges
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of weeds, invasive species, and plant pests will all negatively

impact crop yields.
Based on satellite observations, researchers found that leaf
cover in some arid zones increased by 11% as a result of a
process called the CO2 fertilization effect, which helps plants
grow more efficiently in high-CO2environments. Subsequent
coverage of the study omitted most of the other known effects
of CO2 and global warming; giving the impression that increasing
CO2 will result in a lush, green planet and more productive
agriculture.
The CO2 fertilization effect is by no means going to “save” us
from the devastating consequences of global warming.
•
While enhanced CO2 allows plants to maximize their water
efficiency (requiring less water to achieve photosynthesis) the
levels of other nutrients still limit growth.
•
Weeds and other undesirable plants experience CO2
fertilization as well. Many weeds are tropical or subtropical,
and are likely to move northward to new areas as a response
to warming temperatures.
•
Increased temperatures and extreme weather events have
already begun hurting crop production. For example, Corn
production suffered as a result of the 2012 drought.
•
Climate change redistributes rainfall around the world, and
while increased greening has been observed in some areas,
increased drought and desertification has occurred in others.
•
So while plant production in some arid regions may benefit
from higher CO2concentrations, in many other regions
nutrient limitation will prevent much greening. Furthermore,
any benefits that do occur are erased by the many negative
impacts associated with climate change that lead to net
losses.
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8.8 Sea Level Rise

Current sea level rise is about 3 mm/year worldwide. According

to the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
(NOAA), "this is a significantly larger rate than the sea-level rise
averaged over the last several thousand years", Sea level rises
can considerably influence human populations in coastal and
island regionsand natural environments like marine ecosystem.

Fig. 8.11 : Loss of Snow Cover and Rise in Sea Level

Because the potential consequences of global warming in terms
of loss of snow cover, sea level rise, change in weather patterns,
etc are so great, it is a major societal concern.
There are two main mechanisms that contribute to observed sea
level rise:
(1) Thermal Expansion- ocean water expands as it warms.
(2) The melting of major stores of land ice like ice sheets and
glaciers.
Sea level rise is one of several lines of evidence that support the
view that that the global climate has recently warmed. In 2007,
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) stated
that it is very likely human induced (anthropogenic) warming
contributed to the sea level rise observed in the latter half of the
20th century. Sea level rise is expected to continue for
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centuries.In 2013, the (IPCC) projected that during the 21st

century, sea level will rise another 26cm to 82cm in its fifth
assessment report.
History- There is strong evidence that global sea level gradually
rose in the 20th century and is currently rising at an increased
rate, after a period of little change between AD 0 and AD 1900.
Sea level is projected to rise at an even greater rate in this
century. Global sea level rose by about 120 m during the several
millenia that followed the end of the last ice age (approximately
21,000 years ago), and stabilised between 3,000 and 2,000 years
ago. Sea level indicators suggest that global sea level did not
change significantly from then until the late 19th century. The
instrumental record of modern sea level change shows evidence
for onset of sea level rise during the 19th century. Estimates for
the 20th century show that global average sea level rose at a rate
of about 1.7 mm yr–1.
Satellite observations available since the early 1990s provide
more accurate sea level data with nearly global coverage. This
decade-long satellite altimetry data set shows that since 1993,
sea level has been rising at a rate of around 3 mm yr–1,
significantly higher than the average during the previous half
century. Coastal tide gauge measurements confirm this
observation, and indicate that similar rates have occurred in
some earlier decades.
In agreement with climate models, satellite data and hydro
graphic observations show that sea level is not rising uniformly
around the world. In some regions, rates are up to several times
the global mean rise, while in other regions sea level is falling.
Substantial spatial variation in rates of sea level change is also
inferred from hydro graphic observations. Spatial variability of
the rates of sea level rise is mostly due to non-uniform changes

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in temperature and salinity and related to changes in the ocean

circulation.
Causes of Sea Level Rise
Thermal Expansion: Global warming not only causes the
temperature on land to increase, but also leads to an increase in
sea water warming. This warming started mainly during
industrial evolution, and intensified when more and more trees
were being cut down. Thermal expansion also affects the
movement of hot and cold oceanic currents around the globe
these changes ultimately affect the sea level. Due to
temperature water expends and its volume increases leads to
periodic rise in sea level.
Melting of Glaciers: As glaciers and polar caps melt during the
summer seasons, as the ice thicking increases in winter again.
This is the normal seasonal rise and fall. But due to slowly
increasing global warming more and more ice melt in summer
leading to greater run off flow. As the evaporation rate of sea
water is constant, a large volume of excess water remains in
oceans, adding up the overall volume ultimately cause rise in sea
water level.
Effect of sea level rise : Erosion of sea shore line is one of the
first effects of sea level rise, and it greatly hampers the coastal
cities and towns.
Destabilization of coastal areas due to strong waves that crash
on to shoe line and increases the erosion rate.
Waves intrude a longer distance over land areas, posing risk to
human life and property
As the water level increases the damage caused by sea storm
also penetrates inland region with successive rise in intensity, as
the volume of water grows many low lying regions face the
possibilities of getting inundated permanently.

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Even a few centimeters of rise in sea levels can completely drown

several acres of coastal areas.
This also leads to salt water intrusion in freshwater sources
present near the coast, make water unfit for consumption and
can’t be used for agriculture.
Possible solution and Mitigation Measures: Building tall well,
levees or similar structures near coast line (primary levels)
Planting and maintaining mangrove consider as natural
mitigation strategy it reduces intensity of waves
Other method of maintaining buffer zones including wet lands,
marshes, barrier islands, coral reefs etc
Building of artificial islands act as buffer to a sensitive coastal line
Temporary installation of porous rock structures on the shores
The most important and long term mitigation measure is to
reduce our carbon footprint, and reduce harmful emissions
ultimately reduce global warming.

8.9 Copenhagen Summit (2009) and Montreal Protocol

(1987)

Copenhagen summit (2009) was a global effort to come to term

in the context of climatic change. However it failed to achieve a
meaningful and multi lateral commitment deal, with relation to
the climatic crisis. The goal was to reach an agreement to take
effect in 2012, and it was widely regarded as humanity’s last
good chance to prevent and mitigate catastrophic climatic
change.
Montreal protocol (1987) - Efforts are being made to control
ozone depletion and green house effects at global level, the
formulation of Montreal protocol in September 1987 under the
leadership of UNO- sponsored United Nations Environment
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Programme (UNEP), the international conference on depletion

of ozone layer in London, held from march 5 to 7 1989, wherein
government official scientist and industrialist of 180 countries
participated

8.10 Summary

Human activities has very likely been the cause of global

warming, since the industrial revolution and the mid- 1950 to till
date. Anthropogenic or human induced processes, in time have
contributed to the increase in green house gases and Global
Warming. Green house effect and ozone layer and its hole are to
be understood as problem of 21st century. Carbon di oxide is a
major green house gas. The emission of CO2 is primarily by
combustion of fossil fuel. Chloro floro carbons are the major
courses of ozone layer depletion. Destruction of ozone layer and
the incidence of UV radiation and their effect on human,
landscape and material as historical monuments it’s evident in
present scenario.There is strong evidence that global sea level
gradually rose in the 20th century and is currently rising at an
increased rate.The potential consequences of global warming in
terms of loss of snow cover, sea level rise, change in weather
patterns, etc are so great, it is a major societal concern.
CO2 in the atmosphere is essential for green plants, as
atmospheric CO2 concentrations increase, green plants become
more productive. This is known as the fertilization effect of CO2..
Beside this, we must be aware of other factors in the
confounding effects of climate change (e.g., heat stress,
changing precipitation patterns, increasing weather variability,
rising sea levels).
CFCs and other contributory substances are referred to as
ozone-depleting substances (ODS). Since the ozone layer
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prevents most harmful UV wavelengths (280–315 nm) from

passing through the earth atmosphere and projected decrease
in ozone generated worldwide concern, leading to adoption of
theory Montreal Protocol that bans the production of CFCs,
halons, and other ozone-depleting chemicals such as carbon
tetrachloride and trichloroethane.
Climate change and global warming are important
environmental issues, which need to be addressed by all nations,
with a sense of responsibility and act towards its mitigation. The
UNEP has appropriately chosen the slogan Global Warming;
Global Warning’ to alert the people on World Environment Day,
June 5, 1989.

8.11 Glossary

• Anthropogenic : Human induced processes.

• Carbon dioxide fertilization : 'The enhancement of the
growth of plants as a result of increased atmospheric CO2
concentration.
• CFCs : Chloroflorocarbons.
• Enhanced greenhouse effect : Strengthening of the
greenhouse effect through human activities is known as the
enhanced greenhouse effect.
• GEC : Global environment changes.
• Glaciers : Snow cover on mountain peaks start melting due to
global warming.
• Global warming : Rise in earth mean temperature.
• Greenhouse effect : Greenhouse gases keep the Earth warm
through a process called the greenhouse effect.

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• ODS : Ozone- depleting substances.

• PAN : Peroxyacetyle nitrate.
• Thermal Expansion : Sea water warming.
• UV radiations : Ultra violet radiations.

8.12 Self-Learning Exercise

Section- A : (Very Short Answer Type Questions)

1. Green house effect is caused by....................
2. The maximum amount of pollutant released by thermal
power plant
is........................
3. Electrostatic precipitator is used to
control..............................
4. Fertilization effect on plant was shown by ............ gas.
5. Depletion of Ozone layer on poles known as.................... .
6. The main cause of ozone depletion is................
7. Montreal protocol is concern with………………….
8. Write full form of UNEP?
Section- B : (Short Answer Type Questions)
1. Write a short note on global climate changes.
2. What is the importance of stratospheric ozone?
3. Write an account on source, trend and role of green house
gases.
4. Explain the phenomena of sea level rise.
Section- C : (Long Answer Type Questions)

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1. What is Global warming? Describe the causes, trends and

evidences for global warming?
2 Write detailed notes on—
A. Carbon di oxide Fertilization
B. Effects of Ozone depletion
Answer key of section A
1. Carbon di oxide
2. Particulate matter, CO, SOx
3. Air pollution
4. CO2
5. Ozone hole
6. Chlorofluorocarbon
7. Ozone deplition
8. United Nations Environment Programme.

8.13 References

• Ecology and utilization of plants –P.D.Sharma

• Ecology- E.P.Odum
• Environment education by us- Y.P.Purang/Sunita Jaisingh
• Ecology (second edition) Modern biology series- Eugene
P.Odum
• College Botany-S.C Santra, T.P.Chatterjee,A.P.Das
• Practical Botany-B Sc part III- P C Trivedi, Niranjan Sharma,
R.S.Dhankhar
• Ecology course V-Dr B.R.Ambedkar open university
,Hyderabad
• Ecology Workbook-R Misra
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• Methods in Environmental Analysis Water, Soil and Air- P.K.

Gu
• Enviromental studies-Dr R.B Singh, Dr D.K.Thakur,Dr
J.P.S.Chauhan Ecology- V.B.Rastogi,M.S Jayaraj

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