Module-I

Solutions of Linear equations

1. Verify whether the following equations

x + 2y − z = 3

3x − y + 2z = 1

2x − 2y + 3z = 2

x − y + z = −1,

are consistent. If they are consistent nd a solution.

Solution: The system of equations is consistent if they possess a solution. If
 
 1 2 −1 
 
 3 −1 2 
 
A=  and b = [3, 1, 2, −1]T ,
 2 −2 3 
 
 
1 −1 1

the given system of equations can be expressed as AX=b, where X = [x, y, z]T .
The given equations are consistent if and only if r(A) = r(A, b). We shall now verify

1
this. We have
 
 1 2 −1 3 
 
 3 −1 2 1 
 
(A, b) =  
 2 −2 3 
 2 
 
1 −1 1 −1
 
 1 2 −1 3 
 
−3R1 + R2 , −2R1 + R3  0 −7 5 −8


∼ 
−R1 + R2  0 0 −5 −20 
 
 
0 0 1 4
 
 1 2 −1 3 
 
 0 −7 5 −8 
 
(R3 ÷ −5) ∼  
 0 0 4 
 1 
 
0 0 1 4
 
 1 2 −1 3 
 
 0 −7 5 −8 
 
(−R3 + R4 ) ∼   = (B, b′ ), (I)
 0 0 4 
 1 
 
0 0 0 0

say.  
 
 1 2 −1 
 
 
The minor  0 −7 5  = −7, is a non-zero minor of B as well as the augmented
 
 
 0 0 1 
matrix (B.b′ ). There is no minor of order 4 for B and hence r(B) = 3 so that r(A) =
3. Clearly, r(B, b′ ) = 3, so that r(A, b) = 3. Thus, r(A) = r(A, b) = 3. Hence the
given system of equations is consistent and has a unique solution. From(I), the original

2
equations are transformed to

x + 2y − z = 3

−7y + 5z = −8

z = 4.

From back substitution, we get, z = y = 4 and x = −1.

2. Test for consistency of the following equations:

2x − 3y + 7z = 5

3x + y − 3z = 13

2x + 19y − 47z = 32.

 
 2 −3 7 
 
Solution: Here the coecient matrix A = 
 3 1 −3
 and b = [5, 13, 32]T . We

 
2 19 −47
have
 
 2 −3 7 5 
 
(A, b) = 
 3 1 −3 13 

 
2 19 −47 32
 
 2 −3 7 5 
 
(−3R1 + 2R2 , −R1 + R3 ) ∼ 
 0 11 −27 11 

 
0 22 −54 27
 
 2 −3 7 5 
 
(−2R2 + R3 ) ∼ 
 0 11 −27 11  = (B, b′ ),

 
0 0 0 5

3
say.  
   
 2 7 5   
  −27 11 
   
Clearly r(B) = 2 and  0 −27 11  = 2   = −270 is a non-zero minor of
   5 
   0
 0 0 5 
(B, b ) of order 3. Hence r(B, b′ ) =
′
3. Hence r(A, b) = 3. Thus r(A) = 2 ̸= 3 = r(A, b).
The equations are inconsistent.
3. For what values of λ and µ the equations

x+y+z =6

x + 2y + 3z = 10

x + 2y + λz = µ

have (i) no solution (ii) unique solution and (iii) innite number of solutions.
Solution : We perform elementary row operations on the augmented matrix
 
 1 1 1 6 
 
(A, b) = 
 1 2 3 10 ,

 
1 2 λ µ

with an aim of transforming the coecient matrix A to an upper triangular matrix.

4
 We have
 
 1 1 1 6 
 
(A, b) = 
 1 2 3 10 

 
1 2 λ µ
 
 1 1 1 6 
−R1 + R2   
∼ 0 1 2 4  
−R1 + R3  
0 1 λ−1 µ−6
 
 1 1 1 6 
 
(−R2 + R3 ) ∼  0 1 2 4  = (B, b′ ),
 (I)
 
0 0 λ − 3 µ − 10

say.
The coecient matrix A is now transformed to the upper triangular matrix
 
 1 1 1 
 
B=
 0 1 2 .

 
0 0 λ−3

Clearly, |B| = λ − 3. Hence if λ − 3 ̸= 0 or λ ̸= 3, |B| ̸= 0. Hence r(B) = r(A) = 3.

Also, |B| is a non-zero minor of the augmented matrix (B, b′ ) of order 3. Also, there can
not be a minor of order 4 for this augmented matrix. Hence r(B, b′ ) = r(A, b) = 3. Thus
in case λ ̸= 3, r(A) = r(A, b) = 3. Here the number of variables is 3. Hence by Rouche's
theorem, the given system has a unique solution if λ ̸= 3.

5
 We now turn our attention to the situation when λ = 3. Taking λ = 3 in (I), we get
 
 1 1 1 6 
 
(B, b′ ) = 
 0 1 2 4 .
 (II)
 
0 0 0 µ − 10

Clearly, r(B) = 2 so that r(A) = 2. Consider the minor

 
 1 1 6 
 
M =
 0 1 4 ,
 (III)
 
0 0 µ − 10

of (B, b′ ). Clearly, |M | = µ−10. Hence if µ ̸= 10, |M | is a non-zero minor of (B, b′ ) of order

3 so that r(B, b′ ) = r(A, b) = 3. Thus when λ = 3 and µ ̸= 10, r(A) = 2 ̸= 3 = r(A, b); it
follows that the system has no solution in this case.
What remains is to analyze the situation when λ = 3 and µ = 10. Using these values
in (II), we see that  
 1 1 1 6 
 
(B, b′ ) =  
 0 1 2 4 .
 
0 0 0 0

Hence r(A) = r(A, b) = 2 < 3. We conclude that the system has innite number of
solutions. Let us record the conclusions in one place:
(i) If λ ̸= 3 and for any value of µ the given system has a unique solution.
(ii) If λ = 3 and µ ̸= 10, the given system has no solution .
(iii) If λ = 3 and µ = 10, the given system has an innite number of solutions.

6
 4. Show that if λ =
̸ −5, the system of equations

3x − y + 4z = 3

x + 2y − 3z = −2

6x + 5y + λz = −3

have a unique solution.If λ = −5, show that the equations are consistent.Detrmine the
solutions in each case.
Solution: The augmented matrix
 
 3 −1 4 3 
 
(A, b) = 
 1 2 −3 −2


 
6 5 λ −3
 
 3 −1 4 3 
 
∼ 0 −7 13 9 
. (I)
 
0 0 λ+5 0

If λ ̸= −5, we can divide the last row of the matrix in (I), by λ + 5; doing so we obtain
 
 3 −1 4 3 
 
(A, b) ∼ 
 0 −7 13 9
.
 (II)
 
0 0 1 0

From (II), it is clear that r(A) = r(A, b) = 3. Hence the system has unique solution.

7
Also,from (II), we have the equations

3x − y + 4z = 3

−7y + 13z = 9

z = 0.

Solving these equations we get, z = 0, y = −9/7 and x = 4/7.

Let now λ = −5. From (I), we have
 
 3 −1 4 3 
 
(A, b) ∼ 
 0 −7 13 9
.

 
0 0 0 0

We obtain the equations

3x − y + 4z = 3

−7y + 13z = 9.

Solving these equations we get z = 7y+9

13
and x = 3−15y
39
, y being an arbitrary real number.
5. Solve the following equations by Gauss Elimination method:

2x + y + z = 10

3x + 2y + 3z = 18

x + 4y + 9z = 16.

8
Solution:

 
 2 1 1 10 
 
(A, b) = 
 3 2 3 18 

 
1 4 9 16
 
 2 1 1 10 
 
(−3R1 + 2R2 , R1 + (−2R2 )) ∼ 
 0 1 3 16 

 
0 −7 −17 −22
 
 2 1 1 10 
 
(7R2 + R3 ) ∼ 
 0 1 3 16 .
 (I)
 
0 0 4 20

From (I), we have the following equations:

2x + y + z = 10

y + 3z = 16.

4z = 20

From the last equation, we get z = 5. Using this in the second equation we get y = −9.
Finally, putting z = 5 and y = −9 in the rst equation we get x = 7.
6. Find the values of k for which the equations

3x + y − kz = 0

4x − 2y − 3z = 0

2kx + 4y + kz = 0,

has a non-trivial solution.For each permissible value of k, determine the general solution.

9
 Solution: The system has a non-trivial solution if and only if
 
 
 3 1 −k 
 
 
0 =  4 −2 −3  = −4k 2 − 32k + 36,
 
 
 2k 4 k 

or k 2 + 8k − 9 = 0 or (k + 9)(k − 1) = 0 or k = −9 or k = 1. Let A denote the coecient

matrix of the system so that
 
 3 1 −k 
 
A=
 4 −2 −3 .

 
2k 4 k

When k = 1, we have
 
 3 1 −1 
 
A =
 4 −2 −3 

 
2 4 1
 
 3 1 −1 
 
∼ 0 2 1 , (I)
 
0 0 0

after performing the usual elementary row operations.

From (I),we obtain the equations

3x + y − z = 0

2y + z = 0

From the last equation, z = −2y; using this in the rst equation, we get 0 = 3x+y +2y =

10
3x + 3y so that x = −y. Hence we have x = −y and z = −2y, y being an arbitrary real
number.
When k = −9, we have
 
 3 19 
 
A =
 4 −2 −3  
 
−18 4 −9
 
 3 1 9 
 
∼
 0 −10 −45 

 
0 10 45
 
 3 1 9 
 
∼
 0 −10 −45 

 
0 0 0
 
 3 1 9 
 
∼ 
 0 2 9 , (II)
 
0 0 0

after performing the usual row operations. From (II), we obtain the equations

3x + y + 9z = 0

2y + 9z = 0.

Solving these two equations,we get, z = (−2/9)y and x = y/3. To have an elegant
appearance, put y = 9u; we get x = 3u, y = 9u, z = −2u, u being an arbitrary real
number.

11
 7. Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the matrix
 
 8 −6 2 
 
A= 
 −6 7 −4  .
 
2 −4 3

Solution: Eigenvalues are roots of the characteristic equation. The characteristic

equation is given by
   
 
 8 −6 2   λ 0 0 

   
0 = |A − λI| =  −6 7 −4  
 −  0 λ 0 

   
 
 2 −4 3 0 0 λ 
 
 
 8 − λ −6 2 

 
=  −6 7 − λ −4  

 
 
 2 −4 3 − λ 
     
     
 7 − λ −4   −6 −4   −6 7 − λ 
     
=(8 − λ)   + 6  + 2 
 −4 3 − λ   2 3−λ   2 −4 
     

=(8 − λ)[(7 − λ)(3 − λ) − 16] + 6[−6(3 − λ) + 8] + 2[24 − 2(7 − λ)]

=(8 − λ)(λ2 − 10λ + 5) + 6(−10 + 6λ) + 2(10 + 2λ)

= − λ3 + 18λ − 45λ

= − λ(λ2 − 18λ + 45)

= − λ(λ − 3)(λ − 15).

Hence λ = 0, 3 or15.
It remains to nd the eigenvectors corresponding to the eigenvalues λ = 0, 3 or15.
Any eigenvector X = [x1 , x2 , x3 ]T corresponding to the eigenvalue λ of a matrix A of
order 3 is a non-trivial solution of the system [A − λI]X = 0 of three equations in the

12
three unknowns x1 , x2 and x3 . In the present example X = [x1 , x2 , x3 ]T is an eigenvector
corresponding to the eigenvalue λ if and only if it satises the equations
  
 8 − λ −6 2   x1 
  
 −6 7 − λ −4   x  = 0,
  2 
  
2 −4 3 − λ x3

or

(8 − λ)x1 − 6x2 + 2x3 = 0

−6x1 + (7 − λ)x2 − 4x3 = 0

2x1 − 4x2 + (3 − λ)x3 = 0. (I)

Case 1:Let λ = 0. The equations (I) reduce to

8x1 − 6x2 + 2x3 = 0

−6x1 + 7x2 − 4x3 = 0

2x1 − 4x2 + 3x3 = 0. (II)

Applying the rule of cross multiplication to the rst two equations in (II), we obtain

x1 x2 x3
= = ,
24 − 14 −12 + 32 56 − 36

or
x1 x2 x3
= = ,
10 20 20

or
x1 x2 x3
= = .
1 2 2

13
This means that all the solutions [x1 , x2 , x3 ]T of (II) are given by

[x1 , x2 , x3 ]T = k[1, 2, 2]T ,

for any real number k. All non-trivial solutions(that is eigenvectors) can be obtained
by taking k ̸= 0. In particular, we can take [1, 2, 2]T as a representative eigenvector
corresponding to the eigenvalue λ = 0.
Case 2: Let λ = 3. The equations (I) reduce to

5x1 − 6x2 + 2x3 = 0

−6x1 + 4x2 − 4x3 = 0

2x1 − 4x2 + 0.x3 = 0. (III)

Again applying the rule of cross multiplication to the rst two equations in (III), we
obtain
x1 x2 x3
= = ,
24 − 8 −12 + 20 20 − 36

or
x1 x2 x3
= = ,
16 8 −16

or
x1 x2 x3
= = .
2 1 −2

We can take [2, 1, −2]T as a representative eigenvector corresponding to the eigenvalue

λ = 3.

14
 Case 3: Let λ = 15. The equations (I) reduce to

−7x1 − 6x2 + 2x3 = 0

−6x1 − 8x2 − 4x3 = 0

2x1 − 4x2 − 12.x3 = 0. (IV ))

As before applying rule of cross multiplication to the rst two equations in(IV)), we
obtain
x1 x2 x3
= = ,
24 + 16 −12 − 28 56 − 36

or
x1 x2 x3
= = ,
40 −40 20

or
x1 x2 x3
= = .
2 −2 1

We can take [2, −2, 1]T as a representative eigenvector corresponding to the eigenvalue
λ = 15.
Thus the eigenvalues are λ = 0, 3 or λ = 15. The corresponding eigenvectors are

[1, 2, 2]T , [2, 1, −2]T , and [2, −2, 1]T .

8. Find the eigenvalues and the eigenvectors of the matrix

 
 6 −2 2 
 
A= 
 −2 3 −1  .
 
2 −1 3

15
 Solution: The characteristic equation is given by
 
 
 6 − λ −2 2 

 
0 = |A − λI| =  −2 3 − λ −1 

 
 
 2 −1 3 − λ 
     
     
 3 − λ −1   −2 −1   −2 3 − λ 
     
=(6 − λ)   + 2  + 2 
 −1 3 − λ   2 3−λ   2 −1 
     

=(6 − λ)(λ2 − 6λ + 8) + 2(−4 + 2λ) + 2(−4 + 2λ)

= − λ3 + 12λ2 − 36λ + 32.

Hence the characteristic equation is λ3 − 12λ2 + 36λ − 32 = 0. By trial, λ = 2 is a

root. By synthetic division

2 1 -12 36 -32
0 2 -20 32
1 -10 16 0

The remaining factor is λ2 − 10λ + 16 = (λ − 2)(λ − 8). Hence the remaining roots
are λ = 2 or λ = 8. Hence all the eigenvalues are λ = 8, 2, 2.
Eigenvector X = [x1 , x2 , x3 ]T are non-trivial solutions of the equations

(6 − λ)x1 − 2x2 + 2x3 = 0

−2x1 + (3 − λ)x2 − x3 = 0

2x1 − x2 + (3 − λ)x3 = 0. (I)

16
 Case 1: Let λ = 8. The equations (I) reduce to

−2x1 − 2x2 + 2x3 = 0

−2x1 − 5x2 − x3 = 0

2x1 − x2 − 5x3 = 0. (II)

Applying rule of cross multiplication to the rst two equations in (II) we obtain

x1 x2 x3
= = ,
2 + 10 −4 − 2 10 − 4

or
x1 x2 x3
= = ,
12 −6 6

or
x1 x2 x3
= = .
2 −1 1

We can take [2, −1, 1]T as a representative eigenvector corresponding to the eigenvalue
λ = 8.
Case 2: Let λ = 2. The equations (I) reduce to

4x1 − 2x2 + 2x3 = 0

−2x1 + x2 − x3 = 0

2x1 − x2 + x3 = 0. (III)

The three equations in (III) are same as the equation 2x1 − x2 + x3 = 0. A non-trivial
solution can be easily obtained by choosing x1 = 0, and x2 = x3 = 1. Hence we can take
[0, 1, 1]T as an eigenvector corresponding to the eigenvalue λ = 2.

17
 9. If  
 2 0 1 
 
A=
 0 2 0 ,

 
1 0 2

(a) Find eigenvalues and eigenvectors of A.

(b) Verify that the sum of the eigenvalues equals the sum of the diagonal elements.
(c) Find the eigenvalues and
 eigenvectors of A and
4 −1
A .
 
 2−λ 0 1 
 
 
Solution:(a) |A − λI| =  0 2−λ 0  = (2 − λ)(λ − 3)(λ − 1).

 
 
 1 0 2−λ 
Hence the eigenvalues are λ = 1, 2 and 3.
Eigenvector X = [x1 , x2 , x3 ]T (corresponding to the eigenvalue λ) are non-trivial solu-
tions of the equations

(2 − λ)x1 + x3 = 0

(2 − λ)x2 = 0

x1 + (2 − λ)x3 = 0. (I)

Case 1: Let λ = 1. The equations(I)reduce to

x 1 + x3 = 0

x2 = 0

x1 + x3 = 0. (II)

The rst and third equations in (II) are same. From the equations in (II) we have x1 =
−x3 and x2 = 0. We can choose x1 = 1. Hence [1, 0, −1]T is an eigenvector corresponding
to λ = 1.

18
 Case 2: Let λ = 2. The equations(I)reduce to

x3 = 0

0.x2 = 0

x1 = 0. (III)

The second equation in (III) does not imply that x2 = 0 and is valid for any x2 . We can
choose x2 = 1. Of course we do not have any choice for x1 and x2 as x1 = x3 = 0 from the
rst and third equations in (III).Thus [0, 1, 0]T is an eigenvector corresponding to λ = 2.
Case 3: Let λ = 3. The equations(I)reduce to

−x1 + x3 = 0

−x2 = 0

x1 − x3 = 0. (IV )

The rst and third equations in(IV)imply that x1 = x3 . The second equation in(IV)
implies that x2 = 0. Hence [1, 0, 1]T is an eigenvector corresponding to the eigenvalue
λ = 3.
Thus λ = 1, 2, 3 are eigenvalues of the given matrix A and [1, 0, −1]T , [0, 1, 0]T , [1, 0, 1]T
are corresponding eigenvectors.
(b) The sum of the diagonal elements of A =2+2+2=6 and the sum of the eigenvalues
=1+2+3=6.    
   
 2 0   0 1 
   
The determinant of the matrix A = 2  +  = 8 − 2 = 6 (Expanding by
 0 2   2 0 
   
the rst column). Also, the product of eigenvalues =1 × 2 × 3 = 6.
(c) The eigenvalues of A4 are 14 , 24 , 34 ; that is, 1, 16 and 81.
The eigenvalues of A−1 are 11 , 12 , 13 ; that is 1, 12 and 13 .

19
 The eigenvectors corresponding to
 the eigenvaluesof A, A and A are same.
4 −1

 8 −6 2 
 
10. Diagonalize the matrix A = 
 −6 7 −4 .

 
2 −4 3
Solution: The characteristic equation is λ3 − 18λ2 + 45λ = 0. The eigenvalues are

λ = 0, 3 and 15.
Eigenvectors corresponding to these eigenvalues = 0, 3, 15 are respectively

[1, 2, 2]T , [2, 1, −2]T and [2, −2, 1]T .

The modal matrix P is given by

 
 1 2 2 
 
P =
 2 1 −2 .

 
2 −2 1

Since the matrix A has distinct eigenvalues, the modal matrix P is non-singular. Also,
  
 8 −6 2   1 2 2 
  
AP = 
 −6 7 −4  2 1
 −2 

  
2 −4 3 2 −2 1
 
 8 − 12 + 4 16 − 6 − 4 16 + 12 + 2 
 
= −6 + 14 − 8 −12 + 7 + 8 −12 − 14 − 4 

 
2−8+6 4−4−6 4+8+3
 
 0 6 30 
 
= 0 3 −30  .

 
0 −6 15

20
  
 0 0 0 
 
If D = 
 0 3 0
 , then

 
0 0 15

    
 1 2 2  0 0 0   0 6 30 
    
PD = 
 2 1 −2  0 3 0

 =  0 3 −30  .
  
    
2 −2 1 0 0 15 0 −6 15

Thus, AP = P D. Since P is non-singular, P −1 AP = P −1 P D = D, so that A is similar

to D.Hence A is diagonalized.  
 2 2 1 
 
11. Diagonalize the matrix A =  1 3 1 .

 
1 2 2
Solution: The characteristic equation is λ3 − 7λ2 + 11λ − 5 = 0. The eigenvalues are

λ = 1, 1, 5. [x1 , x2 , x3 ]T is an eigenvector for the eigenvalue λ of A if and only if it is a

non-trivial solution of the equations

(2 − λ)x1 + 2x2 + x3 = 0

x1 + (3 − λ)x2 + x3 = 0

x1 + 2x2 + (2 − λ)x3 = 0 (I)

Case 1: Let λ = 5. The equations in (I) reduce to

−3x1 + 2x2 + x3 = 0

x1 − 2x2 + x3 = 0

x1 + 2x2 − 3x3 = 0 (II)

21
Solving the rst two equations in (II) by the rule of cross multiplication we obtain

x1 x2 x3
= =
2+2 1+3 6−2

or
x1 x2 x3
= =
4 4 4

or
x1 x2 x3
= = .
1 1 1

Hence we take [1, 1, 1]T as a representative eigenvector corresponding to λ = 5.

Case 2: Let λ = 1. The equations in (I) reduce to

x1 + 2x2 + x3 = 0

x1 + 2x2 + x3 = 0

x1 + 2x2 + 3x3 = 0 (III)

The three equations in (III) are all same namely

x1 + 2x2 + x3 = 0. (IV )

We have to select two eigenvectors from this equation so that these together with the
eigenvector [1, 1, 1]T corresponding to λ = 5 constitutes a non-singular matrix.Taking
x2 = 0, x3 = 1 and x1 = −1 we see that (IV) is satised. Hence [−1, 0, 1]T is an
eigenvector when λ = 1. We require another eigenvector. This time we take x1 = 0, x2 = 1
and x3 = −2. For this choice (IV) is satised. Hence [0, 1, −2]t is another eigenvector
corresponding to λ = 1. Notice that we have not taken any care to see that these two
eigenvectors along with the eigenvector [1, 1, 1]T constitutes a non-singular matrix.

22
 Let  
 1 −1 0 
 
P =
 1 0 1 .

 
1 1 −2

Clearly |P | = −4 ̸= 0. Hence P is non-singular. We have

    
 2 2 1   1 −1 0   5 −1 0 
    
AP = 
 1 3 1  1 0
 1 = 5 0
  1 .

    
1 2 2 1 1 −2 5 1 −2

 
 5 0 0 
 
If D =  
 0 1 0  , then
 
0 0 1

    
 1 −1 0   5 0 0   5 −1 0 
    
PD = 
 1 0 1  0 1 0  =  5 0
   1 .

    
1 1 −2 0 0 1 5 1 −2

Hence AP = P D. Since P is non-singular, we obtain P −1 AP = D. Thus A is similar to

D or A is diagonalized.
 
 7 2 −2 
 
12. Let A =  −6 −1 2 .

 
6 2 −1
(a) Verify Cayley-Hamilton theorem for the matrix A.
(b) Find A−1 .

23
 Solution:(a)

 
 
 7−λ 2 −2 
 
 
|A − λI| =  −6 −1 − λ 2  = −λ3 + 5λ2 − 7λ + 3.

 
 
 6 2 −1 − λ 

Hence the characteristic equation is λ3 − 5λ2 + 7λ − 3 = 0.

We need to verify that A3 − 5A2 + 7A − 3I = 0, where I is the unit matrix of order 3.
We have
   
 25 8 −8   79 26 −26 
   
A2 = 
 −24 −7 8
 and A3 =  −78 −25 26
 
.

   
24 8 −7 78 26 −25

24
Now,
 
 79 26 −26 
 
A3 − 5A2 + 7A − 3I = 
 −78 −25 26 

 
78 26 −25
 
 −125 −40 40 
 
+ 120 35 −40  
 
−120 −40 35
 
 49 14 −14 
 
+ −42 −7 14 

 
42 14 −7
 
 −3 0 0 
 
+ 0 −3 0 

 
0 0 −3
 
 79 − 125 + 49 − 3 26 − 40 + 14 + 0 −26 + 40 − 14 + 0 
 
= −78 + 120 − 42 + 0 −25 + 35 − 7 − 3 26 − 40 + 14 + 0


 
78 − 120 + 42 + 0 26 − 40 + 14 + 0 −25 + 35 − 7 − 3
 
 0 0 0 
 
= 0 0 0 .

 
0 0 0

Thus Cayley-Hamilton theorem is veried.

(b)First of all the matrix is invertible since the constant term in the characteristic
polynomial is non-zero. We have by Cayley-Hamilton theorem, A3 − 5A2 + 7A − 3I = 0.

25
Multiplying both sides of this equation by A−1 and transposing the terms we obtain

3A−1 =A2 − 5A + 7I
     
 25 8 −8   −35 −10 10   7 0 0 
     
=  
 −24 −7 8  +  30 5 −10  
+ 0 7 0


     
24 8 −7 −30 −10 5 0 0 7
 
 −3 −2 2 
 
=
 6 5 −2 
,
 
−6 −2 5

so that  
 −3 −2 2 
1 
A−1 =  −2 .
3 
6 5
 
−6 −2 5
 
 1 2 0 
 
13. If A = 
 2 −1 0  , nd A−2 by using Cayley-Hamilton theorem.

 
0 0 −1
Solution: |A − λI| = −λ3 − λ2 + 5λ + 5. Hence the characteristic equation is λ3 +

λ2 − 5λ − 5 = 0. Hence by Cayley-Hamilton theorem, A3 + A2 − 5A − 5I = 0. Multiplying

this equation both sides by A−1 , we get A2 + A − 5I − 5A−1 = 0, so that

5A−1 = A2 + A − 5I.

Now,  
 5 0 0 
 
A2 = 
 0 5 0 .

 
0 0 1

26
Hence

5A−1 =A2 + A − 5I
     
 5 0 0   1 2 0   −5 0 0 
     
=  
 0 5 0  +  2 −1 0
 +  0 −5 0
 


     
0 0 1 0 0 −1 0 0 −5
 
 1 2 0 
 
=
 2 −1 0  ,

 
0 0 −5

so that  
 1 2 0 

1 
A−1 =  2 −1 0 .
5 

0 0 −5

Hence  
 5 0 0 
−2 1  0 5 0

.
A = (A−1 )2 =
25 



0 0 25

14. Reduce the quadratic form Q(x1 , x2 , x3 ) = 3x21 +3x22 +3x23 +2x1 x2 +2x1 x3 −2x2 x3 into
sum of squares by an orthogonal transformation and
 give the matrix
 of transformation.
 3 1 1 
 
Solution: The matrix of transformation A = 
 1 3 −1  , so that

 
1 −1 3

Q(x1 , x2 , x3 ) = X T A X,

where X = [x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ]T .

27
  
 
 3−λ 1 1 
 
 
|A − λI| =  1 3 − λ −1  = −λ3 + 9λ2 − 24λ + 16.

 
 
 1 −1 3 − λ 

Hence the characteristic equations is λ3 −9λ2 +24λ−16 = 0. The roots are λ = 1, 4, 4.

The eigen vectors [x1 , x2 , x3 ] corresponding to the eigenvalue λ is a non-trivial solution
of the equations

(3 − λ)x1 + x2 + x3 = 0

x1 + (3 − λ)x2 − x3 = 0

x1 − x2 + (3 − λ)x3 = 0. (I)

Case 1: Let λ = 1. The equations in (I) reduce to

2x1 + x2 + x3 = 0

x1 + 2x2 − x3 = 0

x1 − x2 + 2x3 = 0. (II)

Solving the rst two equations by the rule of cross multiplication, we obtain,

x1 x2 x3
= =
−3 3 3

or
x1 x2 x3
= = .
−1 1 1

We take [−1, 1, 1]T as eigenvector corresponding to λ = 1.

28
 Case 2: Let λ = 4. Substituting λ = 4 in (I), we obtain the equations,

−x1 + x2 + x3 = 0

x1 − x2 − x3 = 0

x1 − x 2 − x3 = 0

It is clear that the above three equations are same. We consider one of them say

x1 − x2 − x3 = 0. (III)

We intend to choose two eigen vectors satisfying (III) corresponding to λ = 4 which

are mutually orthogonal. First we choose one eigenvector. Take x2 = 0. From (III), we
get x1 − x3 = 0 or x1 = x3 . We choose x1 = 1, so that x3 = 1. Hence [1, 0, 1]T is an
eigenvector with respect to λ = 4. Let [x1 , x2 , x3 ]T be an eigenvector corresponding to
λ = 4 and orthogonal to [1, 0, 1]T . So we must have

0 = [x1 , x2 , x3 ]T .[1, 0, 1]T = x1 + x3 ,

or x1 = −x3 . Using this in (III) we get

0 = x1 − x2 − x3 = −x3 − x2 − x3 = −2x3 − x2 ,

or x2 = −2x3 . If we choose x3 = 1, we must have x2 = −2 and x1 = −1. So, [−1, −2, 1]T
is an eigenvector corresponding to λ = 4 orthogonal to [1, 0, 1]T . We require three eigen
vectors corresponding to the eigen values λ = 1, 4, 4. which are mutually orthogonal.Since
the matrix A is real and symmetric, eigen vectors belonging to distinct eigen values
are mutually orthogonal. Hence the eigen vectors corresponding to λ = 1 and λ = 4
are mutually orthogonal. Thus the eigenvector [−1, 1, 1]T corresponding to λ = 1 is

29
orthogonal to the eigen vectors [1, 0, 1]T and [−1, −2, 1]T corresponding to λ = 4. Again
we have selected the eigen vectors [1, 0, 1]T and [−1, −2, 1]T corresponding to λ = 4 in
such a way that they are orthogonal. Thus the eigen vectors [−1, 1, 1]T , [1, 0, 1]T and
[−1, −2, 1]T are pairwise orthogonal. Let us now compute the absolute values of these
eigen vectors :

√ √
|[−1, 1, 1]T | = (−1)2 + 12 + 12 = 3
√ √
|[1, 0, 1]T | = 12 + 02 + 12 = 2
√ √
|[−1, −2, 1]T | = (−1)2 + (−2)2 + 12 = 6.

Hence the normalized eigen vectors are

( )T
[−1, 1, 1]T [−1, 1, 1]T 1 1 1
= √ = −√ , √ , √ ,
|[−1, 1, 1]T | 3 3 3 3

( )T
[1, 0, 1]T [1, 0, 1]T 1 1
= √ = √ , 0, √ ,
|[1, 0, 1]T | 2 2 2

and
( )T
[−1, 2, 1]T [−1, 2, 1]T 1 2 1
= √ = −√ , √ , √ .
|[−1, 2, 1]T | 6 6 6 6

The normalized modal matrix P is give by

 
 − √13 √1
2
− √16 
 
P =
 √1 0 √2 .

 3 6

√1 √1 √1
3 2 6

The canonical form of the given quadratic form is given by

Q(x1 , x2 , x3 ) = 1.y12 + 4.y22 + 4.y32 ,

30
where
(x1 , x2 , x3 )T = P.(y1 , y2 , y3 )T .

15. Reduce the quadratic form 2xy + 2yz + 2zx into canonical form by orthogonal
transformation.
Solution: The matrix of the quadratic form
 
 0 1 1 
 
A=
 1 0 1 .

 
1 1 0

Also,  
 
 −λ 1 1 
 
 
|A − λI| =  1 −λ 1
 = −λ3 + 3λ + 2.

 
 
 1 1 −λ 

Hence the characteristic equation is λ3 − 3λ − 2 = 0.

By trial λ = −1 is a root. By synthetic division we see that another factor is λ2 −λ−2.
The roots of this equation are λ = −1, 2. Thus the eigen values of A are λ = −1, −1 , 2.
The eigen vectors [x1 , x2 , x3 ] corresponding to the eigenvalue λ is a non-trivial solution
of the equations

−λx1 + x2 + x3 = 0

x1 − λx2 + x3 = 0

x1 + x2 − λx3 = 0. (I)

31
 Case 1: Let λ = 2. The equations (I) reduce to

−2x1 + x2 + x3 = 0

x1 − 2x2 + x3 = 0

x1 + x2 − 2x3 = 0. (II)

Solving the rst two equations in (II) by the rule of cross multiplication,we get,

x1 x2 x3
= = ,
1+2 1+2 4−1

or
x1 x2 x3
= = ,
3 3 3

or
x1 x2 x3
= = ,
1 1 1

so that [1, 1, 1]T is a representative eigenvector corresponding to λ = 2. This eigenvector

will certainly be orthogonal to any eigenvector corresponding to λ = −1.
Case 2: Let λ = −1. Since λ = −1 is repeated twice, we select two eigen vectors
corresponding to this eigenvalue which are mutually orthogonal. Substituting λ = −1 in
(I), we see that these equations reduce to one equation namely

x1 + x2 + x3 = 0. (III)

We can select one eigne vector quickly by taking x1 = 0, x2 = 1 and x3 = −1. So,
[0, 1, −1]T is an eigenvector corresponding to λ = −1; let [x1 , x2 , x3 ]T be another vector
for λ = −1 orthogonal to this eigenvector. Hence in addition to (III), we must have
that 0 = [0, 1, −1]T .[x1 , x2 , x3 ]T = x2 − x3 , so that x2 = x3 ; using this in (III), we
get 0 = x1 + x2 + x3 = x1 + 2x3 , so that x1 = −2x3 . Now taking x3 = 1 we get

32
x1 = −2, x2 = x3 = 1. Hence [−2, 1, 1]T is another eigenvector orthogonal to [0, 1, −1]T ;
of course both of them correspond to λ = −1.
Thus the three mutually orthogonal eigen vectors corresponding to the eigen values,
λ = 2, −1, −1 are given by

[1, 1, 1]T , , [0, 1, −1]T , , and [−2, 1, 1]T .

√ √ √
The absolute values of these eigen vectors are respectively 3, 2 and 6. Hence the
modal matrix is given by  

√1
3
0 − √26 
 
P =
 √1 √1 √1 .

 3 2 6

√1
3
− √12 √1
6

The canonical form of the given quadratic form is 2y12 − y22 − y32 , where

(x1 , x2 , x3 )T = P.(y1 , y2 , y3 )T .

16. Reduce the quadratic form x21 +3x22 +3x23 −2x2 x3 to canonical form by orthogonal
transformation. Also write the modal matrix.
Solution: The matrix of the quadratic form is
 
 1 0 0 
 
A= 
 0 3 −1  .
 
0 −1 3

We have
 
 
 1−λ 0 0 
 
 
|A − λI| =  0 3 − λ −1  = (1 − λ)(λ − 4)(λ − 2).

 
 
 0 −1 3 − λ 

33
The eigen values are λ = 1, 2, 4.
Since the eigen values of A are distinct and A is a real symmetric matrix, it follows
that the eigen vectors corresponding to these eigen values are mutually orthogonal. If we
normalize each eigenvector then the matrix constituted by these normalized eigen vectors
is simply our normalized modal matrix P.
The eigen vectors [x1 , x2 , x3 ] corresponding to the eigenvalue λ is a non-trivial solution
of the equations

(1 − λ)x1 = 0

(3 − λ)x2 − x3 = 0

−x2 + (3 − λ)x3 = 0. (I)

Case 1: λ = 1. The equations in (I) reduce to

0.x1 = 0

2x2 − x3 = 0

−x2 + 2x3 = 0. (II)

Solving the second and third equations in (II) in the usual manner, we get x2 = x3 = 0.
We can choose x1 = 1 in the rst equation. Hence [1, 0, 0]T is an eigenvector in this case.
Case 2: λ = 2. The equations in (I) reduce to

−x1 = 0

x 2 − x3 = 0

−x2 + x3 = 0. (III)

These equations clearly imply that x1 = 0 and x2 = x3 . Taking x2 = 1 we see that

34
[0, 1, 1]T is an eigenvector in this case.
Case 3: λ = 4. The equations in (I) reduce to

−3x1 = 0

−x2 − x3 = 0

−x2 − x3 = 0. (3.9)

Solving these equations we obtain, x1 = 0 and x2 = −x3 . Choosing x2 = 1 we see that

[0, 1, −1]T is an eigenvector in this case.
Thus the eigen vectors corresponding to the eigen values λ = 1, 2, 4 are respectively

[1, 0, 0]T , , [0, 1, 1]T , and [0, 1, −1]T .

√ √
The absolute values of these eigen vectors are respectively, 1, 2, 2. Hence the normal-
ized modal matrix P is given by
 
 1 0 0 
 
P =
 0 √1 √1 .

 2 2

0 √1
2
− √12

The canonical form of the given quadratic form is y12 + 2y22 + 4y32 , where

(x1 , x2 , x3 )T = P.(y1 , y2 , y3 )T .

35