Logic in general

• Logics are formal languages for representing information

such that conclusions can be drawn
• Syntax defines the sentences in the language
Propositional • Semantics define the "meaning" of sentences;
– i.e., define truth of a sentence in a world

Logic • E.g., the language of arithmetic

– x+2 ≥ y is a sentence;
– x2+y > {} is not a sentence

Knowledge bases Propositional Logic Concepts

• Knowledge base = set of sentences in a formal language
 Logic is a study of principles used to
− distinguish correct from incorrect reasoning.
• Declarative approach to building an agent (or other system):
–Tell it what it needs to know
 A proposition in logic is a declarative statements which is
either true or false (but not both) in a given context.
• Then it can Ask itself what to do
– answers should follow from the KB
For example,
− “It is hot today”,
− " It is humid " etc.

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 Propositional Logic Concepts Simple & Compound Propositions

 Given some propositions to be true in a given context, • Fast foods tend to be unhealthy.
− logic helps in inferencing new proposition, which is also true in • Parakeets are colorful birds.
the same context.

• If fast foods tend to be unhealthy, then you shouldn’t eat them.

 Suppose we are given a set of propositions such as
− “It is hot today" and • Parakeets are colorful birds, and colorful birds are good to have
− “If it is hot it will rain", then at home.
− we can infer that
− “It will rain today".

Wumpus World Reasoning in the Wumpus World

• Wumpus can be shot, only 1 arrow
– Shoot: arrow goes forward • Agent has initial ignorance about the configuration
– Agent knows his/her initial location
• Bottomless pits and pot of gold
– Agent knows the rules of the environment

• Agent can move forward, turn left or

• Goal is to explore environment, make inferences (reasoning) to
turn right
try to find the gold.
• Sensors:
– Stench inside and next to wumpus
– Breeze next to pit • Random instantiations of this problem used to test agent reasoning
– Glitter in square with gold and decision algorithms
– Bump when agent moves into a wall
– Scream from wumpus when it is killed (applications? “intelligent agents” in computer games)

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 Exploring the Wumpus World Exploring the Wumpus World

The KB initially contains the rules of the environment.

[2,1] = breeze , B21

[1,1] The first percept is [none, none,none,none,none], indicates that there is a pit in [2,2] or [3,1],

move to safe cell e.g. 2,1 return to [1,1] to try next safe cell

Exploring the Wumpus World Well-formed formula

− An atom is a well-formed formula.
• Some atomic propositions: − If  is a well-formed formula, then  is a well-formed
S12 = There is a stench in cell (1,2)
B34 = There is a breeze in cell (3,4)
formula.
W22 = The Wumpus is in cell (2,2)
V11 = We have visited cell (1,1) − If  and  are well formed formulae, then (  ), ( V  ),
OK11 = Cell (1,1) is safe. (  ), (   ) are also well-formed formulae.
Etc

− It is a finite sequence of symbols from a given alphabet that is

part of formal language.

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 Propositional Logic Propositional Logic
• A simple language useful for showing key ideas and definitions
• Logical constants: true, false • User defines a set of propositional symbols, like P and Q.
• Propositional symbols: P, Q, S, ... (atomic sentences) • User defines the semantics of each propositional symbol:
• Wrapping parentheses: ( … ) • P means “It is hot.”
• Sentences are combined by connectives: • Q means “It is humid.”
 ...and [conjunction] • R means “It is raining.”
• (P  Q)  R
 ...or [disjunction]
• “If it is hot and humid, then it is raining”
...implies [implication / conditional] • QP
 ..is equivalent [biconditional] • “If it is humid, then it is hot”

 ...not [negation]
• Literal: atomic sentence or negated atomic sentence

Truth tables
Truth tables II
The five logical connectives:

A complex sentence:

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 Models of complex sentences Inference rules
• Logical inference is used to create new sentences that logically
follow from a given set of predicate calculus sentences (KB).

• An inference rule is sound if every sentence X produced by an

inference rule operating on a KB logically follows from the KB.
(That is, the inference rule does not create any contradictions)

Sound rules of inference Sound rules of inference

• Here are some examples of sound rules of inference RULE PREMISE CONCLUSION

– A rule is sound if its conclusion is true whenever the premise is true Modus Ponens A, A  B B

• Following rules can be shown to be sound using a truth table From an implication and the premise of the implication, you can
RULE PREMISE CONCLUSION infer the conclusion.
Modus Ponens A, A  B B
And Introduction A, B AB
And Elimination AB A
Double Negation A A
Unit Resolution A  B, B A
Resolution A  B, B  C AC

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 Sound rules of inference Sound rules of inference
RULE PREMISE CONCLUSION RULE PREMISE CONCLUSION
And Introduction A, B AB And Elimination AB A

From a list of sentences, one can infer their conjunction From a conjunction, one can infer any of the conjuncts.

Sound rules of inference Sound rules of inference

RULE PREMISE CONCLUSION RULE PREMISE CONCLUSION
Double Negation A A Resolution A  B, B  C AC

Unit Resolution A  B, B A B can’t be both true an false, one of the other disjuncts must be
true in one of the premises. Or equivalently, implicative is
From a disjunction, if one of the disjuncts is false, then one can transitive.
infer the other one is true.
A  B, B  C A  C

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 Exploring the Wumpus World
After the third move
• Some atomic propositions:
S12 = There is a stench in cell (1,2)
• We can prove that the
B34 = There is a breeze in cell (3,4) Wumpus is in (1,3) using
W22 = The Wumpus is in cell (2,2) the four rules given.
V11 = We have visited cell (1,1)
OK11 = Cell (1,1) is safe.
etc
• Some rules:
(R1) S11  W11   W12   W21
(R2)  S21  W11   W21   W22   W31
(R3)  S12  W11   W12   W22   W13
(R4) S12  W13  W12  W22  W11
Etc

Proving W13 Proving W13

• Apply MP with S11 and R1: • Apply MP with S11 and R1:
 W11   W12   W21  W11   W12   W21
• Apply And-Elimination to this, yielding 3 sentences: • Apply And-Elimination to this, yielding 3 sentences:
 W11,  W12,  W21  W11,  W12,  W21
• Apply MP to  S21 and R2, then apply And-elimination:
 W22,  W21,  W31
• Apply MP to S12 and R4 to obtain:
W13  W12  W22  W11
• Apply Unit resolution on (W13  W12  W22  W11) and W11:
W13  W12  W22
• Apply Unit Resolution with (W13  W12  W22) and W22:
W13  W12
• Apply Unit Resolution with (W13  W12) and W12:
W13

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 Limitations of Propositional Logic Formal Languages and Commitments
Language Ontological Epistemological
• number of propositions Commitment Commitment
– since everything has to be spelled out explicitly, the number of rules is (“what is”) (“what can be known”)
immense Propositional Logic facts true, false, unknown
• Can’t directly talk about properties of individuals or relations
between individuals (e.g., “Bill is tall”) First-order Logic facts, objects, true, false, unknown
relations
• dealing with change (monotonicity) Temporal Logic facts, objects, true, false, unknown
– even in very simple worlds, there is change relations, times
– the agent’s position changes
– time-dependent propositions and rules can be used Probability Theory facts degree of belief
• even more propositions and rules ∈ [0,1]

Fuzzy Logic facts with degree of known interval value

truth ∈ [0,1]

Beyond Propositional Logic

• Propositional logic not expressive enough
– In Wumpus world we needed to explicitly write every
case of Breeze & Pit relation
– Facts = propositions
– “All squares next to pits are breezy”

• First order logic