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Graphene oxide–TiO2 composite filtration

membranes and their potential application for
water purification

Chao Xu *, Aiju Cui, Yuelian Xu, Xianzhi Fu

Research Institute of Photocatalysis, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Photocatalysis-State Key Laboratory Breeding Base, Fuzhou
University, Fuzhou 350002, PR China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Article history: Graphene oxide-particle composite films with filtration function have been successfully
Received 25 April 2013 synthesized by a two-step method. First, graphene oxide–TiO2 composite sheets are pre-
Accepted 12 June 2013 pared, which can form stable dispersion in water. Then, by assembling these composite
Available online 21 June 2013 sheets, graphene oxide–TiO2 films are obtained. In these as-prepared films, dilated space
and channels are desirably formed by introducing nanoparticles between these carbon
sheets, making them promising separation membranes. We used these films as filtration
membranes to remove dye molecules (methyl orange and rhodamine B) from water. The
results show that apart from the adsorption capacities of these dyes, these graphene
oxide–TiO2 films can also capture additional amount of dye molecules, indicating their
potential applications in water purification areas.
Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction based films, giving the possibility of application of these films

Filtration has been considered as a promising separation and
purification technology due to its easy operation, energy sav-
ing property and high efficiency [1–5]. Since obtaining appro-
priate films is usually an important step for filtration
application, materials such as polymers, ceramic fibers and
carbon nanotubes, have been adopted to fabricate different
filtration membranes [6–9], while some potential materials
are still being explored to join in the filtration membrane
family. As a kind of versatile material, graphene-based sheets
are found as ideal building blocks for preparing graphene-in-
volved functional films [10–17]. However, few attentions are
paid to utilize them as filtration membranes, probably due
to the absence of appropriate pores or channels in these films
[18–22].
Recently, researchers have designed special two-dimen-
sional nanocapillaries or nanochannels in these graphene-
in separation fields (Fig. 1a) [19,23]. Unfortunately, these cap-
illaries or channels caused by the inherent features of carbon
sheets (such as functional groups or corrugation) are metasta-
ble, and collapse of these two-dimensional channels is likely
to occur, limiting their potential applications in substance
separation. Furthermore, the interaction between these car-
bon sheets usually makes the lamellar graphene-based films
compact and the as-formed channels so narrow, which influ-
ences their permeation performances and makes them bar-
rier films [20–22]. It can be imagined that if some rigid
substances are inserted into interlamination, collapse of the
lamellar structure would be avoided and capacious channels
might form between carbon sheets, creating robust filtration
membranes. As we know, graphene-based sheets have been
widely used as carriers to support nanoparticles, some of
which can be processed into films [24–30]. Accordingly, when
these graphene-nanoparticle composite sheets are regularly

* Corresponding author: Fax: +86 591 83779105.

E-mail address: cxu@fzu.edu.cn (C. Xu).
0008-6223/$ - see front matter Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2013.06.035
466 CARBON 6 2 ( 2 0 1 3 ) 4 6 5 –4 7 1
Fig. 1 – Schematic view for possible percolation through the laminates (a) graphene-based and (b) graphene-particle
composite filtration membranes.
restacked into films, these attached particles will not only prop
up these carbon sheets, but also broaden these two-dimen-
sional channels, which could be beneficial for fluid percolation
and make them potential separation membranes (Fig. 1(b)).
Herein, we predominantly focus on the synthesis of graph-
ene oxide (GO)–TiO2 composite films and their potential appli-
cation as filtration membranes in purification. GO–TiO2
composite sheets are firstly prepared as building blocks.
Then, these composites sheets, which can form stable sus-
pension in water, are assembled into GO–TiO2 films simply
by vacuum filtration. The as-prepared films can be utilized
as filtration membranes to remove dye molecules (methyl or-
ange and rhodamine B) from water. And results show that
these GO–TiO2 films can capture additional amount of dye
molecules besides the adsorption capacities of dyes, making
them promising filtration membranes in the future.
2. Experimental section
GO was prepared from purified natural graphite with mean
particle size of 44 lm according to the method reported by
Hummers and Offeman [31].
GO–TiO2 composite sheets were prepared according to our
previous work [32]. Typically, about 25 mg of GO and 60 mg of
Ti(SO4)2 were dispersed in 40 mL of distilled water, and the
mixture was heated at 60 °C for 24 h. The products were cen-
trifuged and washed with distilled water to remove any impu-
rities. After that the as-obtained samples were re-dispersed in
water and the ammonia was added to the solution to increase
pH to around 10, forming stable dispersions.
GO–TiO2 membranes were prepared by vacuum filtration of
the aforesaid dispersion (10 mL containing 6 mg of GO) through
polycarbonate filter membranes (47 mm in diameter, 0.2 lm pore
size, Millipore). When the filtration completed, a certain volume
of dye solution (methyl orange or rhodamine B, 10 ppm) was
poured on the top of the as-formed GO–TiO2 membranes, which
was then subjected to continuous vacuum suction (with a pres-
sure of around 1 bar) to allow the water to flow through the mem-
branes. The filtrate was examined by ultra violet–visible (UV–Vis)
spectroscopy to confirm the retention rate. And the water drain-
ing time was recorded to calculate of average water flux for GO–
TiO2 filtration membranes. The adsorption capacities of GO–
TiO2 films were obtained by immersing the as-prepared films in
the dye solution for 1 h. After centrifugation, the solution was
analyzed by UV–Vis spectroscopy.
2.1. Characterization
Powder X-ray diffraction (XRD) analyses were performed on a
Bruker D8 Advance diffractometer with Cu Ka radiation. The
diffraction data were recorded for 2h angles between 15°
and 80°. Thermogravimetric (TG) analyses were performed
on NETZSCH thermogravimetric analyzer from 20 to 800 °C
at a heating rate of 5 °C /min in air flow. The UV–Vis absorp-
tion spectra were carried out by Varian Cary 50 spectropho-
tometer. Morphology analyses of samples were carried out
on Tecnai G2 F20 S-TWIN Transmission Electron Microscope
(TEM) and the Hitachi S8010 Field Emission Scanning Electron
Microscope (FESEM) equipped with Energy Dispersive X-ray
(EDX). Specific surface areas were calculated from nitrogen
adsorption and desorption isotherms conducted at 77 K in
an ASAP 2020 M analyzer according to Brunauer–Emmett–
Teller (BET) model. The X-ray photoelectron spectra (XPS)
were recorded on a Thermo Scientific Escalab250 X-ray photo-
electron spectrometer, using Mg Ka (ht = 1253.6 eV) X-ray as
the excitation source.
3. Results and discussion
Graphene-based films are usually fabricated by restacking
of graphene-involved sheets. As known, these basic carbon
sheets can bear various modifications, so varied special
functional films could be obtained by utilizing these modi-
fied carbon sheets as building blocks. Herein, we chose
TiO2 nanoparticles to decorate these GO sheets in order to
introduce rigid substances between the lamella. TiO2 nano-
particles are formed through hydrolyzation of Ti(SO4)2 and
attached onto the surface of GO sheets, forming GO–TiO2
composites. As TEM images shown in Fig. 2a, the nanosized
TiO2 anatase crystals (Inset in Fig. 2a and Fig. 3a) are dis-
tributed on the surface of GO sheets forming relatively uni-
form GO–TiO2 composite sheets. The loading amount of
TiO2 on GO sheets can be calculated approximatively by
TG analyses. From Fig. 3b, it is obtained that the content
of TiO2 in dried samples is about 42 w%, which is similar
with that of initial dosages of GO and Ti(SO4)2 [33]. Further-
more, the wide-survey and typical C1s XPS spectra also
illustrate the existence of GO and Ti elements in the
as-obtained samples, as shown in Fig. 3c and d [32,34–36].
Noteworthily, these composite sheets can form stable dis-
persion in water (Inset in Fig. 2b). Previous studies have
 CARBON 6 2 (2 0 1 3) 4 6 5–47 1 467

Fig. 2 – (a) Typical TEM and HRTEM (inset) images of GO–TiO2 composite sheets; (b) Photo of filtration film obtained by
assembling of these GO–TiO2 sheets, inset is the photo of GO–TiO2 dispersion containing 0.6 mg/mL of GO.

Fig. 3 – (a) XRD pattern, (b) TG curve, (c) the wide-survey XPS spectrum and (d) typical C1s XPS spectrum of GO–TiO2
composites.

demonstrated that these relatively stable suspensions con-
sisting of graphene-based sheets can be easily processed
into films or paper-like material just by vacuum filtration
[26,37,38]. Fig. 2b displays typical photo of the as-prepared
GO–TiO2 bulk material by filtrating 10 ml of GO–TiO2 disper-
sion (containing about 6 mg of GO and 5 mg of TiO2), which
illustrates that such graphene-particle composite sheets can
be processed into films indeed.
Morphology analysis further shows that these GO–TiO2
composite sheets restack in good order, forming paper-like
structure [10,39,40]. Fig. 4 displays FESEM images and EDX
spectrum of GO–TiO2 films. From the front views, especially
the edge of the composite films (Fig. 4a and b), it can be seen
that the assembled films are formed through restacking of
GO–TiO2 composite sheets, and EDX analysis also suggests
that the surface of such film is covered by TiO2, which is
468 CARBON 6 2 ( 2 0 1 3 ) 4 6 5 –4 7 1

Fig. 4 – The FESEM images and EDX spectrum of GO–TiO2 composite film: (a and b) the front views, (c and d) the cross section
images.

consistent with TEM analysis. Particularly, the cross section
images clearly display an aligned layered-stacking pattern
(Fig. 4c and d), which is similar with that of previous studies
[10,39].
Generally, graphene-based sheets incline to restack into
compact laminates due to their unique two-dimensional
structure. So, these intercalated nanoparticles can prop up
these carbon sheets and avoid them from sticking together.
We carried out nitrogen adsorption–desorption isotherms to
investigate our films and the corresponding results are pre-
sented in Fig. 5. Probably due to the effective separation of
the carbon sheets by these particles, the specific surface area
of dried GO–TiO2 films is about 489.2 m2 g 1, which is much
higher than that of restacked GO sheets (less than
10 m2 g 1) and TiO2 (118.9 m2 g 1). Furthermore, from Fig. 5a
it can be seen that GO–TiO2 films exhibit a type H3 hysteresis
loop according to Brunauer–Deming–Deming–Teller (BDDT)
classification, indicating the presence of mesopore structure.
It is assumed that due to the padding of these nanoparticles,
the interlamination space is broadened and divided (Fig. 1b),
leading to the formation of pore structure. According to
either slit or cylindrical pore analysis model, the calculated
average pore size of GO–TiO2 films is about 3.5 nm, as shown
in Fig. 5b.
So far, plenty of graphene-based films have been synthe-
sized successfully. However, few paid attention to their poten-
tial use in filtration membrane filed as the lacking of
appropriate pores or channels in the films. Recently, research-
ers have shown that two-dimensional channels can form be-
tween the stacked graphene-based sheets, endowing these
films with separation functions [19,20,23]. Nevertheless, these
nanocapillaries or nanochannels are so narrow, which

Fig. 5 – (a) Nitrogen adsorption–desorption isotherms and (b) pore size distribution curve of GO–TiO2 films.
 CARBON 6 2 (2 0 1 3) 4 6 5–47 1 469

Fig. 6 – (A) UV–Vis absorbance and photos of filtrates obtained by filtration of different volume of MO (10 ppm) solutions over
GO–TiO2 films; (B) Bar plot showing the retention rates and adsorption capacities using different volume of MO dye solutions.

Fig. 7 – (A) UV–Vis absorbance and photos of filtrates obtained by filtration of different volume of Rhodamine B (10 ppm)
solutions over GO–TiO2 films; (B) Bar plot showing the filtrate concentrations and adsorption capacities using different
volume of Rhodamine B dye solutions.

Fig. 8 – Scheme of assembling and filtration processes of GO–TiO2 composite films.

influences their permeation performances as filtration nels in graphene-based films, but also make the path sinuous,
membranes [20–22]. These nanoparticles dispersing in the which could be beneficial for the fluid percolation and sub-
interlamination not only broaden the two-dimensional chan- stance retention.
470 CARBON 6 2 ( 2 0 1 3 ) 4 6 5 –4 7 1
Given that films with fuzzy channels could act as separation
films, we utilized such as-prepared GO–TiO2 composite films as
filtration membranes to purify organic wastewater. As an
example, methyl orange (MO), a dye molecule is used as model
molecule in characterization of our films [41,42]. Fig. 6A dis-
plays UV–Vis absorbance and photos of filtrate obtained by fil-
trating different volumes of MO solution (10 ppm) over GO–
TiO2 films. At initial stage of the filtration, water with MO fed
into the filter had very deep color but became clear after going
through the film, indicating effective removal of MO molecules
(water flux is about 7 L h 1 m 2). And such films maintained a
filter efficiency of 100% for MO solution with a critical solution
amount of about 8 mL (Fig. 6A(b)). When further increased the
usage of the solutions, MO molecules start to penetrate
through the films. From Fig. 6A, it can be seen that the charac-
teristic absorption peak of MO in the UV–Vis spectra appears
and becomes more pronounced along with the increase in vol-
umes of the feeds, and the color of filtrate (Insert in Fig. 6A) also
gradually became deeper. In order to distinguish whether the
removal of dyes are caused by interception or absorption of
these films, we also carry out control experiments. Fig. 6B dis-
plays the retention rates and the adsorption capacities of GO–
TiO2 films when using different dosages of dye solution
[43,44]. By comparison, it is obviously found that, apart from
the adsorption capacities, these assembled films indeed cap-
ture additional amounts of MO molecules in the films. Further-
more, similar phenomena are also found when using
Rhodamine B as feed solutions, as shown in Fig. 7.
Our results demonstrate that graphene-particle composite
sheets can be processed into filtration membranes, which
possess potential applications in water purification areas
(Fig. 8). Furthermore, it can be imagined that filtration effi-
ciency of these graphene-based films could be further im-
proved by appropriate surface modification of these carbon
sheets (for instance the size and properties of the attached
particles), the thickness of the films, etc. Accordingly, it is
probable to develop new and useful high-performance graph-
ene-particle membranes, which could be utilized to separate
and remove small molecules or ions, making them promising
multi-functional separation membranes.
4. Conclusion
Graphene-particle composite membranes with filtration
property can be prepared by a two-step method. First, GO–
TiO2 composite sheets were prepared, which can form stable
dispersions in water. Then, by vacuum filtration, these com-
posite sheets were easily assembled into aligned stacking
GO–TiO2 films. These attached TiO2 can prop up GO sheets
and broaden the interlayer distance, which leads to the for-
mation of special pores and channels in the as-prepared
films, making them potential filtration membranes. Their
separation properties are exploited by using them as filtration
membranes to remove dye molecules (methyl orange and
rhodamine B) from water. And results show that apart from
the adsorption capacities of these dyes, these GO–TiO2 films
also capture additional amounts of dye molecules, indicating
their potential and significant applications in water purifica-
tion areas.
This work demonstrates that it is feasible to endow graph-
ene-particle films with additional functions, such as filtration.
It is assumed that such strategy that assembling of functional
materials-involved graphene composite sheets into ordered
films can be extended to prepare some other multi-functional
membranes, which will have great potential in extensive
applications of membrane filtration and water treatment
technologies in the future.
Acknowledgments
This work was financially supported by the National Basic Re-
search Program of China (973 Program, 2013CB632405), Na-
tional Nature Science Foundation of China (21201036),
Nature Science Foundation of Fujian Province (2012J01039)
and Fujian Province Department of Education Science and
Technology Project (JK2011006).
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