Unit 1

Designing a Programme for Monitoring Occupational Exposure

Occupational Exposure – An Introduction

The IAEA and its sister U.N. organization have slightly different definitions of Occupational
Exposure, driven by the needs and views of their respective organizations. The IAEA
definition is the follows that of the International Commission on Radiological Protection, and
acknowledges that some exposures are not amenable to control and are therefore, excluded.
Cosmic ray exposure at ground level of 40K in the body are examples. The definition also
recognizes that some sources have radioactivity or radiation levels that are so low as to be
below a regulatory level of concern – sometimes referred to as “deminimous”. The ILO, on
the other hand, chooses not to consider exclusion or exemption.

The issue of occupational exposure to natural radiation, including Naturally Occurring

Radioactive Materials (NORM) and air crew exposure to cosmic radiation has gained
increased attention in recent years. This has resulted in an item in the International Action
Plan for Occupational Radiation Protection calling for “additional sector-specific information
on radioactivity levels, exposure conditions, and chemical and physical characteristics of
airborne pollutants in workplaces involving naturally occurring radioactive materials to e
generated and disseminated appropriately. The issue will also be addressed in more detail in
any future revision of the International Basic Safety Standards.

A summary of the approach to the definition and use of ‘occupational exposure’ is given in
this diagram from the Safety Guide on Occupational Protection. It should be noted that
identifying the exposure situations with natural sources of radiation that need attention may
take a considerable time and it is therefore appropriate for the regulatory authority to develop
a strategy that will allow the matter to be dealt with in a manageable way.

Exposures can be placed in 4 categories, determined by the characteristics of the situation and
the actions that are indicated.

Normal exposures are generally man made, predictable and controlled.

Potential exposures may occur depending on conditions within the work place, but are or
can be controlled.
Emergency exposures are unplanned and, because of the situation, require intervention to
prevent or minimize over exposure. These are accidental exposures.
Chronic exposures refer to elevated environmental radiation (radon, etc.), for which
remedial action is or may be needed.

Note that exposures from 40K, cosmic rays, radionuclides in natural raw materials are not
normally considered as occupational exposures.
Paragraph I.32 of Appendix I in the BSS assigns responsibility for assessment of
occupational exposure to employers, registrants, licensees and self employed individuals as
appropriate.

Assessment of occupational exposure is a key element in achieving effective optimization

and dose limitation. The assessment process provides direct, ongoing feedback on the
measures taken to optimize the work conditions and limit occupational exposure. The general
objective of operational monitoring programmes is to provide the assessment of workplace
conditions and individual exposures.

The assessment process requires assessment of external and internal exposures to arrive at a
dose assessment for the individual.

The workplace areas as defined by the ICRP and implemented in the BSS establish the basis
for the occupational monitoring programme. Areas determined to be controlled areas require
an active, ongoing monitoring programme, while those designated as supervised areas need
to be kept under review, but do not generally require control and monitoring measures.

It should be noted that the European Union directives classify the worker rather than the
workplace for protection purposes. Any worker likely to receive 3/10 of the annual limit is
classified as “Type A” for monitoring and control purposes, and is treated as working under
controlled area conditions. Other workers are considered to be type B, and do not require
individual monitoring.

This and the next two slides provide more detail from the BSS on the monitoring
requirements implied by the work area definitions. Emphasis is given to monitoring those
who work in controlled areas since it is presumed that they are most likely to receive
exposure. Moreover, individual monitoring, both for external and internal exposure, is seen as
the preferred method to provide the data that will be the basis of the assessment process.

It is, however, acknowledged that there will be situations in which individual monitoring my
not be available to satisfy the monitoring assessment needs. In those situations, workplace
monitoring, together with data on the workers location and time in the controlled area may be
used to make these assessments.

Although individual monitoring is not required in supervised areas such as administrative

offices adjacent to the controlled areas, the occupational exposures of workers in those areas
is not to be ignored, and must be assessed. This is likely achieve through workplace
monitoring – regular surveys of the supervised areas, but may be done through individual
monitoring as well.

Occupational Exposure Monitoring and Assessment

There are several elements involved in a occupational exposure assessment - monitoring -

programme. This list reflects the items to be covered in the remainder of this training
programme, an most of these items will be the responsibility of the Individual Monitoring
Service (IMS).

Again it must be stressed that assessment of occupational exposure requires assessment of

both the external and internal exposure components. Even though work in a given practise
generally is thought to involve only the possibility for external exposure, the potential for
internal exposure must be addressed. The Total Effective Dose, Et, at time t is estimated from
the sum of the external and internal components an the formulation is presented in the next
slide.
The Total Effective Dose, Et, at time is considered to be the sum of the personal dose
equivalent at a depth of 10 mm, Hp(10), and the inhalation and ingestion components of the
internal exposure. Again, it should be emphasized that this relationship is an estimate, and
reflects the use of the operational quantities for dose limitation purposes. This formulation is
found in paragraph 2.46 of the IAEA Safety Guide, Occupational Radiation Protection, No.
RS-G-1.1.

The process of occupational monitoring consists of three basic component or aspects: 1) the
measurements that are made in relation to the assessment or control of exposure to radiation
and radioactive material; 2) the interpretation of the results of those measurements, including
those for the individual and those made in the workplace with survey instruments, etc., and 3)
the final assessment of measurement results and interpretation to assign values to the
individual exposure.

Again, this is just to emphasize the two components of monitoring – individual monitoring
intended to obtain data that is primarily relevant to one person, and workplace monitoring
that can be used for exposure assessment for multiple individual having access to the work
area. This distinction applies to both external and internal monitoring programmes.

The general requirements for individual monitoring programmes are to provide information
needed for the assessment of the workers’ occupational exposure of workers. The nature,
frequency and precision of individual monitoring will depend on he radiological conditions in
the workplace. This includes the magnitude and possible fluctuations of exposure levels, and
the likelihood and magnitude of potential exposure. If higher exposures or uncertainties due
to variations in exposure levels can be expected, the individual monitoring programme efforts
and complexity needs to increase accordingly

The individual monitoring programme can be considered to have several objectives. The
objectives for any given programme will depend on the scope and complexity of the
programme.

1. Demonstration of good working practices which indicate the adequacy of supervision,

training and engineering standards.
2. Estimation of the actual radiation exposure of workers, to demonstrate compliance
with legal requirements.
3. Evaluation and development of operating procedures.
4. Provision of information which can be used to motivate workers to reduce their
exposure.
5. Provision of information for the evaluation of dose in the event of accidental
exposure.
6. Risk - benefit analysis.
7. Medical records and epidemiological studies.

The workplace monitoring programme is a partner with the individual monitoring

programme, intended to provide additional information that provides a clearer picture of the
radiological situation. It should complement rather than replace to individual monitoring
programme unless radiological conditions indicate that individual monitoring is either not
necessary or can be scaled back.
The workplace monitoring programme depends on the levels of ambient dose equivalent and
activity concentrations. It should be sufficient for evaluation of the radiological conditions in
all workplaces; exposure assessment in controlled areas and supervised areas; and review of
the classification of controlled and supervised areas. At higher levels, techniques such as field
spectrometry and measurement of aerosol particle size may need to be applied to provide the
information necessary for proper evaluation of the individual monitoring results (dosimeter
readings, bioassay, etc.).

Before moving on to the classification of monitoring programme types, it must be stressed

that the worker should be an active participant in the process of exposure control, and has
certain responsibilities in that regard. The worker should be expected to: 1) Follow any
applicable rules and procedures for protection and safety; 2) Use properly the monitoring
devices and the protective equipment and clothing provided; 3) Provide the employer such
information on their past and current work as is relevant to ensure effective and
comprehensive protection and safety; and 4) Accept such information, instructions and
training concerning protection and safety.

Monitoring Programme Types

The approach and effort devoted to a particular monitoring task or programme will be driven
by several factors related to the characteristics of the expected individual exposure. The
majority of monitoring work falls in the routine, day to day, category where exposure tend to
be low, relatively constant or predictable and reasonably well controlled. The routine
monitoring programme is associated with continuing operations and should be designed to
demonstrate that the working conditions, including the levels of individual dose, remain
satisfactory, and meet regulatory requirements.

Routine monitoring is largely confirmatory in nature, but underpins the overall operational
monitoring programme. The monitoring efforts will be aimed at providing a regular flow of
information that is intended to demonstrate a consistency in the radiological conditions and
that they are well within acceptable limits.

When a particular task is undertaken that is out of the daily routine, with the potential for
additional exposures, a monitoring programme related to the characteristics of the tasks may
be necessary. Task related monitoring applies to a specific operation. It provides data to
support the immediate decisions on the management of the operation, and should be designed
to assist in future exposure control and reduction (Optimization). Task-related monitoring is
commonly required in the nuclear industry, for example.

If radiation fields and conditions remain constant throughout the operations that prompted
task related monitoring, preliminary surveys are usually sufficient, but repeated surveys
before each series of operations are recommended. Continued measurements are needed
throughout the operation, if the operations influence the dose equivalent rates or if the
radiation fields may be variable.

Special monitoring programmes are generally initiated when something out of the ordinary
has occurred, and are likely to require the most sophisticated monitoring techniques available,
including need for spectrometry, field mapping, etc. to obtain the necessary information. The
are investigative in nature, typically initiated in response to a situation in the workplace
where insufficient information is available to demonstrate adequate control. They are
intended to provide detailed information in order to detect problems and to define future
procedures. Of the three types of monitoring, special monitoring will, or should be required
the least often.

Special monitoring is normally be undertaken, 1) at the commissioning stage of new

facilities, 2) following major modifications either to facilities or procedures, or 3) when
operations are being carried out under abnormal circumstances, such as an accident.

Designing a Monitoring Programme

There are several steps that must be considered in designing a monitoring programme. Each
of these steps should be considered, and in the sequence that is appropriate to the design
process. However, it should be emphasized that monitoring programme design is not a static
process. Once the initial programme is in place, continuous review is essential. The frequency
and nature of that review will depend on the characteristics of the program and the experience
obtained during programme operation. The first step is to determine programme
requirements. These are usually driven by relevant regulations, facility and practice license
requirements, and the need for legal protection. The next step is to evaluate the radiation
environment, including the workplace radiation hazards such as intensity of sealed sources;
type of radionuclides, with attention to the energies, half lives, and activity levels; particles
size distributions for aerosols, and general issues of intake.

Once the hazards have been characterized, it is time to address the available monitoring
capabilities: Equipment available or required, appropriate detection limits that need to be
met; and availability of alternative resources. It is also necessary to assess the need for
different software and hardware: interfaces with equipment; databases and dose calculation
algorithms.

The radiation protection specialists need to define the specific objective of the programme or
task and the criteria for worker selection for monitoring. It is then necessary to define the
programmatic elements related to each radiological hazard or radionuclide of interest. These
will define the required monitoring frequency; be used to establish reference levels; help
determine dose assessment methodology; and contribute to identifying follow-up actions in
case of overexposure.

The next topics that should be addressed in designing a monitoring programme are selection
of methods that will be applied in case of radiological emergency. In other words, how will
the radiation protection organization respond, what resources will they need, and what
outside organizations such as medical facilities need to be involved. Quality Assurance and
Quality control are important aspects for an ongoing radiation protection programme, so it
will be necessary to determine QA requirements. Before initiating operations, standard
operating procedure will have to be written. Very often, these can be based on standard
operating procedures (S.O.P.s) from similar facilities, incorporating the appropriate
modifications. Worker training is a key element of any successful programme, and should be
implemented from the outset by training employees in performing the standard operating
procedures before they are implemented.
Finally, the monitoring programme is initiated by implementing the standard operating
procedures. However, once the programme is underway, it will be essential to continue to
perform periodic programme re-assessment and adjustments.

The process of monitoring programme design can be summarized as follows. It begins with
assessment of working conditions, including characterizing the workplace conditions,
activities involved and the radiation exposure sources. This information is used to select the
workers to be monitored, monitoring techniques to be employed, and monitoring frequency to
be used. Following management approval, the conditions under which the monitoring
programme will operate are established including facility, equipment, staff budget, and QA
system requirements. The measurement elements of the system are calibrated, monitoring is
conducted and the intakes and external exposures assessed. The results of the assessment
process are then used as feedback to modify the elements of the monitoring programme, if
necessary.

Reference Levels

It has been noted that establishing reference levels is a key element in monitoring programme
design. What are reference levels? They are predetermined values for any of the quantities,
which require certain courses of action should that value for the level for a quantity be
exceeded. Reference Levels are defined values on which decisions are based. These value are
established a-priori to trigger a certain response by the radiation protection organization and
management when exceeded. They will be addressed in increasing order of response.

There are a few things to keep in mind when discussing Reference Levels. First, Reference
Levels often refer to effective dose, but they may apply to other quantities. These are called
derived reference levels. Again, it is important to remember that they are preset levels for a
particular quantity for action to be taken when that level is exceeded. It is also important to
stress that a reference level is not a limit in itself. The reference level action may range from
just recording the value to intervention.

Three reference levels with relevance to occupational protection and monitoring have been
outlined in the BSS and associated occupational radiation protection guides – reporting level,
investigation level and action level. In addition, it may be appropriate to specify a Reporting
Level - the value of a dose quantity measured or assessed over a defined period of time above
which the employer is notified in a particular report. A value approximate to three-tenths of
that fraction of the annual limit corresponding to the period of time to which the
measurement of assessment refers might be appropriate

In terms of magnitude, the Recording Level is the lowest of the reference levels to be applied
to the relevant quantities. The Recording Level is the value for dose equivalent or intake
above which a result should be retained or entered into the records system. The recording
level should be based on 1/10 of the fraction of the annual limit, corresponding to the period
of time of which the individual monitoring measurement refers. For individual monitoring, it
is about 0.17 mSv for monthly issuing periods. A result smaller than the recording level may
be discarded and treated as zero in assessing the dose or intake.

In applying recording levels, discarding low doses may not help motivate the worker and the
management to improve radiation protection and strive for lower exposure of the individual.
So, it may be useful to record all doses above the limit of detection, however, unrealistic
attention should not be given to exposures which result in very small. Therefore, it is
suggested that the recording level is taken as the detection threshold of the dosimetry system.

The next Reference Level to consider is the Investigation Level. It is a value of dose
equivalent or intake, usually for a single measurement, above which the result justifies further
investigation. It is often appropriate to set the investigation level at 3/10 of the fraction of the
relevant annual limit corresponding to the individual monitoring period. In that regard, it may
also be used as a Reporting Level since that is an action that would likely be taken in
connection with a result that triggered an investigation.

Since the Investigation Level is usually based on a single result, the value of the Investigation
Level will probably vary depending on the monitoring frequency. For monthly dosimeter
exchange, IL= 20 mSv x 0.3 / 12 = 0.54 mSv. Below the investigation level, further review is
not needed. It may will be necessary to change investigation levels, for example as conditions
in a workplace change.

The Action Level is the level of dose rate or activity concentration above which remedial
actions or protective actions should be carried out in chronic exposure or emergency
exposure situations. Action levels often serve to protect members of the public, but they also
have relevance in the context of occupational exposure in chronic exposure situations,
particularly that involving exposure to radon in workplaces.

Individual Monitoring Service (IMS)

Generally the individual monitoring function will be carried out by an individual monitoring
service IMS, while the workplace monitoring will be conducted by the field staff of the
radiation protection organization. A decision that should be made early in formation of the
monitoring programme is whether the IMS will be an internal component of the operational
organization, a commercial service contracted by the licensee, a service provided by the
national authority, or perhaps a local IMS supported jointly by multiple licensees.

The decision on how the individual monitoring services will be provided will be based on
several factors including the scope of the radiation protection programme, number of workers
to be monitored, financial resources available, availability of outside services, etc. For
example, a dental office would almost certainly depend on commercial services to monitor
the staff, while a large research or industrial facility may find it preferable to develop their
own IMS.

The objectives of an IMS are to supply customers with techniques suitable for the
determination of doses in terms of the appropriate radiation quantities for the types of
radiation involved, with a high degree of reliability, with adequate accuracy; and at an
acceptable cost. Moreover, the service should provide results within a reasonable time scale.
The results should also be stored in a secure dose record keeping system.

There are several elements to conduct of an IMS. The Service must have a system to provide
uniquely identified dosimeters for use by the customers. In the case of an IMS provide
bioassay services, this means providing a unique system of identification of samples
submitted for analysis. The service must have to appropriate processing equipment to
evaluate the dosimeters, or perform bioassay measurements. Again if the service provides
internal dosimetry services, there needs to be facilities for assessment of intakes. The IMS
needs to develop an adequate administrative system which includes a database containing
details of the customers.

The IMS may have an organizational structure with several components. However, not all
IMSs are the same, and the structure depends on the scope of operations. O course, the
structure is likely to change from time to time. There are certain elements that should be
considered. First, the element responsible for provision of routine dosimetry services is
basic to any IMS. No organization can operate without an administrative component to
handle finances and paperwork. An integral part of an IMS is the calibration component.
This is essential to assure proper conduct of the dosimetry function. Another feature inherent
to any IMS is the record keeping function. The Quality Management System is an
indispensable component of any technical organization, particularly one whose operation
relates to human health.

There are elements that an IMS may find more discretionary, but add to the performance of
the Service. In fact, most major commercial services incorporate these components as do
many national dosimetry services. First, it is desirable to have a capability for investigation,
development and research. This contributes to upgrading quality of service as well as its
capabilities. If a service interacts with customers by mail, it will be necessary to have mail
center, and nearly any organization will need a workshop that can address equipment repair,
etc. All services interact with their client, including workers in the local organization. In
small services, this interaction is generally in formal and ad hoc, but larger services find it
necessary to establish a separate customer relations function.

IMS management, organisation and administration is directly related to and dependent on

national legislation, and are obviously dependent on local circumstances. The management
also depends on the number of dosimeters issued or measurements to be carried out and the
number of customers served (scope of service).

Customer Related Issues

Customer related issues need to be addressed. Several operational issues need to be resolved
and agreed with the “customer”. Customers are organizational elements that require
dosimetry services. They could include Individuals within the dosimetry service; Other
sections within the dosimetry service organization; Other organizations under the same
employer; or Outside companies or employers