Heat Transfer Lectures

Chemical Engineering Department

University of Technology, Iraq

Boiling Heat Transfer

When a surface is exposed to a liquid and is maintained at a temperature above the
saturation temperature of the liquid, boiling may occur, and the heat flux will depend on the
difference in temperature between the surface and the saturation temperature. When the heated
surface is submerged below a free surface of the liquid, the process is referred to as pool boiling.
If the temperature of the liquid is below the saturation temperature, the process is called subcooled,
or local, boiling. If the liquid is maintained at saturation temperature, the process is known as
saturated, or bulk, boiling.
The different regimes of boiling are indicated in Figure 1, where heat-flux data from an
electrically heated platinum wire submerged in water are plotted against temperature excess
Tw −Tsat.

Figure 1: Heat-flux data from an electrically heated platinum wire, from Farber and Scorah, 1948.

In region I, free-convection currents are responsible for the motion of the fluid near the
surface. In this region, the liquid near the heated surface is superheated slightly, and it subsequently
evaporates when it rises to the surface. The heat transfer in this region can be calculated with the
free-convection relations. In region II, bubbles begin to form on the surface of the wire and are
dissipated in the liquid after breaking away from the surface. This region indicates the beginning
of nucleate boiling. As the temperature excess is increased further, bubbles form more rapidly and
rise to the surface of the liquid, where they are dissipated. This is indicated in region III.
Eventually, bubbles are formed so rapidly that they blanket the heating surface and prevent the
inflow of fresh liquid from taking their place. At this point, the bubbles coalesce and form a vapor
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 Heat Transfer Lectures
Chemical Engineering Department
University of Technology, Iraq

film that covers the surface. The heat must be conducted through this film before it can reach the
liquid and effect the boiling process. The thermal resistance of this film causes a reduction in heat
flux, and this phenomenon is illustrated in region IV, the film-boiling region. This region
represents a transition from nucleate boiling to film boiling and is unstable. Stable film boiling is
eventually encountered in region V. The surface temperatures required to maintain stable film
boiling are high, and once this condition is attained, a significant portion of the heat lost by the
surface may be the result of thermal radiation, as indicated in region VI.
An electrically heated wire is unstable at point (a) since a small increase in ∆Tx at this point
results in a decrease in the boiling heat flux. But the wire still must dissipate the same heat flux,
or its temperature will rise, resulting in operation farther down to the boiling curve. Eventually,
equilibrium may be reestablished only at point (b) in the film-boiling region. This temperature
usually exceeds the melting temperature of the wire, so that burnout results. If the electric-energy
input is quickly reduced when the system attains point a, it may be possible to observe the partial
nucleate boiling and unstable film region.
A number of photographic studies of boiling phenomena have been presented by
Westwater et al.,1955 that illustrate the various boiling regimes. Figure 2 is a photograph
illustrating several boiling regimes operating at once. The horizontal 6.1-mm-diameter copper rod
is heated from the right side and immersed in isopropanol. As a result of the temperature gradient
along the rod, it was possible to observe the different regimes simultaneously. At the left end of
the rod, the surface temperature is only slightly greater than the bulk fluid temperature, so that
free-convection boiling is observed. Farther to the right, higher surface temperatures are
experienced, and nucleate boiling is observed. Still farther to the right, transition boiling takes
place; finally, film boiling is observed at the wall. Note the blanketing action of the vapor film on
the righthand portion of the rod.

Figure 2: A copper rod (6.1 mm in diameter) heated on the right side and immersed in isopropanol. Boiling
regimes progress from free convection boiling at the cooler end of the rod (left) to nucleate, transition, and
finally film boiling at the right end

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 Heat Transfer Lectures
Chemical Engineering Department
University of Technology, Iraq

More detailed photographs of the different boiling regimes using methanol are given in
Figure 3. The vigorous action of nucleate boiling is illustrated in Figure 3a. At higher surface
temperatures the bubbles start to coalesce, and transition boiling is observed, as in Figure 3b.
Finally, at still higher temperatures the heat-transfer surface is completely covered by a vapor film,
and large vapor bubbles break away from the surface (Figure 3c).

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 3: Methanol boiling on a horizontal 9.53-mm-diameter copper tube heated internally by condensing
steam. (a) ∆Tx =37◦C, q/A=242.5 kW/m2, nucleate boiling; (b) ∆Tx =62◦C, q/A=217.6 kW/m2, transition
boiling; (c) ∆Tx =82◦C, q/A=40.9 kW/m2, film boiling.

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 Heat Transfer Lectures
Chemical Engineering Department
University of Technology, Iraq

A more vigorous film-boiling phenomenon is illustrated in Figure 4 for methanol on a vertical

tube. The vapor film rises up to the surface and develops into very active turbulent behavior at
the top.

Figure 4: steam-heated vertical 19.05-mm-diameter copper tube displaying turbulent film boiling in
methanol. ∆Tx =138 °C, q/A=38.8 kW/m2.

Reboilers and Vaporisers

Reboilers are used with distillation columns to vaporize a fraction of the bottom product; whereas
in a vaporizer essentially all the feed is vaporized.
Three principal types of reboiler are used:

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 Heat Transfer Lectures
Chemical Engineering Department
University of Technology, Iraq

1. Forced circulation, Figure 5: in which the fluid is pumped through the exchanger, and the
vapor formed is separated in the base of the column. When used as a vaporizer a
disengagement vessel will have to be provided.

Figure 5: Forced-circulation reboiler

2. Thermosyphon, natural circulation, Figure 6: vertical exchangers with vaporization in the tubes,
or horizontal exchangers with vaporization in the shell. The liquid circulation through the
exchanger is maintained by the difference in density between the two-phase mixture of vapor and
liquid in the exchanger and the single-phase liquid in the base of the column. As with the forced-
circulation type, a disengagement vessel will be needed if this type is used as a vaporizer.

Figure 6: Horizontal thermosyphon reboiler

2. Kettle type, Figure 7: in which boiling takes place on tubes immersed in a pool of liquid;
there is no circulation of liquid through the exchanger. This type is also, more correctly,
called a submerged bundle reboiler. In some applications, it is possible to accommodate
the bundle in the base of the column, saving the cost of the exchanger shell.

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 Heat Transfer Lectures
Chemical Engineering Department
University of Technology, Iraq

Figure 7: Kettle reboiler

The choice of the best type of reboiler or vaporizer for a given duty will depend on the
following factors:
1. The nature of the process fluid, particularly its viscosity and propensity to fouling.
2. The operating pressure: vacuum or pressure.
3. The equipment layout, particularly the headroom available.
Forced-circulation reboilers are especially suitable for handling viscous and heavily
fouling process fluids. They are also suitable for low vacuum operations, and for low rates of
vaporization. The major disadvantage of this type is that a pump is required and the pumping cost
will be high. There is also the danger that leakage of hot fluid will occur at the pump seal.
Thermosyphon reboilers are the most economical type for most applications but are not
suitable for high viscosity fluids or high vacuum operation. They would not normally be specified
for pressures below 0.3 bar. A disadvantage of this type is that the column base must be elevated
to provide the hydrostatic head required for the thermosyphon effect. This will increase the cost of
the column supporting structure.
Kettle reboilers have lower heat-transfer coefficients than the other types, as there is no
liquid circulation. They are not suitable for fouling materials and have a high residence time. They
will generally be more expensive than an equivalent thermosyphon type as a larger shell is needed,
but if the duty is such that the bundle can be installed in the column base, the cost will be
competitive with the other types. They are often used as vaporizers, as a separate vapor-liquid
disengagement vessel is not needed. They are suitable for vacuum operation, and for high rates of
vaporization, up to 80 percent of the feed.

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 Heat Transfer Lectures
Chemical Engineering Department
University of Technology, Iraq

Estimation of Boiling Heat-Transfer Coefficients

In the design of vaporizers and reboilers, the designer will be concerned with two types of
boiling: pool boiling and convective boiling.
Pool boiling is the name given to nucleate boiling in a pool of liquid; such as in a kettle-
type reboiler or a jacketed vessel.
Convective boiling occurs where the vaporizing fluid is flowing over the heated surface,
and heat transfer takes place both by forced convection and nucleate boiling; as in forced
circulation or thermosyphon reboilers.
Boiling is a complex phenomenon, and boiling heat-transfer coefficients are difficult to
predict with any certainty. Whenever possible experimental values obtained for the system being
considered should be used, or values for a closely related system.
Pool Boiling
In the nucleate boiling region the heat-transfer coefficient is dependent on the nature and
condition of the heat-transfer surface, and it is not possible to present a universal correlation that
will give accurate predictions for all systems. Palen and Taborek (1962) have reviewed the
published correlations and compared their suitability for use in reboiler design. The correlation
given by Forster and Zuber (1955) can be used to estimate pool boiling coefficients, in the absence
of experimental data. Their equation can be written in the form:
𝑘𝐿0.79 𝐶𝑃𝐿
0.45 0.49
𝜌𝐿
ℎ𝑛𝑏 = 0.00122 [ 0.5 0.29 0.24 0.24 ] (𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇𝑠 )0.24 (𝑃𝑤 − 𝑃𝑠 )0.75
𝜎 𝜇𝐿 𝜆 𝜌𝑣
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, ℎ𝑛𝑏 : nucleate, pool, boiling coefficient, W/m2 .°C
𝑘𝐿 : liquid thermal conductivity, W/m. °C
𝐶𝑃𝐿 : liquid heat capacity, J/kg. °C,
𝜌𝐿 : liquid density, kg/m3,
𝜇𝐿 : liquid viscosity, Ns/m2,
𝜆: latent heat, J/kg,
𝜌𝑉 : vapour density, kg/m3,
𝑇𝑤 : wall, surface temperature, °C
𝑇𝑠 : saturation temperature of boiling liquid, °C
𝑃𝑤 : saturation pressure corresponding to the wall temperature, Tw, N/m2,
𝑃𝑠 : saturation pressure corresponding to Ts, N/m2,
𝜎: surface tension, N/m.

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 Heat Transfer Lectures
Chemical Engineering Department
University of Technology, Iraq

The reduced pressure correlation given by Mostinski (1963) is simple to use and gives
values that are as reliable as those given by more complex equations.

𝑃 0.17 𝑃 1.2 𝑃 10
ℎ𝑛𝑏 = 0.104 (𝑃𝑐 )0.69 (𝑞 ′′ )0.7 [1.8 ( ) + 4 ( ) + 10 ( ) ]
𝑃𝑐 𝑃𝑐 𝑃𝑐

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑃: operating pressure, bar,

𝑃𝑐 : liquid critical pressure, bar,
𝑞 ′′ : heat flux, W/m2.
𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑒: 𝑞 ′′ = ℎ𝑛𝑏 (𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇𝑠 )
Mostinski’s equation is convenient to use when data on the fluid physical properties are
not available. The above equations are for boiling single component fluids; for mixtures, the
coefficient will generally be lower than that predicted by these equations. The equations can be
used for close boiling range mixtures, say less than 5 °C, and for wider boiling range with a suitable
factor of safety.
Critical Heat Flux
It is important to check that the design, and operating, heat flux is well below the critical
flux. Several correlations are available for predicting the critical flux. That given by Zuber et al.
(1961) has been found to give satisfactory predictions for use in reboiler and vaporizer design. In
SI units, Zuber’s equation can be written as:

𝑞𝑐 = 0.131 𝜆 [𝜎𝑔(𝜌𝐿 − 𝜌𝑣 )𝜌𝑣2 ]1/4

Where
𝑞𝑐 : maximum, critical, heat flux, W/m2,
𝑔: gravitational acceleration, 9.81 m/s2.
Mostinski also gives a reduced pressure equation for predicting the maximum critical heat flux:

𝑃 0.35 𝑃 0.9
𝑞𝑐 = 3.67 × 104 𝑃𝑐 ( ) [1 − ( )]
𝑃𝑐 𝑃𝑐
Film Boiling
The equation given by Bromley (1950) can be used to estimate the heat transfer coefficient
for film boiling on tubes. Heat transfer in the film-boiling region will be controlled by conduction
through the film of vapor, and Bromley’s equation is similar to the Nusselt equation for
condensation, where conduction is occurring through the film of condensate.
1/4
𝑘𝑣3 (𝜌𝐿 − 𝜌𝑣 )𝜌𝑣 𝑔𝜆
ℎ𝑓𝑏 = 0.62 [ ]
𝜇𝑣 𝑑𝑜 (𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇𝑠 )

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 Heat Transfer Lectures
Chemical Engineering Department
University of Technology, Iraq

where ℎ𝑓𝑏 is the film boiling heat-transfer coefficient; the suffix v refers to the vapor phase and do
is in meters. It must be emphasized that process reboilers and vaporizers will always be designed
to operate in the nucleate boiling region. The heating medium would be selected, and its
temperature controlled, to ensure that in operation the temperature difference is well below that at
which the critical flux is reached. For instance, if direct heating with steam would give too high a
temperature difference, the steam would be used to heat water, and hot water used as the heating
medium.
Example 1: Estimate the heat-transfer coefficient for the pool boiling of water at 2.1 bar, from a
surface at 125 °C. Check that the critical flux is not exceeded.
Solution:
Physical properties, from steam tables:

𝑆𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒, 𝑇𝑠 = 121.8 °𝐶

𝜌𝐿 = 941.6 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3 , 𝜌𝑣 = 1.18 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3 , 𝐶𝑃𝐿 = 4.25 × 103 𝐽⁄𝑘𝑔. °𝐶, 𝑘𝐿 = 687 × 10−3 𝑊 ⁄𝑚. °𝐶
𝜇𝐿 = 230 × 10−6 𝑁𝑠⁄𝑚2 , 𝜆 = 2198 × 103 𝐽⁄𝑘𝑔, 𝜎 = 55 × 10−3 𝑁⁄𝑚
𝑃𝑤 𝑎𝑡 125 °𝐶 = 2.321 × 105 𝑁⁄𝑚2 , 𝑃𝑠 = 2.1 × 105 𝑁⁄𝑚2
We can calculate the heat transfer coefficient by using the Foster-Zuber correlation
𝑘𝐿0.79 𝐶𝑃𝐿
0.45 0.49
𝜌𝐿
ℎ𝑛𝑏 = 0.00122 [ 0.5 0.29 0.24 0.24 ] (𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇𝑠 )0.24 (𝑃𝑤 − 𝑃𝑠 )0.75
𝜎 𝜇𝐿 𝜆 𝜌𝑣
0.79 0.45
(687 × 10−3 ) (4.25 × 103 ) (941.6)0.49
ℎ𝑛𝑏 = 0.00122 [ 0.5 0.29 0.24 ]
(55 × 10−3 ) (230 × 10−6 ) (2198 × 103 ) (1.18)0.24
0.75
× (125 − 121.8)0.24 (2.321 × 105 − 2.1 × 105 )

ℎ𝑛𝑏 = 3738 𝑊 ⁄𝑚2 . °𝐶

The critical heat flux can be calculated by using the Zuber correlation as follows:

𝑞𝑐 = 0.131 𝜆 [𝜎𝑔(𝜌𝐿 − 𝜌𝑣 )𝜌𝑣2 ]1/4

1/4
𝑞𝑐 = 0.131(2198 × 103 ) [(55 × 10−3 )(9.81)(941.6 − 1.18)(1.18)2 ]

𝑞𝑐 = 1.48 × 106 𝑊 ⁄𝑚2

𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥, 𝑞 ′′ = ℎ𝑛𝑏 (𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇𝑠 )
𝑞 ′′ = 3738(125 − 121.8) = 11962 𝑊 ⁄𝑚2
According to the obtained values of heat flux, the obtained heat flux below the critical flux.

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 Heat Transfer Lectures
Chemical Engineering Department
University of Technology, Iraq

Example 2: The bottom of a copper pan, 0.3 m in diameter, is maintained at 125°C by an electric
heater. Estimate the power required to boil water in this pan. What is the evaporation rate? Estimate
the critical heat flux.
Solution:
Assumptions:
1. Steady-state conditions.
Ts=125 °C
2. Water exposed to standard atmospheric pressure, 1.01 bar.
3. Water at uniform temperature Tsat = 100°C.
4. Large pan bottom surface of polished copper.
5. Negligible losses from the heater to the surroundings.
Physical properties, from steam tables:
𝑆𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒, 𝑇𝑠 = 100 °𝐶
𝜌𝐿 = 957.9 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3 , 𝜌𝑣 = 0.5956 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3 , 𝐶𝑃𝐿 = 4.22 × 103 𝐽⁄𝑘𝑔. °𝐶, 𝑘𝐿 = 687 × 10−3 𝑊 ⁄𝑚. °𝐶
𝜇𝐿 = 279 × 10−6 𝑁𝑠⁄𝑚2 , 𝜆 = 2257 × 103 𝐽⁄𝑘𝑔, 𝜎 = 58.9 × 10−3 𝑁⁄𝑚
𝑃𝑤 𝑎𝑡 125 °𝐶 = 2.321 × 105 𝑁⁄𝑚2 , 𝑃𝑠 = 1.01325 × 105 𝑁⁄𝑚2
We can calculate the heat transfer coefficient by using the Foster-Zuber correlation
𝑘𝐿0.79 𝐶𝑃𝐿
0.45 0.49
𝜌𝐿
ℎ𝑛𝑏 = 0.00122 [ 0.5 0.29 0.24 0.24 ] (𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇𝑠 )0.24 (𝑃𝑤 − 𝑃𝑠 )0.75
𝜎 𝜇𝐿 𝜆 𝜌𝑣
0.79 0.45
(687 × 10−3 ) (4.22 × 103 ) (957.9)0.49
ℎ𝑛𝑏 = 0.00122 [ 0.5 0.29 0.24 ]
(58.9 × 10−3 ) (279 × 10−6 ) (2257 × 103 ) (0.5956)0.24
0.75
× (125 − 100)0.24 (2.321 × 105 − 1.01325 × 105 )
ℎ𝑛𝑏 = 2323 𝑊 ⁄𝑚2 . °𝐶
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥, 𝑞 ′′ = ℎ𝑛𝑏 (𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇𝑠 )
𝑞 ′′ = 2323 (125 − 100) = 58069 𝑊 ⁄𝑚2
Now, we can estimate the power required to boil water in this pan
𝜋 𝜋
𝑞 = 𝑞 ′′ × 𝐴 = 𝑞 ′′ × ( 𝑑 2 ) = 58069 × ( 0.32 ) = 4103 𝑊
4 4
The critical heat flux can be calculated by using the Zuber correlation as follows:
𝑞𝑐 = 0.131 𝜆 [𝜎𝑔(𝜌𝐿 − 𝜌𝑣 )𝜌𝑣2 ]1/4
1/4
𝑞𝑐 = 0.131(2257 × 103 ) [(58.9 × 10−3 )(9.81)(957.9 − 0.5956)(0.5956)2 ]
𝑞𝑐 = 1106595 𝑊 ⁄𝑚2
According to the obtained values of heat flux, the obtained heat flux below the critical flux.

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