energies

Article
Comparative Study of the Effective Release Energy,
Residual Gas Fraction, and Emission Characteristics
with Various Valve Port Diameter-Bore Ratios
(VPD/B) of a Four-Stroke Spark Ignition Engine
Nguyen Xuan Khoa 1,2 and Ocktaeck Lim 3, *
1 Graduate School of Mechanical Engineering, University of Ulsan, Ulsan 44610, Korea;
nguyenxuankhoabk@gmail.com
2 Faculty of Automobile Technology, HaNoi University of Industry, Ha Noi 100000, Viet Nam
3 School of Mechanical Engineering, University of Ulsan, Ulsan 44610, Korea
* Correspondence: otlim@ulsan.ac.kr; Tel.: +82-10-7151-8218




Received: 4 February 2020; Accepted: 11 March 2020; Published: 12 March 2020


Abstract: In this research, the residual gas, peak firing pressure increase, and effective release energy
were completely investigated. To obtain this target, the experimental system is installed with a
dynamo system and a simulation model was setup. Through combined experimental and simulation
methods, the drawbacks of the hardware optimization method were eliminated. The results of the
research show that the valve port diameter-bore ratio (VPD/B) has a significant effect on the residual
gas, peak firing pressure increase, and effective release energy of a four-stroke spark ignition engine.
In this research, the engine was performed at 3000 rpm and full load condition. Following increased
IPD/B ratio of 0.3–0.5. The intake port and exhaust port diameter has a contrary effect on engine
volumetric efficiency, the residual gas ratio increase 27.3% with larger intake port and decrease 18.6%
with larger exhaust port. The engine will perform optimal thermal efficiency when the trapped
residual gas fraction ratio is from 13% to 14%. The maximum effective release energy was 0.45 kJ at
0.4 intake port-bore ratio, and 0.451 kJ at 0.35 exhaust port-bore ratio. The NOx emission increases
until achieved a maximum value after that decrease even VPD/B was still increasing. With a VPD/B
ratio of 0.35 to 0.4, the engine works without the misfiring.

Keywords: VPD/B; residual gas; effective energy; peak temperature; pressure increase

1. Introduction
There are a large number of motorcycles in operation today, with that number constantly increasing,
the goal of improving motorcycle engine power, while satisfying Euro-5 emission standards, is worth
investigating. Two essential factors in the study of engines are engine efficiency and the reduction of
pollutant emissions. The residual gas fraction is known as effective factors, which influence energy
efficiency and pollution engine exhaust gas. The trapped residual gases in the combustion chamber
will premix with the fresh air-fuel and take part in the next combustion stroke. This trapped exhaust
residual gases also effect on the NOx emission of the engine. The peak pressure increase shows the
increasing pressure value per crankshaft angle, this peak pressure increase is expected higher value
to reduce heat loss and improve engine efficiency. An effective method for determining the residual
gases, effective energy, and peak pressure is necessary.
As stated earlier, the estimation of the effect of hardware factors and software factors on engine
power and reduce pollution emission were presented such as: changing cam profiles [1], re-designing

Energies 2020, 13, 1330; doi:10.3390/en13061330 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2020, 13, 1330 2 of 18

the intake pipe [2], recovering heat lost from the cooling system [3], using optimal ignition timing at
each engine speed [4], and effect of intake port diameter [5,6].
Can et al. [1] have studied the effects of valve lift on the engine performance and emissions
of a homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCCI) engine. The conditions of the experiment
were 800 rpm to 1900 rpm engine speed, 0.5 to 2 air-fuel ratio, and 20 ◦ C to 120 ◦ C air temperature.
In this research, the intake valve lift and exhaust valve lift were reduced from 9.5 mm to 2 mm.
The results of the experiments show that the intake and exhaust valve lifts have a substantial effect on
the performance and emission of an HCCI gasoline engine. The mixture of air and fuel into the cylinder
increases when the intake valve lift increases. The maximum indicated mean effective pressure (IMEP)
of the engine was 11.007 bars, the intake valve lift was 5.5 mm, and the exhaust valve lift was 3.5 mm.
When using low cam lifts, the engine operation ranges are extended to include misfiring and knocking
conditions. Zhang et al. [7] presented a study on the effects of changing valve timing and cam lift in
controlled auto-ignition combustion. In their study, a single cylinder engine was used. The valve lift
was changed from 0.3 mm to 9.5 mm. The results showed that: the low cam lifts effected the heat
release rate and pressure in the cylinder. Ghazal et al. [8] presented the effect of various inlet valve
diameters at different inlet valve opening, inlet valve closing and valve overlap on a spark-ignition
engine performance. In their research, a spark-ignition engine was conducted with engine speed band
from 500 to 3500 rpm. The original inlet port diameter is 31 mm and exhaust port diameter is 26 mm.
The inlet diameters were 29, 30, 31, 32, and 33 mm was presented. The results showed that the decrease
of the inlet valve close angle of all inlet port diameters is due to decrease engine power and increase
NO and CO emissions. A reduction of valve overlap till 50 deg crank angle could improve engine
power. Raghu et al. [9] presented the effect of intake port parameters on the air motion characteristics
of a diesel engine. The intake port parameters were analyzed such as: intake valve diameter, valve seat
angle and width, intake port eccentricity, and orientation angle. In their research, the results showed
that the geometries of the combustion chamber and intake port had a significant effect on the flow
into the cylinder. They also found that, when the intake valve diameter increased from 43 to 55 mm,
the swirl ratio decreased 27.61% with directed port and decreased 17.65% with helical port. Yasar
et al. [10] also experimented with an internal combustion engine to study the effect of various intake
port shapes on the intake air flow motion in the cylinder. In order to analyze the air flow behavior and
to measure air flow velocity distribution, a particle image velocimetry technique (PIV) was employed
in their research. Their results showed that the intake port geometry had a sensitive effect on the air
flow structure into the cylinder. The valve lift was 7 mm and intake valve seat angle was 30 degrees,
the inlet flow into the cylinder was a jet flow. Most of the air flow direction followed the axial direction;
a reversed flow appeared due to the presence of the side wall of the cylinder. Qi et al. [11] used CFD
simulation model to study the effects of intake port geometry on the intake air flow characteristics in
the cylinder of an SI-engine. They found that a small change of intake port has a significant effect on
in-cylinder flow. A suitable inlet port design helps to increase tumble and reduce recirculation of the
intake air flow. A strong tumble leads to increase the homogeneity of air-fuel and improve the stability
of combustion. Their final design improved by 20% of the fuel vaporization. Latheesh et al. [12] also
studied with a compression ignition engine to analyze the designed intake port and exhaust port by
using the CFD simulation model. In that research, the exhaust port was increased form two valves to
four valves. They found that by using the simulation software helps to save the number of times in
experiments and the swirl motion generated inside the cylinder was sensibly affected by the position
of tangential and helical intake port.
All previous studies lacked detail on the investigation the effect of exhaust port diameter-bore
ratio on effective release energy, residual gas fraction and engine emission characteristics. These studies
focus to present the inlet port configuration effect on intake air flow characteristics such as: swirl ratio,
air flow motion, flow velocity distribution, or air flow tumble. There are no articles present in detail
the residual gas, effective release energy with various intake and exhaust port. A comparison between
Energies 2020, 13, 1330 3 of 18

Energies 2020, 01, x; doi: FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 19

the two cases is necessary. This is an existing gap in the open literature will be filled up through the
workResidual
presentedgas fraction
in this paper.and combustion duration has a large effect on NOx, HC, and CO
emissions; on the
Residual gas other hand,
fraction and the peak firing
combustion pressure
duration hasincrease and effective
a large effect release
on NOx , HC, andenergy are the
CO emissions;
roots of engine efficiency. Therefore, this paper also presents an accurate method to investigate
on the other hand, the peak firing pressure increase and effective release energy are the roots of enginethe
residual gas,Therefore,
efficiency. peak firing pressure
this increase,
paper also combustion
presents duration,
an accurate method andto effective release
investigate energy of
the residual a
gas,
spark-ignition engine at various VPD/B.
peak firing pressure increase, combustion duration, and effective release energy of a spark-ignition
engine at various VPD/B.
2. Experimental Setup, Material, and Methods
2. Experimental Setup, Material, and Methods
2.1. Experiment Setup
2.1. Experiment Setup
A four-stroke, spark-ignition engine with 137 cm3 in displacement volume of each cylinder was
used.AThere
four-stroke,
are twospark-ignition
intake valvesengine
and exhaust cm3 inin
with 137valves displacement
each cylinder. volume
The of each cylinder
exhaust valves andwas
used. There
intake valve areweretwocontrolled
intake valves
by twoand exhaust
differentvalves in each
camshafts. cylinder.
Figure 1 andTheFigure
exhaust2 valves
show andthe
intake valve were controlled by two different camshafts. Figures 1 and 2 show
experimental setup schematics [13] and experimental engine setup system [14]. The experiment was the experimental setup
schematicswith
conducted [13] engine
and experimental
speed bandengine setup system
of 2000–8000 rpm, 11.8:1[14].isThe
the experiment
compressionwas conducted
ratio with
of the engine,
engine
and thespeed band
air/fuel of 2000–8000
ratio was kept at rpm, 11.8:1
13.6 and is29.5–30
the compression
°C of the ratio of the engine,
temperature and the
of intake air/fuel
air during
ratio was keptBefore
at 13.6 and 29.5–30 ◦ C of the temperature of intake air during experiments. Before doing
experiments. doing the experiments, all the tested devices were calibrated. The system
the experiments,
resistant moment all wasthecontrolled
tested devices were calibrated.
by a dynamometer The system
controller. resistant
During moment
the engine was controlled
performance the
by a dynamometer controller. During the engine performance the oil temperature
oil temperature was maintained at 80 °C and the engine was cooled by using air, and the oil was maintained at
◦
80 C and thewas engine was cooledand by using air, and
temperature determined controlled bythe oil temperature
thermal couple and wastemperature
determined and controlled
sensors. The
by thermal
injector couple and
controller wastemperature sensors.the
used to maintain Theair–fuel
injector ratio
controller wasThe
at 13.6. usedsteady
to maintain
state the
of air-fuel
engine
ratio at 13.6.
performed wasThe steadyinstate
present of engine performed
the experiments. At each was enginepresent
speedinthe
thethrottle
experiments. At each
angle was kept engine
at 100%
speed
of the throttle
opening. angle wasand
The pressure kepttemperature
at 100% of opening. The pressurechamber
in the combustion and temperature in the combustion
are determined by using
chamber sensor
pressure are determined
is locatedbyon using pressurehead.
the engine sensorIn isthis
located on the engine
experimental head.
system, theInVPD/B
this experimental
ratio (both
system,
intake theexhaust
and VPD/B valve)
ratio (both intake
of the andengine
original exhaust is valve)
0.4. of the original engine is 0.4.

Figure 1. Schematic of the V-twin engine experimental setup.

Figure 1. Schematic of the V-twin engine experimental setup.
Energies 2020, 13, 1330 4 of 18
Energies 2020, 01, x; doi: FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 19

Figure
Figure 2. Experimental engine
2. Experimental engine setup
setup system.
system.

The devices were used in the experiment system: a dynamo testing system controller (1), AVL’s
The devices were used in the experiment system: a dynamo testing system controller (1), AVL’s
hydraulic/water brake dynamometer with a serial number ZAG56907 (Horiba Korea Ltd, Ulsan, Korea)
hydraulic/water brake dynamometer with a serial number ZAG56907 (Horiba Korea Ltd, Ulsan,
(2), the connecting shaft (3) to connect the engine to the dynamometer. The experimental engine (4),
Korea) (2), the connecting shaft (3) to connect the engine to the dynamometer. The experimental
the encoder Autonics E40S8-1800-3-T-24(Horiba Korea Ltd, Ulsan, Korea) (6) is located on the flywheel
engine (4), the encoder Autonics E40S8-1800-3-T-24(Horiba Korea Ltd, Ulsan, Korea) (6) is located on
(5). To prevent engine working in knocking condition a knocking sensor 30530-P2M-A01(Horiba Korea
the flywheel (5). To prevent engine working in knocking condition a knocking sensor
Ltd, Ulsan, Korea) (7) was employed. The fuel tank (8), fuel pump (9), fuel filter (10) and injector
30530-P2M-A01(Horiba Korea Ltd, Ulsan, Korea) (7) was employed. The fuel tank (8), fuel pump (9),
denso (16450-C12-235) (Horiba Korea Ltd, Ulsan, Korea) (11) were the fuel system’s parts. The sensors
fuel filter (10) and injector denso (16450-C12-235) (Horiba Korea Ltd, Ulsan, Korea) (11) were the fuel
(12) and (13) were used to determine the exhaust gas temperature and oxygen in the exhaust gas.
system’s parts. The sensors (12) and (13) were used to determine the exhaust gas temperature and
The cylinder pressure sensor Kistler 6056A (14) was located on the engine’s head. The air cleaner box
oxygen in the exhaust gas. The cylinder pressure sensor Kistler 6056A (14) was located on the
(15) and throttle (16), an air-heater (17) was used to remain temperature of air flow from 29.5–30 ◦ C.
engine’s head. The air cleaner box (15) and throttle (16), an air-heater (17) was used to remain
The air flowing meter (18) and ECU (20) are used to determine air flow and control injection timing
temperature of air flow from 29.5–30 °C. The air flowing meter (18) and ECU (20) are used to
and ignition timing. The monitor (19), encoder’s signal convertor (21), and a computer (22) were used
determine air flow and control injection timing and ignition timing. The monitor (19), encoder’s
to observe and analyze input data. The exhaust emissions (NOx, HC, and CO), were measured using
signal convertor (21), and a computer (22) were used to observe and analyze input data. The exhaust
an emission analyzer (HoribaMEXA-7100DEGR) (Horiba Korea Ltd, Ulsan, Korea).
emissions (NOx, HC, and CO), were measured using an emission analyzer
(HoribaMEXA-7100DEGR)
2.2. Applied Engine (Horiba Korea Ltd, Ulsan, Korea).

The experiments
2.2. Applied Engine are carried out on a spark-ignition engine. Table 1 shows the specifications of
experimental engine.
The experiments are carried out on a spark-ignition engine. Table 1 shows the specifications of
experimental engine. Table 1. Specifications of the researching engine

Parameter TableUnit
1. Specifications of the researchingValue
engine
Model - Four stroke, Spark ignition
Parameter
Number of cylinder
Unit - Value 2
Compression
Model ratio - - 11.8:1 ignition
Four stroke, Spark
Bore mm 57
Number of cylinder - 2
Stroke mm 53.8
Compression ratio
Connecting rod - mm 11.8:1
107.9
Number: 2 valvesDiameter: 22 mm, valve lift: 6.5 mm;
Bore
Intake valve mm - 57
opening: 40 deg BTDC, closing: 200 deg ATDC.
Stroke mm 53.8 22 mm, valve lift: 6.5 mm;
Number: 2 valves Diameter:
Exhaust valve -
opening time: 230 deg ATDC, closing: 30 deg ATDC.
Connecting rod mm 107.9
Cooling system - Air cooled
Number : 2 valves
Intake valve - Diameter: 22 mm, valve lift: 6.5 mm; opening: 40 deg BTDC,
closing: 200 deg ATDC.
Exhaust valve - Number: 2 valves
Energies 2020, 01, x; doi: FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 19

Diameter: 22 mm, valve lift: 6.5 mm; opening time: 230 deg

Energies 2020, 13, 1330

ATDC, closing: 30 deg ATDC. 5 of 18
Cooling system - Air cooled

2.3. Simulation Model Setup

2.3. Simulation Model Setup
It was complicated to determine the effective energy, trapped residual gases, and pressure increase
It was complicated to determine the effective energy, trapped residual gases, and pressure
in the combustion chamber through experiments with the various testing conditions. Simulation
increase in the combustion chamber through experiments with the various testing conditions.
method is powerful and effective tools to eliminate this problem, and AVL-Boost software was
Simulation method is powerful and effective tools to eliminate this problem, and AVL-Boost
employed to estimate the influence of the intake and exhaust port diameter to bore ratio of residual
software was employed to estimate the influence of the intake and exhaust port diameter to bore
gases, peak pressure increase, and effective energy. This AVL-Boost software is well-known in the field
ratio of residual gases, peak pressure increase, and effective energy. This AVL-Boost software is
of internal combustion engines. It helps researchers simulate various combustion engine types, such as
well-known in the field of internal combustion engines. It helps researchers simulate various
SI engines [13,14], compression ignition (CI) engines [15,16], diesel engines with turbocharger [17,18],
combustion engine types, such as SI engines [13,14], compression ignition (CI) engines [15,16],
and engines using alternative fuel [19]. Figure 3 shows our simulated model of the spark-ignition
diesel engines with turbocharger [17,18], and engines using alternative fuel [19]. Figure 3 shows our
engine [14].
simulated model of the spark-ignition engine [14].

Figure 3. Simulation model.

Figure 3. Simulation model.
Figure 3 presents the simulation model. The simulation model’s elements represent the
experimental
Figure 3 engine
presentsparts. The engine model.
the simulation parts’ characteristics
The simulation were definedelements
model’s in simulation elements.
represent the
The steady state or transient state of the testing engine condition is selected
experimental engine parts. The engine parts’ characteristics were defined in simulation elements. in the element E1.
The monitor, MNT1, helps research observer interesting output data such as
The steady state or transient state of the testing engine condition is selected in the element E1. The engine brake torque,
residual gas,
monitor, MNT1,and effective energy. observer
helps research The system boundary output
interesting conditions dataof the
such exhaust and intake
as engine braketube were
torque,
defined in elements SB1 and SB2. The air cleaner CL1 helps to filter air into
residual gas, and effective energy. The system boundary conditions of the exhaust and intake tube the combustion chamber.
The TH1
were element
defined helps to SB1
in elements control
andthe throttle
SB2. The airangle. In the
cleaner CL1experiments,
helps to filter the throttle
air into angle was kept at
the combustion
100%, and
chamber. theTH1
The restriction
element in helps
the exhaust and the
to control intake tubesangle.
throttle was defined by R1, R2, and
In the experiments, theR3. The junction
throttle angle
(J1, J2, J3, J5, and J6) collects or distributes the air flow in the pipe. Measurements
was kept at 100%, and the restriction in the exhaust and intake tubes was defined by R1, R2, MP1 andand
MP2R3.on
the junction
The exhaust and intake
(J1, J2, pipes
J3, J5, and defines the or
J6) collects airflow characteristics.
distributes the air flow I1 and
in the I2 pipe.
is injector provides fuel
Measurements MP1to
cylinders C1 and C2.
and MP2 on the exhaust and intake pipes defines the airflow characteristics. I1 and I2 is injector
Combustion
provides model: C1 and C2.
fuel to cylinders
The vibe function
Combustion model:was used to determine heat release characteristics
The vibe function was used to determine
dx α heat release characteristics
= (m + 1) ym .e−α.y(m+1) (1)
dα ∆α
dQ
dx = Q h ;
h
α−α
y = ∆αc0
Energies 2020, 13, 1330 6 of 18

The faction burned in mass ε can be calculated

Z
dx
ε= dα = 1 − e−α.y(m+1) (2)
dα

The combustion chamber’s heat transfer

QT = A.qcoe f f .(Tc − Tw ) (3)

The air mass flow rates were calculated

r
dm 2
= Ae f f .P1 . .C (4)
dt R0 T1
s
2 K +1
K P K P K
C= [( 2 ) − ( 2 ) ]
K − 1 P1 P1
The residual gas fraction was calculated from the Equation (5)
RV
cp Vc
ρ.xcp .dV
xSOC = RV (5)
Vc
ρ.dV

where ρ is local cylinder density (kg/m3 ); V is local cylinder volume (m3 ); xcp is local cylinder
combustion product mass fraction at SOC.
The concentration of N2 O and the production rate of NO were determined by Equations (6) and (7)

9471.6
q
CN2 O = 1.1802.10−6 .T0.6125 .e T .CN2 . PO2 (6)

r1 r4
rNO = 2.Cp .CK .[1 − λ2 ]. . (7)
1 + λ.R1 1 + R2
The production rate of CO emission was calculated by Equation (8)

rCO = CConst .(r1 + r2 ).(1 − ϕ)

CNO,act (8)
ϕ= CNO,equ

The unburned HC mass was calculated by Equation (9)

PC .Vcrevice .M
mHC = (9)
R.Tpiston

Air mass flow has a large impact on the performance of internal combustion engines. If the air
mass flow into the cylinder in the limited band is increased while keeping the air-fuel ratio constant,
the injected fuel into the cylinder increases. As a result, the maximum pressure in the cylinder would
increase and the engine would perform at a higher torque. To improve the power of small SI-engines,
several methods have been presented, such as reducing the restriction of the intake tube and reducing
the bending tube in the intake tube system.
The air mass flow into the cylinder was calculated by Equation (10)
s
dm 2
= Ae f f .p01 . .ψ (10)
dt R g .T01
Energies 2020, 13, 1330 7 of 18

where dm
dt is mass flow rate; Ae f f is effective flow area; p01 is upstream stagnation pressure; T01 is
upstram stagnation temperature; R g is gas constant.
For subsonic flow s
K +1
 2

K  p02 K p02 K 
ψ= ( ) −( ) 
k − 1  p01 p01
For sonic flow
1 r
2 K−1 K
ψ=( ) .
K+1 k+1
where K is ratio of specific heats; p02 is downstream static pressure.

3. Results and Discussion

Energies 2020, 01, x; doi: FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 19
3.1. Model Validation
For validation of the model, experimental data were used. Comparisons between experimental
Energies 2020, 01, x; doi: FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 19
45
results and simulated results are shown in Figures 4–10. The black curves describe experimental results;
Experimment - ignition timing
the red curves describe simulated results. Simulation - Ignition timing

40
BTDC)(Deg - BTDC)

45
Experimment - ignition timing
35
Simulation - Ignition timing

40
(Deg -timing

30

35
Ignition timingIgnition

25

30

20
2000 4000 6000 8000
25
Engine Speed (rpm)

20
2000 4000 6000 8000
Figure 4. Ignition timing following engine speed.
Engine Speed (rpm)

Figure 4. Ignition timing following engine speed.

Figure 4. Ignition timing following engine speed.
24
Experiment-Airmass
Simulation-Airmass

20
24
Experiment-Airmass
Air-mass (g/s)

Simulation-Airmass

16
20
Air-mass (g/s)

12
16

2000 4000 6000 8000

12
Engine Speed (rpm)

Figure 5. Air mass flow following engine speed.

2000 4000 6000 8000
Figure 5. Air mass flow following engine speed.
Engine Speed (rpm)

Figure 5. Air mass flow following engine speed.

3000

2800
temperature (K)

3000

2600
2800
eak (K)

2400
ture

2600
 2000 4000 6000 8000
Engine Speed (rpm)

Figure 5. Air mass flow following engine speed.

Energies 2020, 13, 1330 8 of 18

3000

2800

Peak temperature (K)

2600

2400

Energies 2020, 01, x; doi: FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 19

2200 Experiment- Peak temperature
Simulation- Peak temperature

2000 4000 6000 8000

Energies 2020, 01, x; doi: FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 19
3.0 Engine Speed (rpm)
Experiment- Peak pressure rise
Figure 6. PeakSimulation-
temperature following
Peak presusre rise engine speed.
(Bar/deg)rise (Bar/deg)

Figure
2.5 6. Peak temperature following engine speed.
3.0

Experiment- Peak pressure rise

Simulation- Peak presusre rise
2.0
risepressure

2.5

1.5
Peak

2.0
Peak pressure

1.0
1.5 2000 4000 6000 8000
Engine Speed (rpm)

1.0
2000 4000 6000 8000
Figure 7. Peak pressure increase following engine speed.
Engine Speed (rpm)

Figure 7. Peak pressure increase following engine speed.

Figure 7. Peak pressure increase following engine speed.

21
(Nm)Torque (Nm)

18

21
Experiment-Torque
Simulation-Torque
15
Engine

18

12
Engine Torque

Experiment-Torque
Simulation-Torque
15

12 2000 4000 6000 8000

Engine Speed (rpm)
9
Figure 8. Brake torque following engine speed.
2000 4000 6000 8000
Figure 8. Brake torque following engine speed.
Engine Speed (rpm)

Figure 8. Brake torque following engine speed.

10.5

10.0

9.5
10.5
9.0
NOx (g/kWh)NOx (g/kWh)

10.0
8.5
9.5
8.0
9.0
7.5
Experiment- NOx
8.5
7.0 Simulation- NOx
8.0
6.5
7.5
6.0 Experiment- NOx
2000 4000 6000 8000
7.0 Simulation- NOx
 2000 4000 6000 8000
Engine Speed (rpm)

Figure 8. Brake torque following engine speed.

Energies 2020, 13, 1330 9 of 18

10.5

10.0

9.5

9.0

NOx (g/kWh)
8.5

8.0

7.5
Experiment- NOx
7.0 Simulation- NOx
6.5

6.0
2000 4000 6000 8000
Energies 2020, 01, x; doi: FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 19
Engine Speed (rpm)

Figure 9. NOx emission following engine speed.

Figure 9. NOx emission following engine speed.
4.0

3.5

3.0
HC (g/kWh)

2.5

Experiment- HC
2.0 Simulation- HC

1.5
2000 4000 6000 8000
Engine Speed (rpm)

Figure 10. HC emission following engine speed.

Figure 10. HC emission following engine speed.
The ignition timing for each engine speed in both cases is shown in Figure 4. Because the ignition
timing is an input Studies
3.2. Comparative data forthe
theEffect
simulation model,
of Various Valveit Port
can be seen that theRatios
Diameter-Bore experimental values
on Effective for ignition
Release Energy
timing were very close to
and Emission Characteristics the simulated values.
In the internal combustion engine with air-fuel ratio is constant, the air mass flow is a most
Thefactor
sensitive results wereaffects
which studiedtheoffuel
twomass.
VPD/B ratio 5cases.
Figure shows a comparison between experimental and
Case 1: intake port diameter changes while
simulated results in an air mass flow. The air-mass flow the exhaust port diameter
is changed while theisair-fuel
22 mm. ratio is constant.
Case 2: exhaust port diameter changes while the intake
The maximum difference between simulation and experimental result was 1.42% port diameter is 22 mm.
at 6000 rpm. It is
The various
acceptable becauseoftheintake and exhaust
experimental port
value of diameters
air mass flowwere is presented
the averageinvalue.
Table 2:
The peak firing temperature is known as an important factor which has a strong effect on NOx
Table 2. VPD/B ratio of two cases.
emission. Figure 6 shows a comparison between experimental and simulated results for peak firing
temperature. The values for the two cases
VPD/B ratioare not much different0.3 at each0.4
0.35 engine
0.45speed.
0.5The maximum
differential was 5.34%
Intakeat 4000
and rpm. port diameter (mm) 17.1 20
exhaust 22 25.7 28.5
Figure 7 shows the validation peak firing pressure increase. It can be seen that the values of
Figure.11 depicts the volumetric efficiency as a function of VPD/B ratio. A contrary effect on
peak firing pressure increase in the two cases are almost same at each engine speed. The maximum
engine volumetric efficiency of two cases (intake port-bore ratio (case 1) and exhaust port-bore ratio
difference was 4.5% at 5000 rpm. During the combustion stroke, a better homogeneous air-fuel mixture
(case 2)) can be observed. When the VPD/B increased from 0.3 to 0.5:
leads to a full transient from chemical energy to the thermal energy and increase peak pressure in a
In case 1: the volumetric efficiency decreased from 0.695 to 0.653. The minimum volumetric
shorter time to reduce heat loss and improve energy efficiency.
efficiency was 0.653 at a 0.5 VPD/B and the maximum value was 0.695 at a 0.3 VPD/B. This can be
Figure 8 shows a comparison between experimental and simulated results for engine torque.
explained by that at a constant engine speed, an increase of VPD/B led to decrease the swirl ratio
The maximum difference is 0.9% at 8000 rpm. The engine toxic exhaust gases not only pollute
and acceleration of air flow into the cylinder [7]. This was cause to reduce amounts of air fill into
environment, it is also harmful to human health. In this research, the emission characteristics will be
the cylinder as the subsequent effect of the intake stroke by decreasing fresh air fuel to sweep the
estimated and discussed in detail. The validation of NOx and HC emission are presented through
exhausted gas out of the cylinder. This accounts for the reason why the volumetric efficiency
Figures 9 and 10.
decreases and the residual gas fraction ratio increases as the VPD/B increases (Figure 12). The
residual gas fraction increased from 11 to 14%. The minimum value was 0.107% at a 0.3 VPD/B and
the maximum value was 0.144% at a 0.5 VPD/B.
In case 2: the volumetric efficiency increase from 0.656 to 0.688 the minimum volumetric
efficiency was 0.656 at a 0.30 VPD/B and the maximum value was 0.688 at a 0.5 VPD/B. This can be
explained by that an increase of VPD/B led to decrease the reverse of exhaust gas back to the
Energies 2020, 13, 1330 10 of 18

When comparing the experiment and simulation results, the similar values of two cases are
determined. The maximum difference in NOx emission is 6.5% at 4000 rpm and the maximum
difference in HC is 4.3% at 5000 rpm.
From the comparison between experimental results and simulation results of the applied engine,
all of the results in two cases are same, so the simulation model made by AVL-Boot software has good
accuracy in prediction of engine performance.

3.2. Comparative Studies the Effect of Various Valve Port Diameter-Bore Ratios on Effective Release Energy and
Emission Characteristics
The results were studied of two VPD/B ratio cases.
Case 1: intake port diameter changes while the exhaust port diameter is 22 mm.
Case 2: exhaust port diameter changes while the intake port diameter is 22 mm.
The various of intake and exhaust port diameters were presented in Table 2:

Table 2. VPD/B ratio of two cases.

VPD/B ratio 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5

Intake and exhaust port
17.1 20 22 25.7 28.5
diameter (mm)

Figure 11 depicts the volumetric efficiency as a function of VPD/B ratio. A contrary effect on
Energies 2020, 01, x; doi: FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 19
engine volumetric efficiency of two cases (intake port-bore ratio (case 1) and exhaust port-bore ratio
(case 2)) can be observed. When the VPD/B increased from 0.3 to 0.5:

0.70
Exhaust port-bore ratio (Case 2)
Intake port-bore ratio (Case 1)
0.69
Volumetric efficiency (-)

n = 3000 rpm
Compression ratio = 11.8:1
0.68 A/F = 13.6

0.67

0.66

0.65

0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50

Valve port diameter - Bore ratio (-)

Figure 11. Volumetric efficiency versus VPD/B.

Figure 11. Volumetric efficiency versus VPD/B.
In case 1: the volumetric efficiency decreased from 0.695 to 0.653. The minimum volumetric
efficiency was 0.653 at a 0.5 VPD/B and the maximum value was 0.695 at a 0.3 VPD/B. This can be
explained by that at a constant engine speed, an increase of VPD/B led to decrease the swirl ratio and
acceleration of air flow into the cylinder [7]. This was cause to reduce amounts of air fill into the
cylinder as the subsequent effect14of the intake stroke by decreasing fresh air fuel to sweep the exhausted
gas out of the cylinder. This accounts for the reason why the volumetric efficiency decreases and
Residual gas ratio (%)

the residual gas fraction ratio increases as the VPD/B increases (Figure 12). The residual gas fraction
13
increased from 11 to 14%. The minimum value was 0.107% at a 0.3 VPD/B and the maximum value
was 0.144% at a 0.5 VPD/B.
12
n = 3000 rpm
Compression ratio = 11.8:1
A/F = 13.6
11
Exhaust port-bore ratio (Case 2)
Intake port-bore ratio (Case 1)
0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50
Valve port diameter - Bore ratio (-)

Figure 12. Residual gas fraction versus VPD/B.

 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50
Valve port diameter - Bore ratio (-)

Figure 11. Volumetric efficiency versus VPD/B.

Energies 2020, 13, 1330 11 of 18

14

Residual gas ratio (%)

13

12
n = 3000 rpm
Compression ratio = 11.8:1
A/F = 13.6
11
Exhaust port-bore ratio (Case 2)
Intake port-bore ratio (Case 1)
0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50
Valve port diameter - Bore ratio (-)

Figure 12. Residual gas fraction versus VPD/B.

Figure 12. Residual gas fraction versus VPD/B.
In case 2: the volumetric efficiency increase from 0.656 to 0.688 the minimum volumetric efficiency
was 0.656 at a 0.30 VPD/B and the maximum value was 0.688 at a 0.5 VPD/B. This can be explained by
As shown in Figures 13 and 14, the peak temperature and pressure increase present a similar
that an increase
trend of VPD/B
in both cases. led to
As the decrease
increase of the reverse
IPD/B, the of exhaust
peak gas back and
temperature to the combustion
pressure chamber.
increases after
This was cause to charge fresh air-fuel mixture more into the cylinder
achieving a maximum value and then decreases. This is because a higher IPD/B was due to theand reduce trapped residual.
This accounts
increase or for the reason
decrease whyresidual
in the the volumetric efficiency
gas fraction increases
(Figure 12).and
A the residual
suitable an gas fraction
amount of ratio
high
decreases as the VPD/B increases (Figure 12). The residual gas fraction decreased
temperature exhaust gases trapped in the cylinder to raise the evaporation and homogeneity in the from 13.82 to 11.25%.
The minimum
air-fuel value
mixture. The was 11.25% at a 0.5
homogeneous VPD/B
air-fuel and the
mixture maximum
helped value was
the thermal 13.82%
energy canatbea released
0.3 VPD/B.in a
As shown in Figures 13 and 14, the peak temperature and pressure
shorter time to improve peak temperature and pressure increase. However, when too much increase present a similar
exhaust
trend in both
gas gets cases.inAs
trapped thethe increase ofchamber
combustion IPD/B, the peak restrict
it may temperature and air-fuel
the fresh pressuremixture
increases after
into the
achieving
combustion a maximum
chamber and valuedueand then combustion.
to poor decreases. ThisThis is
is because
the reason a higher
why theIPD/B was increase
pressure due to the
and
increase or decreaseboth
peak temperature in thedecreased
residual gas
afterfraction (Figure
achieving 12). A suitable
a maximum value.an amount of high temperature
exhaust Ingases trapped in the cylinder to raise the evaporation and homogeneity in the air-fuel mixture.
this research:
The homogeneous air-fuel mixture helped the thermal energy can be released in a shorter time to
improve In peak
case temperature
1: the maximum peak temperature
and pressure and maximum
increase. However, when too peak
muchpressure
exhaustincrease achieved
gas gets trapped
maximum values of 2047 K and 0.87 bar, respectively at 0.4 VPD/B.
in the combustion chamber it may restrict the fresh air-fuel mixture into the combustion chamber and
Energies 2020, 01,
2:x;the
doi: FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 19
due toInpoor casecombustion. maximumThis ispeak temperature
the reason why the and maximum
pressure peakand
increase pressure increase achieved
peak temperature both
maximumafter
decreased values of 2056aKmaximum
achieving and 0.87 bar,
value.respectively at 0.3 VPD/B.

2100

2000
Peak Temperature (K)

1900

1800
n = 3000 rpm
Compression ratio = 11.8:1
A/F = 13.6
1700
Exhaust port-bore ratio (Case 2)
Intake port-bore ratio (Case 1)
1600
0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50
Valve port diameter - Bore ratio (-)

Figure 13. Peak firing temperature versus VPD/B.

Figure 13. Peak firing temperature versus VPD/B.

0.90

0.85
ssure rise (Bar/deg)

0.80

0.75
n = 3000 rpm
Compression ratio = 11.8:1
 1600
0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50
Valve port diameter - Bore ratio (-)

Energies 2020, 13, 1330

Figure 13. Peak firing temperature versus VPD/B. 12 of 18

0.90

0.85

Pressure rise (Bar/deg)

0.80

0.75
n = 3000 rpm
Compression ratio = 11.8:1
A/F = 13.6
0.70
Exhaust port-bore ratio (Case 2)
Intake port-bore ratio (Case 1)
0.65
0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50
Valve port diameter - Bore ratio (-)

Figure 14. Pressure increase versus VPD/B.

Figure 14. Pressure increase versus VPD/B.
In this research:
InIncase 1: thespark-ignition
a typical maximum peak temperature
engine, the burnedandreactions
maximum peakoccur
do not pressure increase achieved
instantaneously. In order
maximum
to increase values of 2047efficiency,
the engine K and 0.87 bar,
the respectively
combustion at 0.4 VPD/B.
duration is expected to be shorter and the release of
theIn case
heat 2: thefaster
energy maximum peakthe
to decrease temperature and maximum
heat loss. Therefore, a betterpeak pressure increase
homogeneous achieved
in air-fuel mixture
maximum values of 2056 K and 0.87 bar, respectively at 0.3 VPD/B.
is required to reduce combustion duration and increase the heat energy rise. The chemical energy of
fuelIntrapped
a typicalinspark-ignition
the cylinder was engine, the burned
released reactions
into heat energy.do Annot occur instantaneously.
amount of loss heat energy In order to
was from
increase the engine efficiency, the combustion duration is expected to be shorter and
heat transfer, pumping loss, and energy that are not effectively released in the cylinder, but is going the release of the
heat
intoenergy faster to decrease
the combustion productsthe so
heat loss.
the Therefore,
remaining a better
amount homogeneous
energy is effective in air-fuel
release mixture
energy. isAs
required
discussed to reduce
above,combustion
the residualduration and increase
gas fraction the heatchamber
in combustion energy rise.
has aThebigchemical
effect onenergy of fuel
homogeneous
trapped
of air-fuel mixture. The influence of the residual gas fraction on the peak pressure increase,heat
in the cylinder was released into heat energy. An amount of loss heat energy was from peak
transfer, pumping
temperature, andloss, and energy
effective energythatcanarebenot effectively
seen released13,
though Figures in the
14, cylinder,
and 15. As butthe
is going intoof
increase
the combustion
VPD/B, products
the effective so the
release remaining
energy amount
increase until aenergy
maximum is effective release
value after energy.
that As as
decrease discussed
shown in
above, the residual gas fraction in combustion chamber has a big effect
Figure 15. The maximum value was 0.45 kJ at 0.4 VPD/B in case 1; and 0.451 kJ at 0.35 VPD/B on homogeneous of air-fuel
in Case
mixture.
2. FromThe thisinfluence
result, weofknowthe residual
that thegas fraction
engine on theoptimal
performs peak pressure
efficiencyincrease,
when the peak temperature,
trapped residual
and
gaseffective
fractionenergy
ratio iscanfrombe 13%
seento though
14%. Figures 13–15. As the increase of VPD/B, the effective release
energy increase until a maximum value after that decrease as shown in Figure 15. The maximum value
Energies 2020, 01, x; doi: FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 19
was 0.45 kJ at 0.4 VPD/B in case 1; and 0.451 kJ at 0.35 VPD/B in Case 2. From this result, we know that
the engine performs optimal efficiency when the trapped residual gas fraction ratio is from 13% to 14%.

0.46

0.44
Effective release energy (kJ)

0.42

0.40

0.38
n = 3000 rpm
Compression ratio = 11.8:1
0.36
A/F = 13.6

0.34 Exhaust port-bore ratio (Case 2)

Intake port-bore ratio (Case 1)
0.32
0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50
Valve port diameter - Bore ratio (-)

Figure 15. Effective release energy versus VPD/B.

Figure 15. Effective release energy versus VPD/B.
Figures 16 and 17 shows the IMEP and BMEP at each VPD/B ratio. Because the cylinder pressure
of power stroke
Figure 16 has
anda17
sensitive effect
shows the on IMEP
IMEP from the
and BMEP Equation
at each VPD/B(11), andBecause
ratio. the effective release pressure
the cylinder energy
of power stroke has a sensitive effect on IMEP from the Equation (11), and the effective release
energy effect on BMEP. Therefore, the similar trend of IMEP and pressure increase, BMEP, and
effective release energy can be observed.
1
VD 
IMEP  Pc .dV (11)

The IMEP and BMEP was achieved the maximum value of 6.63 bar and 4.5 bar at 0.4 VPD/B in
 Figure 15. Effective release energy versus VPD/B.

Figure 16 and 17 shows the IMEP and BMEP at each VPD/B ratio. Because the cylinder pressure
of power stroke has a sensitive effect on IMEP from the Equation (11), and the effective release
energy effect on BMEP. Therefore, the similar trend of IMEP and pressure increase, BMEP, and
Energies 2020, 13, 1330 13 of 18
effective release energy can be observed.
1
IMEP 
effect on BMEP. Therefore, the similar trend of IMEP Vand
D
 Pcpressure
.dV (11)
increase, BMEP, and effective release
energy can be observed.
The IMEP and BMEP was achieved the maximum 1
Z value of 6.63 bar and 4.5 bar at 0.4 VPD/B in
IMEP
Case 1, and in Case 2 these values are 6.66 = 4.53 bar,
bar, Pc .dV
at 0.35 VPD/B, respectively. (11)
VD

7.0

6.5

6.0
IMEP (bar)

5.5

n = 3000 rpm
5.0 Compression ratio = 11.8:1
A/F = 13.6

Exhaust port-bore ratio (Case 2)

4.5
Intake port-bore ratio (Case 1)

Energies 2020, 01, x; doi: FOR PEER REVIEW0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50
14 of 19
Valve port diameter - Bore ratio (-)

Figure 16. IMEP versus VPD/B.

Figure 16. IMEP versus VPD/B.
4.5

4.0
BMEP (bar)

3.5

n = 3000 rpm
3.0 Compression ratio = 11.8:1
A/F = 13.6

2.5
Exhaust port-bore ratio (Case 2)
Intake port-bore ratio (Case 1)
0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50
Valve port diameter - Bore ratio (-)

Figure 17. BMEP versus VPD/B.

Figure 17. BMEP versus VPD/B.
The IMEP and BMEP was achieved the maximum value of 6.63 bar and 4.5 bar at 0.4 VPD/B in
Case 1, and in Case 2 these values are 6.66 bar, 4.53 bar, at 0.35 VPD/B, respectively.
Figure 18 shows that the BSFC decrease when VPD/B ratio increase from 0.3 to 0.5. With a
Figure 18 shows that the BSFC decrease when VPD/B ratio increase from 0.3 to 0.5. With a constant
constant the engine speed and constant air-fuel ratio, BMEP had the greatest effect on BSFC. The
the engine speed and constant air-fuel ratio, BMEP had the greatest effect on BSFC. The influence of
influence of BMEP and BSFC to each other is shown in Equation (12)
BMEP and BSFC to each other is shown in Equation (12)
𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑟 . 𝑛𝑒 . 2.16. 109
𝐵𝑆𝐹𝐶 = (12)
m𝐴𝐹𝑅.
air .n𝐵𝑀𝐸𝑃. 𝑉9𝐷 . 𝑛
e .2.16.10
BSFC = (12)
AFR.BMEP.VD .n

1600

Exhaust port-bore ratio (Case 2)

1500
Intake port-bore ratio (Case 1)
1400 n = 3000 rpm
Compression ratio = 11.8:1
BSFC (g/kWh)

1300 A/F = 13.6

1200

1100

1000

900

800

0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50

Intake valve port diameter - Bore ratio (-)

Figure 18. BSFC versus VPD/B.

 constant the engine speed and constant air-fuel ratio, BMEP had the greatest effect on BSFC. The
influence of BMEP and BSFC to each other is shown in Equation (12)
𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑟 . 𝑛𝑒 . 2.16. 109
𝐵𝑆𝐹𝐶 = (12)
Energies 2020, 13, 1330
𝐴𝐹𝑅. 𝐵𝑀𝐸𝑃. 𝑉𝐷 . 𝑛 14 of 18

1600

Exhaust port-bore ratio (Case 2)

1500
Intake port-bore ratio (Case 1)
1400 n = 3000 rpm
Compression ratio = 11.8:1

BSFC (g/kWh)
1300 A/F = 13.6

1200

1100

1000

900

800

0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50

Intake valve port diameter - Bore ratio (-)

Figure 18. BSFC versus VPD/B.

Figure 18. BSFC versus VPD/B.
The opposite trends of BMEP and BSFC are depicted in Figures 17 and 18. The minimum BSFC is
849.5 g/kWh in Case trends
The opposite 1 and 842.8
of BMEPg/kWhandinBSFC
Case are2. depicted in Figures 17 and 18. The minimum BSFC
It can be seen that, at the intake,
is 849.5 g/kWh in Case 1 and 842.8 g/kWh in Casethe port-bore ratio
2. is smaller than 0.35 or exhaust port-bore ratio
is bigger than 0.45. The missing firing may happen
It can be seen that, at the intake, the port-bore ratio because of this band ofthan
is smaller VPD/B0.35ratio, the BSFC
or exhaust value
port-bore
and HCisemission
ratio bigger than were0.very highmissing
45. The and NOfiring
x emission was nearly
may happen zero.of
because If this
the intake
band ofport-bore ratio isthe
VPD/B ratio,
smaller than 0.35 or the exhaust port-bore ratio is bigger than
BSFC value and HC emission were very high and NOx emission was nearly zero. If the 0.45, it is not a good condition forintake
the
engine to operate.
port-bore ratio is smaller than 0.35 or the exhaust port-bore ratio is bigger than 0. 45, it is not a good
The similar
condition for thetrend between
engine BMEP and engine effective torque can be observed through Figures 17
to operate.
Energies
and 19.The2020, 01, x; doi:of
Thesimilar
effect BMEP
FOR PEER on
trend betweenREVIEW
engine
BMEPeffective
and engine torque is presented
effective torque in can Equation (13). through
be observed Equation15(13)
of 19
Figures
shows
17 and that19.a The
higher BMEP
effect due toonanengine
of BMEP enhanced engine
effective torque.
torque is presented in Equation (13). Equation (13)
Figure 19 shows the engine brake torque was achieved the maximum value of 9.85 Nm in Case
shows that a higher BMEP due to an enhanced engine torque.
1 and 9.91 Nm in Case 2. This means the BMEP.V
Te engine
ff =
torqueDcan be improved by adjusting the exhaust (13)
valve port diameter. k
Teff  cycle .π D
BMEP .V
k . (13)
cycle

10

9
Brake Torque (Nm)

7
n = 3000 rpm
6
Compression ratio = 11.8:1
A/F = 13.6
Exhaust port-bore ratio (Case 2)
5
Intake port-bore ratio (Case 1)
0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50
Valve port diameter - Bore ratio (-)

Figure 19. Brake torque versus VPD/B.

Figure 19. Brake torque versus VPD/B.
Figure 19 shows the engine brake torque was achieved the maximum value of 9.85 Nm in Case 1
and 9.91 Nm in Case 2. This means the engine torque can be improved by adjusting the exhaust valve
port diameter.
The peak firing temperature Exhaust
8 is a factor which has aport-bore
strongratio (Case
effect on2)NOx emission, in this research,
Intake port-bore ratio (Case 1)
the peak firing temperature increases
7 to a maximum value, after that decrease event VPD/B was still
increasing. As a result, with both
6 cases: the NOx shows the similar trend with peak firing temperature.

Figure 20 shows the NOx emission increases until achieved a maximum value after that decrease even
NOx (g/kWh)

5
VPD/B was still increasing. The4 maximum NOx emission was 6.6 g/kWh, at 0.4 VPD/B of Case 1, and
3

n = 3000 rpm
1
Compression ratio = 11.8:1
0
A/F = 13.6

0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50

 Br
6
Compression ratio = 11.8:1
A/F = 13.6
Exhaust port-bore ratio (Case 2)
5
Intake port-bore ratio (Case 1)
0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50

Energies 2020, 13, 1330 Valve port diameter - Bore ratio (-) 15 of 18

Figure of
this value was 7.07 g/kWh at 0.35 VPD/B 19.Case
Brake2.torque versusshows
This result VPD/B.that the exhaust valve port-bore
ratio has a more sensitive effect on NOx emission than the intake valve port-bore ratio.

8 Exhaust port-bore ratio (Case 2)

Intake port-bore ratio (Case 1)
7

NOx (g/kWh)
5

n = 3000 rpm
1
Compression ratio = 11.8:1
0
A/F = 13.6

0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50

Valve port diameter - Bore ratio (-)

Figure 20. NOx emission versus VPD/B.

Energies 2020, 01, x; doi: FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 19

Figure 20. NOx emission versus VPD/B.

Figures 21 and 22 shows that with intake port-bore ratio is smaller than 0.35 and exhaust valve
port-bore ratio is bigger than 0.45. The high HC emission and low CO emission was presented. This is
The
Energies 2020,peak firing
01, x; doi: FORtemperature
PEER REVIEW
10 is a factor which has a strong effect on NO x emission, 16 in ofthis
19
because the poor combustion and miss firing occurred. With a VPD/B ratio of 0.35 to 0.4 the engine has
research, the peak firing temperature increases to aport-bore
Exhaust maximumratio (Casevalue,
2) after that decrease event
stable performance. Intake port-bore ratio (Case 1)
VPD/B was still increasing. As8a result, with both cases: the NOx shows the similar trend with peak
n = 3000 rpm
firing temperature. Figure 20 shows the NOx emission increases
Compression until achieved a maximum value
ratio = 11.8:1
10
A/F = 13.6
after that decrease even VPD/B was still increasing. The maximum
ratio (Case NO2) x emission was 6.6 g/kWh, at
HC (g/kWh)

6 Exhaust port-bore
0.4 VPD/B of Case 1, and this value was 7.07 g/kWh at 0.35ratio
Intake port-bore VPD/B
(Case 1)of Case 2. This result shows that
8
n = 3000 rpm
the exhaust valve port-bore ratio has a more sensitive effect on NOx emission than the intake valve
Compression ratio = 11.8:1
4
port-bore ratio. A/F = 13.6
HC (g/kWh)

Figure 21 and 22 shows 6that with intake port-bore ratio is smaller than 0.35 and exhaust valve
2
port-bore ratio is bigger than 0.45. The high HC emission and low CO emission was presented. This
is because the poor combustion 4
and0.30
miss firing
0.35
occurred.
0.40
With
0.45
a VPD/B
0.50
ratio of 0.35 to 0.4 the engine
has stable performance. Valve port diameter - Bore ratio (-)
2

Figure
0.30 21. HC emission
0.35 0.40 versus
0.45 VPD/B.
0.50
Valve port diameter - Bore ratio (-)

Figure 21. HC emission versus VPD/B.

Figure 21. HC emission versus VPD/B.
0.0120

Exhaust port
0.0115 Intake port
CO (g/kWh)

0.0120
0.0110
Exhaust port
0.0115 Intake port

0.0105
CO (g/kWh)

Engine speed = 2000 rpm

0.0110
Compression ratio = 11.8:1
0.0100
A/F = 13.6

0.0105 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50

EngineIntake
speedvalve port
= 2000 rpmdiameter - Bore ratio (-)
Compression ratio = 11.8:1
0.0100
A/F =22.
Figure 13.6 CO emission versus VPD/B.

Figure
0.30 22.
0.35CO emission
0.40 versus
0.45 VPD/B.
0.50
Intake valve port diameter - Bore ratio (-)

4. Conclusions
This paper shows a studyFigure 22. CO emission
to determine versus VPD/B.
the effective release energy, peak pressure increase,
and residual gas fraction of a spark-ignition engine with various VPD/B. Through our approach, the
4.disadvantages
Conclusions of experimental methods were solved, producing a confident method to determine
Energies 2020, 13, 1330 16 of 18

4. Conclusions
This paper shows a study to determine the effective release energy, peak pressure increase,
and residual gas fraction of a spark-ignition engine with various VPD/B. Through our approach,
the disadvantages of experimental methods were solved, producing a confident method to determine
the effective energy, residual gas, peak temperature, and pressure increase.
In summation:

(1) A lager intake port diameter causes a decrease of volumetric efficiency, while volumetric efficiency
increases with a larger exhaust port diameter.
(2) The VPD/B ratio gets large influence on residual gas fraction, effective energy, and engine emission.
As the increase of VPD/B ratio of 0.3 to 0.5 the residual gas fraction increases 27.3% with larger
intake port and decrease 18.6% with larger exhaust port. The engine will perform optimal
efficiency when the trapped residual gas fraction is from 13 to 14%. The maximum effective
release energy was 0.45 kJ at 0.4 intake port-bore ratio, and 0.451 kJ at 0.35 exhaust port-bore ratio.
(3) The maximum peak firing temperature and peak pressure increase was 2047 K and 0.87 bar at 0.4
intake port-bore ratio. This value was 2056 K and 0.87 bar at 0.3 exhaust port-bore ratio.
(4) The optimal effective release energy and BSFC was achieved at the same VPD/B value. When the
VPD/B ranges from 0.35 to 0.4, the engine performs the maximum effective release energy and the
minimum BSFC. The engine does not operate well when the VPD/B ratio value is smaller than
0.35 or bigger than 0.45 because misfiring may happen.
(5) This result shows that the exhaust valve port-bore ratio has a more sensitive effect on NOx
emission than intake valve port-bore ratio.
(6) With the intake port-bore ratio is smaller than 0.35 and exhaust valve port-bore ratio is bigger
than 0.45. The high HC emission and low CO emission were presented.

Author Contributions: N.X.K. carried out the development of the concept of the paper, performed the literature
study, prepare the paper structure, aim, objectives, research question, analyzed the data, and as well as writing the
paper. O.L. supervised the research, advised on the research gap and objective, proofread the paper, and guided
the writing process as well as reviewing the presented concepts and outcomes. All authors have read and agreed
to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was financially supported by the Energy Technology Development Project of the Korea
Energy Technology Evaluation and Planning (20182010106370, Demonstration Research Project of Clean Fuel
DME Engine for Fine Dust Reduction), Republic of Korea.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Nomenclature
BDC Bottom dead center
TDC Top dead center
BTDC Before top dead center
ATDC After top dead center
BSFC Brake specific fuel consumption (g/KWh)
BMEP Brake mean effective pressure (Bar)
IMEP Indicated mean effective pressure (Bar)
HC Hydrocarbon
CA Crank angle (deg)
VPD/B Valve port diameter-bore ratio (-)
Teff Engine effective torque (Nm)
Kcylce Simulation cycle parameter (cycles)
Qh The total fuel heat input (W)
α The crank angle (deg)
α0 The start of combustion (deg)
Energies 2020, 13, 1330 17 of 18

∆αc The combustion duration (deg)

m The shape parameter (-)
a The Vibe parameter (-)
QT The heat lost to the wall (W/m2)
A The total surface area of the cylinder head, piston
qcoeff The heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 K)
Tc The combustion gas temperature (K)
Tw The wall temperature of the cylinder (K)
dm
dt The air mass flow rate
Aeff The effective flow area (-)
P1 The upstream stagnation pressure (Pa)
T1 Upstream stagnation temperature (K)
R Gas constant (J/kg.K)
P2 Downstream static pressure (Pa)
K Ratio of specific heat
Cp Denotes post processing multiplier
CK Denotes kinetic multiplier
ri Demotes reaction rates (mole/cm3 s)
mHC Mass of unburned charge in the crevices (kg)
Pc Cylinder pressure (Pa)
Vcrevice Total crevice volume (m3 )
M Unburned molecular weight (kg/kmol)
Tpiston Piston temperature (K)
θ Cam angle (deg)
Cd Coefficient of discharge
Q Measured volume flow rate (m3 /sec)
Aseat Inner seat area (m2 )
Av Orifice are between valve head and seat (m2 )
EGR Exhaust gas recirculation
VD Displaced volume (m3 )
Cf Flow coefficient
V0 Velocity dead (m/s)
Dseat Intake valve seat diameter (m)
L Valve lift (m)
ϕ Valve seat angle (deg)
n Engine speed (rpm)

References
1. Cinar, C.; Uyumaz, A.; Solmaz, H.; Topgul, T. Effects of valve lift on the combustion and emis-sions of a
HCCI gasoline engine. Energy Convers. Manag. 2015, 94, 159–168. [CrossRef]
2. Suhaimi, S.; Mamat1, R.; Abdullah, N.R. Investigation of the effects of inlet system configuration on the
airflow characteristics. IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng. 2013, 50. [CrossRef]
3. Shi, L.; Shu, G.; Tian, H.; Deng, S. A review of modified Organic Rankine cycles (ORCs) for internal
combustion engine waste heat recovery (ICE-WHR). Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2018, 92, 95–110. [CrossRef]
4. Jung, D.; Iida, N. An investigation of multiple spark discharge using multi-coil ignition system for improving
thermal efficiency of lean SI engine operation. Appl. Energy 2018, 212, 322–332. [CrossRef]
5. Gandyk, M.; Tkaczyk, M.; Sitnik, L.J.; Uzuntonev, T. Combustion engine intake port design analysis. Mach.
Technol. Mater. 2015, 9, 29–31.
6. Regueiro, J.F.; Korn, S.J. Geometric papameters of four-valve cylinder heads and their relationship to
combustion and engine full load performance. SAE Trans. 1994, 103, 184–198.
7. Zhang, Y.; Zhao, H.; Xie, H.; He, B.-Q. Variable-valve-actuation enabled high efficiency gasoline engine.
J. Auto-Mobile Eng. 2010, 224, 1081–1095. [CrossRef]
Energies 2020, 13, 1330 18 of 18

8. Ghazal, O.H.; Najjar, Y.S.; AL-Khishali, K.J. Effect of Varying Inlet Valve Throat Diameter at Different IVO,
IVC, and OVERLAP Angles on SI Engine Performance. In Proceedings of the World Congress on Engineering
2011 (WCE 2011), London, UK, 6–8 July 2011.
9. Raghu, M.M.; Pramod, S. Influence of intake port design on diesel engine air motion characteristics. Indian J.
Eng. Mater. Sci. 1999, 6, 53–58.
10. Yasar, A.; Sahin, B.; Akilli, H.; Aydin, K. Effect of inlet port on the flow in the cylinder of an internal
combustion engine. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part C J. Mech. Eng. 2006, 220, 72–83.
11. Qi, Y.L.; Dong, L.C.; Liu, H.; Puzinauskas, P.V.; Midkiff, K.C. Optimization of intake port design for SI engine.
Int. J. Automot. Technol. 2012, 13, 861–872. [CrossRef]
12. Latheesh, V.M.; Parthasarathy, P.; Baskaran, V.; Karthikeyan, S. Design and CFD analysis of intake port and
exhaust port for a 4 valve cylinder head engine. IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng. 2018, 310. [CrossRef]
13. Khoa, N.X.; Lim, O. The effects of combustion duration on residual gas, effective release energy, engine power
and engine emissions characteristics of the motorcycle engine. Appl. Energy 2019, 248, 54–63. [CrossRef]
14. Khoa, N.X.; Lim, O. Effective release energy, residual gas, and engine emission characteristics of a V-twin
engine with various exhaust valve closing timings. J. Mech. Eng. 2020, 34, 477–488. [CrossRef]
15. Petranović, Z.; Sjerić, M.; Taritaš, I.; Vujanović, M.; Kozarac, D. Study of advanced en-gine operating strategies
on a turbocharged diesel engine by using coupled numerical approaches. Energy Convers. Manag. 2018, 171,
1–11.
16. Teo, A.E.; Chiong, M.S.; Yang, M.; Romagnoli, A.; Martinez-Botas, R.F.; Rajoo, S. Performance evaluation
of low-pressure turbine, turbo-compounding and air-Brayton cycle as engine waste heat recovery method.
J. Energy 2019, 166, 895–907. [CrossRef]
17. Rubio, J.A.P.; V-García, F.; Grau, J.H.; Cámara, J.M.; Hernandez, D.A. Marine diesel engine failure simulator
based on thermodynamic model. Appl. Therm. Eng. 2018, 144, 982–995. [CrossRef]
18. Melaika, M.; Rimkus, A.; Vipartas, T. Air Restrictor and Turbocharger Influence for the Formula Student
Engine Performance. Procedia Eng. 2017, 187, 402–407. [CrossRef]
19. Praptijanto, A.; Muharam, A.; Nur, A.; Putrasari, Y. Effect of ethanol percentage for diesel engine performance
using virtual engine simulation tool. Energy Procedia 2015, 68, 345–354. [CrossRef]

© 2020 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).