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Cathedrals
• Cathcdrals are The short end, containing the altar and choir stalls,
the churches oí is called the ap5e. The arm s of the cross are
Christian called transepts.
bishops. • Canterbury anda few other cathedrals we,e bui lt
• Theword as early as the 6th-century 110. Most European
cathedral cathedrals were built be011een 1000 and 150 0 .
comes from the • Medieval cathedrals were often built in th e 'gothic'
Greek word for style with soaring, pointed arches, tall spires and
'seat', kathtdra. huge pointed arch windows.
• Cathedrals are • Many gothic cathedrals have beautifu l stained-
typically built glass windows. Chartres Cathedral in France has 176.
in the shape of
o The modern Crystal Cathedral in California is star-
a cross. The
shaped and made ofglass forTV broadcasts.
entrance ofthe
cathedral is at • The world's tallest cathedral spire is in Ulm ,
the west end. Germany, which is 160.9 m tall.
• The long end • The world's smallest cathedral is Christ Chu rch in
A Paris's famous Notre Dame dates
ofthe cross is from 1163, but was rtinoddled in the Highlandville, Missouri, USA which is just 4.2 by
the nave. 1840s by Viollet-le-Duc. 5.2 m and holds only 18 people.

-r:
~
~ The first railways
1
1
•
•
Railways were invented long before steam power.
The Diolkos was a 6 km long railway that transported
boats across the Corinth isthmus in Greece in the
•

e
In 1804 Cornish engineer Richard Trevithick built the
first successful steam railway locomotive.
Trevithicl<'s engine pulled a train of five wagons with 9

í 6th-century se. Trucks pushed by slaves ran in grooves tonnes ofiron and 70 men along 15 km oftrnck at the

--
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~:
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•
•
in a limestone track.
The Diolkos ran for over 1300 years until AD 900.
Railways were revived in Europe in the 14th century
•
Pendarren ironworks in Wales.
On 27 September1825 George and Robert Stephenson
opened the world's first steam passenger railway, the
~
:~
1:1 with wooden trackrails to guide horse and hand carts
taking ore out of mines. •
Stockton and Darlington in England.
The gauge (trackwidth) used for the Stockton and
• In the 17oos, English ironmakers began to make rails Darlington was 1.44 m, the samc length
ofiron. Fim the rail was wood covered in iron. Then the as axles on horse-wagon s. This became
whole raíl was made of iron. lron wheels wit_h 'flanges' the standard gauge in the USA and much
/

Clips) ran inside the track. / ofEurope.

/ e The English-built 'Stourbridge Lion'
► Tht Sttphtnsons' 'Rockrt' was the first full-size steam locomotive to
was the most famous tar/9 run in the USA. lt ran on wooden track in
locomotiue, winning the firrt Pennsylvania in 1829.
locomotiue spud trials at
Rainhill in England in 1829.
 g~ Yotr Sho uld l<now Ah
out Rtr ildi nRs &
h·n
r
T
100 0

:ontrolling a plane
A pfane is controlled in
the air by moving hinged
flaps on its wings and tail.
Chimging pitch is when
the plane goes nose-up or
nose-down to dive or
climb.
Rofling is when the plane
rolls to one side, dipping
one wing or the other.
.Yawíng is when the plane
.steers to the left or right Iike a car.
f>itch is controlled by raising or low
on the rearwings called elevators.
To pitch up in a small or simple
back on the control column to raise
Rofling is co~trolled by large hin
wings called áilerons.
s~:;i ~-.~"'· •,-,· •'. ~¡',· ·~.··
..... ••
◄ In old-(ashionnl piones, tht
pifot controlltd rh, na~s m_ anually
:·
by mouing a control st,ck l,nktd to
••• rhe nnps by cobft~. In modtrn
planes, rhe naps are controlltd
automoticolly vio tltetric wírts
(ny -by -wirt) or lastr btoms (ny -
by-light). Tht night dtek o( this
,:lant (rom 30 ytors 090 has lots
of dials to help tht pilot. Modtrn
planes haue 'glass cockpits', which
mtans they haue computa scruns.
trol column to
• To roll left, the pilot pushes the con
the left wing and
the left, which raises the aiferon on
ering hinged flaps
lowers it on the right.
• Yawing is controlled by the vert
ical hinged flap on
plane, the pilot pulls the taif calfed the rudder.
the elevators.
• To yaw left, the pilot pushes the
foot-operated rudder
ged flaps on the ng the rudder left.
bar forward with hi:; left foot, to swi
. -
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·rucl<s
or more -
. Truclcs or lorries can weigh 40 tonnes
· maybe as much as 50 cars.
Cars are powered by petral engine
s; trucks are
s.
. typically powered by diesel engine
trucks often
Car s typically have five forward gears;
have as many as 16.
Cars typically have fourwheels .
Trucks often have 12
or 16 to help spread the load.
Many trucks have the same basic
cab and chassis
(theframework supporting the body).
Different
A This 14-wheel tanker is articulated,
and the tank and tractor
suit the load.
·bodies are fitted on to the chassis to unit can be separated.
at the join.
Saine trucks are in ~o parts, hinged • The longest truck is the Arctic Snow
made
Train, frrst
These are called articulated trucks. forthe US army. This is 174 m long
and has 54 wheels.
truck is called
~e cab ªnd engine ofan articulated • large trucks are sometimes called
'juggernauts'.
the trailer.
t e tractor unit. The load is carried in Juggemaut was a form of the Hin
du god Vishnu who
In Australia ral trailers in a Europeans to crush
'road-train' one tractor may pull seve rodea huge chariot, supposcd by
along the long, straight ert roads.
des people beneath its wheels .
 --- --- ---_-~-.: v.. •:. ~"~".:,:'
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·
Bridges
.._ London's Tower Bridge was opened in 1894. lt has a strang
stttl frame clothed in stone to suppqrt the two opening halues.
• Rope suspension bridges have been used for thousands
ofyears. One ofthe first to use iron chains was the Lan Jin
Bridge at Yunnan in China, built AD 65.
• The first all-iron bridge was at Coalbrookdale, England. lt
was designed by Thomas Pritchard and built in 1779 by
Abraham Darby.
e In the eariy 18oos Thomas Telford began building superb
iron bridges such as Craigellachie over the Spey in
Scotland (1814). He built Europe's first iron chain
suspension bridge overthe Menai Straits in Wales in 1826.
• Stephenson's Britannia railway bridge of 1850, also over
the Menai Straits, was the first hollow box girder bridge.
► Most bridgt:s are naw built of concrete and steel. Shown
here
art: somt: of the main kinds. The longest are norrnally suspension
bridgt:S, usually carrying roads, but Hong Kong's 1377 rn-long
Tsing Ma (1998) takt:S both road and raíl.
'Y , , ,, . , • • •
• • •• ' . . . . . . . r-,··
* STARFACT *
The Akashi-l<aikyo Bridge (1998), Japan, is the
world's longest suspension bridge with a main
span of 1991 m and two side spans of 960 m.
© John Roebling's Cincinnati suspension bridge was the
world's longest bridge when built in 1866 at 322 m. Like
ali suspension bridges today, it was held up by iron wires,
not chains. lt was the prototype for his Brooklyn Bridge.
a} The Forth Railway Bridge in Scotland was the world's
first big cantilevered bridge. At 520 m it was also the
world's longest bridge when it was built in 1890.
© In 1940 the Tacoma suspens ion bridge in Washington
USA, was blown down by a moderate wind just months
after its completion. The disasterforced engineers to
make suspension bridges aerodynamic.
© Aerodynamic design played a major part in the design of
Turkey's Bosphorus Bridge (1973) and England's Humber
Bridge (1983), for a while the longest bridge at 1410 m.
0 In the 1970s Japanese engineers began to build a bridge
that by 2000 gaveJapan nine ofthe world's 20 longest
bridges.
In cable-stayed bridges,
1n suspension bridges the bridge the bridge hangs directly
hangs on steel wires on a cable
suspended between tal/ towm.
They are light so can be uery long
In cantileuered bridges,
each half of the bridge is
balanced on a support
 ... . 1
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 Development of a flower
Flowers have both male parts, called stamens, and ► Most nowers re/y
•
on becs and butterf1ies
female parts, called carpels. Seeds for new plants are
to (ertilize them by
made when pollen from the stamens meets the
transferring po/len
flower's eggs inside the carpels. from the stamens to 1

• The carpel contains the ovaries, where the ílower's the carpels. So, like
eggs are made. lt is typically the short thick stalk in this orchid, nowers
haue dcueloped 1
the middle of the flower.
wonderful co/ours and
• A flower may have just one carpel or scents to attraet the
severa! joined together. Together, they insects to them. 1
1
are called the pistil.
e Polleo is 1
• The stamens make pollen. '

They are typically spindly stalks carried down to

surrounding-the carpels. the ovary from
the stigma via
• Pollen is made in the anthers a structure called the sty/e. In the ovary it meets the
on top of the stamens. eggs and fertilizes them to create seeds.
• Pollen is trapped on the top of e Befare the flower opens, the bud is enc/osed in a
the ovary by sticky stigma. tight green ball called the calyx. This is made up from
1.Theful/yformed ··., ·,.
nower is packed ·\ :' tiny green flaps called sepa/s.
away inside a bud. -..,:,.
o The colourful part of the flower is made from
Green naps or
groups of peta/s. The peta/s make up what is called
sepals wrap tightly
the corolla. Together the ca/yx and the corolla make
round it ;, - 2. Once the weather is
1
/ /
1 1, , A -, : •·.1 Q ,· warm enough, the bud up the whole flower head, which is called the

, ,,
j ,.., · ·I ·
: , '. '. , ) ,.. ' , '
-'
1
· begins
curl
to open. The sepa Is
back to reueal the
perianth. lf petals and sepa/s are the same colour,
they are said to be tepals.
!, colourful petals
if
.'i
STARFACT * *
/ A 'perfect' flower is one which has both
stamens and carpels; many have one missing.
3. The sepa Is open wider and
the peta Is grow outwards and r

backwards to create the

nower's beautiful corolla

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► Atthe righttime of ,~-->--· . '-)<~ ·\~ t_ / _· --;
ym, buds bcgin open to
to · ..., ~ ·.~~,-
'"~ ...,.-<\\·~
,- 4. Tht Powu opens
_ I _'. /

reveal Powers' blooms so that the .·. ~

rrproduetive process can begin. Some nowers ·(1.:·.::{~ fully to reuea: its .(
I
lastjust a day orso. Others stay bloomin9 for
months on end before thl' l'_ggs are fl'rtiliud, and
,\',
~t
bright array of
poi/en so~
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