INSTRUMENTATION

UNIT 1
Active and passive instruments
Instruments are divided into active or passive ones according to
whether the instrument output is entirely produced by the quantity
being measured or whether the quantity being measured simply
modulates the magnitude of some external power source
• The pressure of the fluid is translated into a movement of a pointer
against a scale. The energy expended in moving the pointer is derived
entirely from the change in pressure measured: there are no other
energy inputs to the system.
• The change in petrol level moves a potentiometer arm, and the
output signal consists of a proportion of the external voltage source
applied across the two ends of the potentiometer.
• The energy in the output signal comes from the external power
source: the primary transducer float system is merely modulating the
value of the voltage from this external power source.
▪ One very important difference between active and passive
instruments is the level of measurement resolution that can be
obtained.
▪ With the simple pressure gauge shown, the amount of movement
made by the pointer for a particular pressure change is closely
defined by the nature of the instrument.
▪ It is possible to increase measurement resolution by making the
pointer longer, such that the pointer tip moves through a longer
arc, the scope for such improvement is clearly restricted by the
practical limit of how long the pointer can conveniently be.
• In an active instrument, however, adjustment of the magnitude of the
external energy input allows much greater control over measurement
resolution.
• The scope for improving measurement resolution is much greater
incidentally, it is not infinite because of limitations placed on the
magnitude of the external energy input, in consideration of heating
effects and for safety reasons.
• In terms of cost, passive instruments are normally of a more simple
construction than active ones and are therefore cheaper to manufacture.
• Balancing the measurement resolution requirements against cost.
• An alternative type of pressure gauge is the deadweight gauge which
is a null-type instrument.
• Here, weights are put on top of the piston until the downward force
balances the fluid pressure. Weights are added until the piston
reaches a datum level, known as the null point. Pressure
measurement is made in terms of the value of the weights needed to
reach this null position
 PRESSURE
• Some important applications of pressure measurement is listed.
• The pressure of steam in a boiler is measured for ensuring safe operating
condition of the boiler.
• Pressure measurement helps in determining the liquid level in tanks and
containers.
• In many flow meter (such as venturimeter, orifice meter, flow nozzle, etc.,)
pressure measurement serves as an indication of flow rate.
• Measurement of pressure change becomes an indication of temperature (as
used in pressure thermometers-fluid expansion type).
• required in day-to-day situations such as maintaining optimal pressure in
tubes of vehicle tyres.
 Pressure
• Pressure is defined as the force exerted by a fluid per unit
area.
• Units in SI are Pa=N/m2.
• Units in British are : psf = lbf/ft2, psi = lbf/in2
• convert from psi to psf ( 144 in2 = 1 ft2)

10
Pressure
Absolute pressure, is
measured relative to
absolute vacuum (i.e.,
absolute zero pressure.)

Gauge pressure, is
measured relative to
atmospheric pressure

13
PRESSURE

Pgage is positive if the point above the Patm

Pgage is negative if the point below the Patm
called Vacuum

14
U Tube Manometer
▪ It is composed of an annular ring, which is separated
into two parts by a partition.

▪ The lower section of the annular ring is also filled with a

sealing fluid (either water or mercury).

▪ The ring is balanced on a knife edge at its centre so that

it is free to rotate.

▪ A mass to compensate the difference in pressure is

attached to the lower part of the ring
• P1 and P2 represent high and low pressures, respectively.

• Application of a pressure difference across the annular ring causes

the displacement of the sealing fluid away from the high-pressure
source.

• This in turn causes a turning moment Tm due to which the annular

ring rotates by an angle θ about its centre.

• The mass attached at the lower part produces an opposing or

restoring moment Rm, which balances the turning moment.

• Thus, the differential pressure can be measured using a pointer

and scale arrangement.
Turning moment is given by:

P1 − P2 is the differential pressure, A the area of cross

section of the annular ring, and r1 is the mean radius of the
annular ring.
Restoring moment due to mass is given by:

where m is the mass attached at the lower part, r2 is the radius of

the point of application of the mass, θ is the angle of rotation
acceleration due to gravity, and g is the acceleration due to gravity
▪ The bell is immersed in the sealing fluid in an upside-down
position.

▪ The inverted bell moves in the vertical direction due to the

differential pressure arising out of the pressure difference
between the interior and exterior surfaces of the bell.

▪ This type of manometer is capable of measuring absolute,

positive, negative, and differential pressures, depending on the
pressure on the reference side of the bell
▪ A spring provided on top of the inverted bell balances the
vertical motion of the bell due to a pressure difference or
by the weight of the bell.

▪ The vertical movement of the bell can be translated into a

pointer movement with the help of a linkage system.

▪ A variable reluctance pickup can be employed, which

converts the vertical motion of the bell to an electrical
signal instead of a spring
The upward movement of the bell (Fb ) is balanced against the
opposing force of the spring (Fs ).

At equilibrium,

where k is the spring constant, Δy is the displacement of the bell, and A

is the cross sectional area of the bell.
“Let l be the length of the pointer and θ the angle of deflection, then
Bourdon Tube

Elastic-element type of pressure transducer

It is relatively cheap and is commonly used for measuring

the gauge pressure of both gaseous and liquid fluids.
It consists of a specially shaped piece of oval-section, flexible,
metal tube that is fixed at one end and free to move at the other
end.
The simplest form of Bourdon tube comprises a tube of oval cross-
section bent into a circle.

One end is sealed and attached via an adjustable connecting link to the
lower end of a pivoted quadrant.

The upper part of the quadrant is the toothed segment that engages in the
teeth of the central pinion, which carries the pointer that moves with respect
to a fixed scale. 

Backlash between the quadrant and pinion is minimized by a delicate

hairspring.

The other end of the tube is open so that the pressure to be measured can
be applied via the block to which it is fixed and which also carries the
pressure connection and provides the datum for measurement of the
deflection.
If the internal pressure exceeds the external pressure, the shape of the
tube changes from oval toward circular, with the result that it becomes
straighter.

The movement of the free end drives the pointer mechanism so that the
pointer moves with respect to the scale.

If the internal pressure is less than the external pressure, the free end of
the tube moves toward the block, causing the pointer to move in the
opposite direction.
The material from which the tube is formed must have stable elastic
properties and be selected to suit the fluid for which the pressure is to be
measured. 

Phosphor bronze, beryllium copper, and stainless steel are used most widely,
but for applications involving particularly corrosive fluids, alloys such as K-
Monel are used.

The thickness of the tube and the material from which it is to be fabricated are
selected according to the pressure range, but the actual dimensions of the
tube determine the force available to drive the pointer mechanism. 
The performance of pressure gauges of this type varies widely, not only as a
result of their basic design and materials of construction but also because of
the conditions under which they are used.

The principal sources of error are hysteresis in the Bourdon tube, changes in

its sensitivity due to changes of temperature, frictional effects, and backlash
in the pointer mechanism.

A typical accuracy is ±2 percent of span.

Measuring absolute pressure.

It includes two Bourdon tubes, one being completely evacuated and sealed
to provide the reference while the unknown pressure is applied to the other
Bourdon tube.

The free ends of the Bourdon tubes are connected by a ratio linkage that,
through a push rod, transmits the difference in the movement of the free
ends to a rack assembly, which in turn rotates the pinion and pointer.

Jewel bearings are used to minimize friction, and backlash is eliminated by

maintaining a uniform tension for all positions of the rack and pinion through
the use of a nylon thread to connect a spring on the rack with a grooved
pulley on the pinion shaft.
The Bourdon tubes are made of Ni-Span C, which has a very low
thermoelastic coefficient (change in modulus of elasticity with temperature)
and good resistance to corrosion.

As both Bourdon tubes are subjected to the same atmospheric pressure, the

instrument maintains its accuracy for barometric pressure changes of ±130
mmHg.

The dial diameter is 216 mm, and the full range of the instrument is covered
by two revolutions of the pointer, giving an effective scale length of 1.36 m.

The sensitivity is 0.0125 percent and the accuracy 0.1 percent of full scale.
The ambient temperature effect is less than 0.01 percent of full scale per
Kelvin.
This displacement is measured by some form of displacement
transducer, which is commonly a potentiometer or LVDT.
 Capacitive and optical sensors are also sometimes used to measure
the displacement.
The three common shapes of Bourdon tubes 

The maximum possible deflection of the free end of the tube is proportional to
the angle subtended by the arc through which the tube is bent.

For a C-type tube, the maximum value for this arc is somewhat less than 360°.

Where greater measurement sensitivity and resolution are required, spiral and

helical tubes are used.

These both give a much greater deflection at the free end for a given applied
pressure.
However, this increased measurement performance is only gained at the
expense of a substantial increase in manufacturing difficulty and cost
compared with C-type tubes and is also associated with a large decrease
in the maximum pressure that can be measured.

Spiral and helical types are sometimes provided with a rotating pointer
that moves against a scale to give a visual indication of the measured
pressure
C-type tubes are available for measuring pressures up to 6000 bar.

A typical C-type tube of 25 mm radius has a maximum displacement

travel of 4 mm, giving a moderate level of measurement resolution. 

Measurement inaccuracy is typically quoted at ±1% of full-scale

deflection.

Similar accuracy is observed for helical and spiral types, but while the
measurement resolution is higher, the maximum pressure measurable
is only 700 bar.
The problem is concerned with the relationship between the fluid being
measured and the fluid used for calibration.

The pointer of Bourdon tubes is normally set at zero during manufacture,

using air as the calibration medium.

However, if a different fluid, especially a liquid, is subsequently used with

a Bourdon tube, the fluid in the tube will cause a nonzero deflection
according to its weight compared with air, resulting in a reading error of
up to 6%.
This can be avoided by calibrating the Bourdon tube with the fluid to be
measured instead of with air

Alternatively, correction can be made according to the calculated weight of

the fluid in the tube.

Unfortunately, difficulties arise with both of these solutions if air is trapped in

the tube, since this will prevent the tube being filled completely by the fluid.
Then, the amount of fluid actually in the tube, and its weight, will be
unknown.
Bellows

Pressure changes within the bellows, which is typically fabricated as a

seamless tube of either metal or metal alloy, produce translational motion of
the end of the bellows that can be measured by capacitive, inductive (LVDT)
or potentiometric transducers.

Different versions can measure either absolute pressure (up to 2.5bar) or

gauge pressure (up to 150bar).

Double-bellows versions also exist that are designed to measure differential

pressures of up to 30bar.
Bellows have a typical measurement uncertainty of only 0.5%, but they
have a relatively high manufacturing cost and are prone to failure.

Their principal attribute in the past has been their greater measurement
sensitivity compared with diaphragm sensors.

However, advances in electronics mean that the high-sensitivity

requirement can usually be satisfied now by diaphragm-type devices, and
usage of bellows is therefore falling
The number of convolutions can vary between 5 and 20.

More convolutions means a longer stroke length and a larger measuring

range.

The diameter of the bellows determines the force that can be transmitted
to the transmission mechanism. Therefore a larger diameter will be chosen
for the measurement of very low pressures in order to have sufficient
surface area to which the measured pressure can act.

A larger diameter also means a higher sensitivity and an improvement of

the accuracy.
Bellows may be fabricated from different materials.

Each of these materials has its own specific stiffness, which is proportional to
the Young's modulus of the material, and is inversely proportional to the
outside diameter and the number of convolutions of the bellows.
Bellows are sensitive to temperature changes, work hardening, drift,
friction, hysteresis and vibrations. To compensate for these drawbacks, a
bellows is generally used in combination with a calibrated spring.

As an additional advantage, the measuring range can be determined by

the choice of the spring.

Choosing a strong spring will lead to a large measuring range which

makes it possible to measure large pressures with a bellows pressure
gauge. For this reason, most bellows gauges are spring-loaded.

The spring also protects the bellows from being completely retracted or
stretched beyond the elastic limit and thus extends its lifespan
Measurement of Low or Vacuum Pressure

Devices used to measure vacuum pressures are in two methods.

1. Direct methods
b. Spiral bourdon tube
b. Manometer.

2. Indirect methods
a. McLeod gauge
b. Thermal conductivity.
c. Ionization gauges
 McLeod Gauge

Working principle
A known volume gas is compressed to a smaller volume whose final
value provides an indication of the applied pressure. The gas used
must obey Boyle’s law given by;

P1V1=P2V2

A known volume gas (with low pressure) is compressed to a smaller

volume (with high pressure), and using the resulting volume and
pressure, the initial pressure can be calculated. This is the principle
behind the McLeod gauge operation.
Advantages:

It is independent of the gas composition.

It serves as a reference standard to calibrate other low pressure gauges.
A linear relationship exists between the applied pressure and h
There is no need to apply corrections to the McLeod Gauge readings

Limitation:

The gas whose pressure is to be measured should obey the Boyle’s law
Moisture traps must be provided to avoid any considerable vapor into the
gauge.
It measure only on a sampling basis.
It cannot give a continuous output.
A McLeod gage has V = 100 cm3 and a
capillary diameter of 1 mm. Calculate the
pressure indicated by the reading of 4 cm.

What error would result if we use

Instead of
Thermal conductivity gauges:

Principle.

The temperature of a given wire through which an electric current is flowing

depends on two factors:
1. The magnitude of current
2. The rate at which heat is dissipated.

The current can be kept constant and the rate at which heat is dissipated
will depends on the conductivity of the surrounding media.

If pressure is lowered, its conductivity will also reduce and the wire will
become hotter for given current flow.

Thus it is seen that the temperature of the wire is directly dependent upon
the pressure of the surrounding medium
The most commonly used conductivity gauges are:
1. Thermocouple gauge
2. Pirani gauge.
3. Ionization gauge.
Thermocouple vacuum gauge:

Principle: At Low pressure the thermal conductivity of a gas is

a function of pressure.
It consists of a heater element having a thermocouple in contact
with its centers.
The heater element and thermocouple are enclosed in a glass
or metal envelope which is sealed into the vacuum system.

The heater element is supplied with a constant electric energy

and its temperature is measured by a thermocouple. The
voltage measuring instrument can be directly calibrated to read
the pressure of the gas.

Advantages:
 Inexpensive  Convenient and continuous reading 
Possibility of process control
Disadvantages:
 Required electric power  Narrow reading range
Pirani gauge:

the temperature of the wire is determined by measuring the change of

resistance.

The pirani gauge employs a single filament enclosed in a glass tube/chamber,

whose pressure is to be measured.
As the surrounding pressure changes, the filament temperature
and hence its resistance also changes.
A compensating cell is also employed to minimized variation
caused by ambient temperature changes. The resistance change
of the filament in the measuring cell is measured by the use of a
resistance bridge which is calibrated in terms of pressure.

Advantages:
 The pressure reading range is wider  Fast response to
changes in pressure.
Disadvantages:
 Calibration is non-linear  Poor transient response  Operation
requires electrical power.
Knudsen Gage:

It is an absolute gage in the range of 10-8 to 10-3 torr

Independent of gas composition
More suitable for laboratories
Depends on momentum transfer principle
The gap between the fixed plates and the movable vanes must
be less than mean free path of the gas molecule

Gas molecules rebound from the heated plates with greater

momentum than from the cooler movable vane – this gives a net
force on the spring restricted movable vane. The force can be
measured by the deflection of the movable vane
Ionization gauges:

These gauges are used for measurement of pressures as low

as 0.000001 micron. The maximum pressure which an
ionization gauge can measure is about 1 micron.

The ionization gauge is very similar to the ordinary electronic

tube.

This gauge therefore mainly consists of an envelope which is

evacuated by the pressure to be measure and contains a heat
filament, a positively biased grid and a negative biased plate.
The grid draws electrons from heated filament and collision between them
and gas molecules causes ionization of the molecules as the plate is
negatively charged, the positively charged ions are attached to the plate of
the tube, causing current (I1) flow in the external circuit. The electrons are
collected by the grid and a current I2 is produced in the grid circuit.

The rate of ion production is proportional to the number of electrons

available to ionize the gas and the amount of gas present.

Thus, the ratio of +ve ions i.e., anode current I1 to electrons i.e., grid
current I2 is a measure of gas pressure.
Advantages:
 Fast response to change in pressure.  Possibility of
process control  Wide pressure range.
Disadvantages:
 High cost  Complex electric circuitry  Calibration varies
with gases
Three types of Ionization gages:

Hot cathode ionization gage: consists of a heated filament (

cathode), a grid (upto 10-10 torr) with negative potential (ion
collector), and an anode (electron collector).

Cold cathode ionization gage (Penning gage) : No heated filament

to produce electrons. (upto 10-5 (upto 10 torr) Uses a high electric
field ( Uses a high electric field ( 4kV) ~ between between
cathode and anode to draw electrons out. High magnetic field (~
1500 gauss) causes the electrons to move towards the anode.
Expensive gage.

Alphatron vacuum gage: Relatively less expensive. Uses suitable

alpha-emitter