Zaxo university

School of Engineering
Principle of petroleum engineering

PETROLEUM GEOLOGY

LECTURE 2
Nazir Mafakheri
Lecture 2
 What is petroleum
Petroleum is a mixture of naturally occurring hydrocarbons which
may exist in the solid, liquid, or gaseous states, depending upon the
conditions of pressure and temperature to which it is subjected.

Whereas natural gas contains a few lighter hydrocarbons, both crude

oil and tar deposits may consist of a large number of different
hydrocarbons.
1) Liquid Hydrocarbons: Crude oil or Petroleum
2) Gas Hydrocarbons: Natural Gas: methane,
butane, propane, etc.
3) Solid Hydrocarbons: Tars and Asphalt
 What is petroleum
• Virtually all petroleum is produced from the earth in either liquid or gaseous form, and
commonly, these materials are referred to as either crude oil or natural gas, depending upon the
state of the hydrocarbon mixture.

• Petroleum consists chemically of approximately 11 to 13 wt % hydrogen and 84 to 87 wt %

carbon.

• Traces of Oxygen, Sulfur, Nitrogen, and Helium may be found as impurities in crude
petroleum.
• Although all petroleum is constituted primarily of carbon and hydrogen, the molecular
constitution of crude oils differs widely.
What is petroleum
Chemistry of Petroleum
• Hydrocarbons:
In organic chemistry, a hydrocarbon is an organic
compound consisting entirely of hydrogen and carbon
atoms.
The classifications for hydrocarbons:
1) Saturated hydrocarbons (alkanes)
2) Unsaturated hydrocarbons
3) Cycloalkanes
4) Aromatic hydrocarbons

The simplest
hydrocarbon is
Methane (CH4)
Chemistry of Petroleum
• 1)Saturated hydrocarbons (alkanes):
 Saturated hydrocarbons (alkanes) are the simplest of the hydrocarbon species and are
composed entirely of single bonds and are saturated with hydrogen.

 The general formula for saturated hydrocarbons is:

Chemistry of Petroleum
• 1)Saturated hydrocarbons
(alkanes):
 Saturated hydrocarbons are the basis
of petroleum fuels and

are found as either linear or branched

species.

 These alkane also are called paraffin

hydrocarbons.

Petroleum engineer normally call

these paraffins.
Chemistry of Petroleum
2)Unsaturated hydrocarbons:
• Unsaturated hydrocarbons have one or more double or triple bonds between carbon atoms.

A) alkenes:

The distinguishing feature of the alkene structure is the

carbon-carbon double bond.

The general formula for the alkene family is:

Chemistry of Petroleum
A) alkenes:
Chemistry of Petroleum
2)Unsaturated hydrocarbons:
• Unsaturated hydrocarbons have one or more double or triple bonds between carbon
atoms.

B) alkynes
Those containing triple bonds are called alkynes, with general formula
Chemistry of Petroleum
3) Cycloalkanes
 Cycloalkanes are hydrocarbons containing one or more carbon rings to which hydrogen
atoms are attached.

 The general formula for a saturated hydrocarbon containing one ring is:
Chemistry of Petroleum
3) Cycloalkanes

• The cycloalkanes also are known as

Naphthenes, Cycloparaffins, or alicyclic
hydrocarbons.

• In the petroleum industry, this class of

hydrocarbons is known as

Naphthenes. Naphthenes have saturated rings.

Chemistry of Petroleum
4) Aromatic hydrocarbons:
Aromatic compounds (also called arenes) include benzene and compounds that resemble
benzene in chemical behavior.

Benzene:
Benzene, C6H6, is the simplest aromatic hydrocarbon and was recognized as the first
aromatic hydrocarbon
Chemistry of Petroleum
4) Aromatic hydrocarbons:

generally a minor group of

hydrocarbons that contain at least
one benzene ring (C6H6) in which
all carbons share the fourth bond.
They are called undersaturated
because they will react to add
hydrogen or other elements to
their rings.
 Non hydrocarbon Components of Petroleum
• Petroleum also contain compounds:
1) Sulfur Compounds.
2) Nitrogen
3) Oxygen
4) Little metals

 Common non hydrocarbon constituents of petroleum

are:
1) Nitrogen (𝑁2 )
2) carbon dioxide (𝐶𝑂2 )
3) hydrogen sulfide (𝐻2 𝑆)
Chemistry of Petroleum
Resins and Asphaltenes

The chemicals in petroleum are classified as:

1) Paraffins
2) Naphthenes
3) Aromatics
4) Resins-asphaltenes

 Resins and asphaltenes are large molecules, primarily hydrogen and carbon,
with one to three sulfur, oxygen, or nitrogen atoms per molecule.

 The basic structure is composed of rings, primarily aromatic, with from three to
ten or more rings in each molecule. The non hydrocarbon atom can be a part of
the ring structure or can be located in links connecting the rings.

 The color of petroleum is determined largely by the quantity of resins and

asphaltenes present, although the greenish cast of some crude oils is probably
due to the presence of molecules containing six or more rings.
Chemistry of Petroleum
The exact molecular composition varies widely from formation to formation but the
proportion of chemical elements vary over fairly narrow limits as
follows:
Composition of petroleum

Average and Range of Hydrocarbon series molecules in Crude Oil

Composition of petroleum
Composition of petroleum
Types of Rocks
• Igneous Rocks
– about 20% of all rocks
– they are the product of the cooling of molten magma
intruding from below the mantle of the crust.

• Metamorphic rocks
– about 14% of all rocks
– originate from mechanical, thermal, and chemical
changes of igneous rocks

• Sedimentary Rocks
– about 66% of all rocks
– they are important to the study of petrophysics and
petroleum reservoir engineering.
Classification of Rocks
• The rocks of the earth’s crust are constantly being recycled. Magna
solidifies to form igneous rocks. If igneous rock are exposed at the
surface, they weather, and weathered rock fragments are transported
and sediment, deposited, and lithified into sedimentary rocks. If the
igneous or sedimentary rocks are subjected to temperatures and
pressures that exceed those under which they solidified, they may
undergo changes to form metamorphic rocks.
 Classification of Rocks
IGNEOUS SEDIMENTARY METAMORPHIC

Rock-forming Source of
material

Rocks under high

Molten materials in Weathering and
temperatures
deep crust and erosion of rocks
and pressures in
upper mantle exposed at surface
deep crust
process

Recrystallization due to
Crystallization Sedimentation, burial
heat, pressure, or
(Solidification of melt) and lithification
chemically active fluids
Classification of Rocks
• Igneous
rocks are formed from molten material which is either ejected from the
earth during volcanic activity (e.g., lava flows, and ash falls), or which
crystallizes from a magma that is injected into existing rock and cools
slowly, giving rise rocks such as granites. Igneous rocks are of minor
importance for oil exploration. Rarely, hydrocarbon is produced from
fractured igneous rocks.

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Classification of Rocks
• Sedimentary

rocks are formed from particles derived from igneous, metamorphic or

other sedimentary rocks by weathering and erosion. Sedimentary rocks
provide the hydrocarbon source rocks and most of the oil and gas
reservoir rocks.

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Classification of Rocks
• Metamorphic

rocks are formed by subjecting any of the three rock types to high
temperatures and pressures, that alter the character of the existing rock.
Common examples of metamorphic rocks are marble derived from
limestone and slate derived from shale. Due to the high temperature and
pressures there is very little organic matter or hydrocarbons in
metamorphic rocks.
Classification of Rocks
• What are sediments?
• Sediment - loose, solid particles originating from:
– Weathering and erosion of pre-existing rocks
– Chemical precipitation from solution, including secretion by
organisms in water
Classification of Rocks
• The rocks of the earth’s crust are constantly being recycled. Magna
solidifies to form igneous rocks. If igneous rock are exposed at the
surface, they weather, and weathered rock fragments are transported
and sediment, deposited, and lithified into sedimentary rocks. If the
igneous or sedimentary rocks are subjected to temperatures and
pressures that exceed those under which they solidified, they may
undergo changes to form metamorphic rocks.
Classification of Rocks
The Rock Cycle
Magma

Metamorphic Heat and Pressure Igneous

Rock Rock

n
a
Weathering,
Transportation
Sedimentary and Deposition
Rock Sediment
i
Common Geological Environments
Marine sedimentary environment
Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks
What is a Sedimentary Rock?

Sedimentary rocks are types of rock that Sediments after they are
deposited may be buried and undergo physical and chemical change
resulting in a solid rock.
Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks
• The three most common sedimentary rocks associated with petroleum
reservoirs are:
1) sandstone
2) shale
3) limestone.
Sedimentary Rock Types
• Relative abundance Sandstone
and conglomerate
~11%

Limestone and
dolomite
~13%

Siltstone, mud
and shale
~75%
Origin of petroleum
The theories of the origin of petroleum may be classified as:

1) Organic

2) Inorganic
Origin of petroleum

Origin of petroleum:
1) Organic theories:
The organic theories assume that petroleum evolved from decomposition of
vegetable and animal organisms that lived during previous ages.

2) Inorganic theories:
The inorganic theories attempt to explain the formation of petroleum by
assuming chemical reaction among water, carbon dioxide and various
inorganic substances such as carbides and carbonates, in the earth.
Origin of petroleum
The organic theory of petroleum origin (most accepted)

Ancient seas covered much of the present land area millions of years ago

Over the years, rivers flowing down to these seas carried large volumes of mud
and sedimentary materials ( containing small plants and animals) into the sea.

The buildup of thousands of feet of mud and sediment layers over the sea floor.

The sea floors were slowly sink and squeezed to form the sedimentary rocks (the
sandstones and shales, and the carbonates)

Over many years, pressure, temperature, bacteria, and other reactions caused
these dead organisms to change into oil and gas.

The rocks where oil and gas w source rock.

Origin of petroleum
Origin of petroleum

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The Origin and Habitat of Petroleum
Initial Deposits of Flat

Company name
Petroleum forms from oceanic micro-organisms
 Schematic Representation of the Mechanism
of Petroleum Generation and Destruction

Diagenetic hydrocarbon formation occurs at shallow depths and relatively low

formation temperatures. During catagenesis, oil and wet gas forms, followed
by dry gas and the cracking of heavy hydrocarbons. When the metagenesis
occurs, all heavy hydrocarbons have been cracked, and methane and carbon
are the end products.
Progressive Burial and Heating

Organic Debris
Diagenesis
Oil Reservoir

Kerogen Initial Bitumen

Catagenesis Thermal Degradation
Migration
Oil and Gas
Cracking
Methane
Metagenesis
Carbon
(modified from Tissot and Welte, 1984)
The Origin and Habitat of Petroleum
Accumulation of Oil and Gas
• The accumulation of economic volumes of petroleum (oil and/or gas) in the
subsurface requires that several essential geological elements and processes
be present at specific time and space.

• The essential elements of a petroleum system include the following:

1) Source rock
2) Reservoir rock
3) Migration
4) Traps
The Origin and Habitat of Petroleum
 To have a petroleum accumulation it is necessary to have source rock and a
reservoir or storage bed
Source rock:
 Source rocks generate and expel petroleum when sufficient thermal energy is
imparted to the sedimentary organic matter (kerogen) to break chemical bonds.
This heating is induced usually by burial by overburden rock.

Reservoir rock:
 A subsurface body of rock having sufficient porosity and permeability to store and
transmit fluids.

 A suitable reservoir rock is porous and permeable. That is , the pores interconnect
so that fluids can migrate through the rock.

 Sedimentary rocks are the most common reservoir rocks because they have more
porosity than most igneous and metamorphic rocks and
 Cross Section Of A Petroleum System

Geographic Extent of Petroleum System

Extent of Play
Extent of Prospect/Field
O
O O

Stratigraphic
Extent of
Petroleum
Overburden Rock
System Essential

Sedimentary
Seal Rock

Basin Fill
Elements
of Reservoir Rock
Petroleum
Pod of Active System Source Rock
Source Rock
Underburden Rock
Petroleum Reservoir (O)
Basement Rock
Fold-and-Thrust Belt Top Oil Window
(arrows indicate relative fault motion)
Top Gas Window
(modified from Magoon and Dow, 1994)
The Origin and Habitat of Petroleum
Migration of petroleum :
The movement of hydrocarbons from their source into reservoir rocks.

1) Primary migration

2) Secondary migration
The Origin and Habitat of Petroleum
1) Primary migration:
The movement of newly generated hydrocarbons out of their source rock is
primary migration, also called expulsion.

2) Secondary migration:
The further movement of the hydrocarbons into reservoir rock in a hydrocarbon
trap or other area of accumulation is secondary migration.
The Origin and Habitat of Petroleum
The Origin and Habitat of Petroleum
Traps
If nothing stops oil from rising, it
will reach surface.
A natural barrier, or trap, must exist
for a petroleum accumulation to
form.

Trap:
A configuration of geologic features where oil
and gas (petroleum) can be barred from further
movement.
Traps  As oil and gas are lighter than the ground water which permeates the porous rocks
below the water table, it is evident that the upward movement of petroleum must be
restricted in order that accumulations exist at depth
Traps The closure of the trap is the distance between the crest and the spill
point (lowest point of the trap that can contain hydrocarbons).
Traps Classification of Hydrocarbon Traps

1) Structural traps : Structural traps are traps that are formed because of a
deformation in the rock layer that contains the hydrocarbons.

a) Anticlinal traps: an upward fold in the layers of rock

b) Fault traps: A fault trap occurs when the formations on either side of the
fault have been moved into a position that prevents further migration of
petroleum.
c) diapiric traps: produced by intrusion of salt or mud diapirs

2) Stratigraphic traps: result when a depositional bed changes from

permeable rock into fine-grain impermeable rock
Traps
Traps
 Structural Hydrocarbon Traps
Gas
Shale Oil Oil/Gas Closure
Trap
Contact

Oil/Wate
r
Contact Oil
Fracture Basement
Fold Trap

Salt Salt
Diapir Oil
Dome
 Hydrocarbon Traps(anticlinal)

Gas
Oil

Sandstone
Shale
Fault Trap

Oil / Gas
Stratigraphic Hydrocarbon Traps
Unconformity Pinch out

Uncomformity Oil/Gas
Oil/Gas

Channel Pinch Out

Oil/Gas

(modified from Bjorlykke, 1989)

 Other Traps
Meteoric
Water
Asphalt Trap

Biodegraded
Oil/Asphalt
Partly
Water Biodegraded Oil

Hydrodynamic Trap
Hydrostatic
Head
Shale

Water
Oil
The Origin and Habitat of Petroleum
GENERATION, MIGRATION, AND
TRAPPING OF HYDROCARBONS
Dimension and Units
• Dimension: A dimension is the measure by which a physical variable is
expressed quantitatively.

• Unit: A unit is a particular way of attaching a number to the

quantitative dimension.

• For example: length is a dimension associated with such variables as

distance, displacement, width, deflection, and height, while
centimeters and inches are both numerical units for expressing length
Dimension and Units
• Dimensions:
1) primary dimensions

2) secondary dimensions

• primary dimensions :
In fluid mechanics there are only four primary dimensions from

which all other dimensions can be derived: mass, length, time,

and temperature.

Dimension of mass = [M]

Dimension of length= [L]

Dimension of time = [T]

Dimension and Units
• secondary dimensions:
A secondary dimension is one that is formed by combining

primary dimensions. For example:

Dimension and Units
• Systems of Units

Systems of units have always varied widely from country to country, even

after international agreements have been reached.

British Gravitational (BG) System:

 In the BG system:

 unit of length is: foot (ft)

 time unit is: second (s)

 The mass unit: slug

 force unit is: pound (lb)

 temperature unit is:

 degree Fahrenheit (°F)

or

absolute temperature unit is: degree Rankine (°R) °R °+ 459.67

Dimension and Units
Dimension and Units
• International System (SI)

 unit of length is: meter (m)

 time unit is: second (s)

 The mass unit: kilogram (kg)

 force unit is: newton (N)

 temperature unit is: kelvin degree (°K) °K ° + 273.15

The Kelvin temperature scale is an absolute scale and is related to the Celsius (centigrade)
scale (°C) through the relationship:
 Dimension and Units
• The force unit, called the newton (N), is defined from Newton’s second law as

• Standard gravity in SI is:

Dimension and Units
• Prefixes for forming multiples and fractions of SI units
Dimension and Units
English Engineering (EE) System.

 unit of length is: foot (ft)

 time unit is: second (s)

 The mass unit: pound mass (Ibm)

 force unit is: pound (lb) or pound force (lbf)

 temperature unit is:

 degree Fahrenheit (°F)

or

absolute temperature unit is: degree Rankine (°R)

Dimension and Units
In petroleum engineering, two dimension and unit systems are
commonly used:

• The International System of Units (SI Units)

• The American Engineering System of Units (Oilfield Units)(more
useful)
Dimension and Units
Physical properties of Hydrocarbons

Physical properties of Hydrocarbons

Physical properties of Hydrocarbons
• Viscosity
• Density
• Spesific gravity
• API
Physical properties of Hydrocarbons
Density:
 Density is an extremely important property of matter.
 The density of a fluid (or any other form of matter) is the amount of mass
per unit volume.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑚
𝜌= =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑉

𝑀 𝑘𝑔 𝑔 𝑙𝑏𝑚
Dimensions: Units: 3 ; ;
𝐿3 𝑚 𝑐𝑚3 𝑓𝑡 3

 Density is highly variable in gases and increases nearly proportionally to the

pressure level. Density in liquids is nearly constant. at °C and atm:
• Water: 1000 kg/m3;
• Mercury: 13546 kg/m3;
• Air: 1.23 kg/m3;
• Paraffin: 800 kg/m3.
Physical properties of Hydrocarbons
Specific gravity:
 Specific gravity, denoted by SG.
 Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the density of a fluid to the density of some
standard fluid at a specified temperature and pressure.
 Commonly standard fluid for liquids is Water and for gasses is Air.

𝜌𝑔𝑎𝑠
Specific gravity for gases 𝑆𝐺𝑔𝑎𝑠 =
𝜌𝐴𝑖𝑟

𝜌𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
Specific gravity for liquids 𝑆𝐺𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 =
𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
Physical properties of Hydrocarbons
Specific gravity of gases:

𝜌𝑔𝑎𝑠
𝑆𝐺𝑔𝑎𝑠 =
𝜌𝐴𝑖𝑟

P=14.7 psi = 101.325 kPa =1atm 𝑘𝑔 𝑙𝑏

at 𝜌𝐴𝑖𝑟 = 1.225 3 = 0.076 3
𝑚 𝑓𝑡
T= 60 °F = 15 °C = 288.15 °K

𝜌𝑔𝑎𝑠
𝑆𝐺𝑔𝑎𝑠 =
𝑙𝑏
0.076 3
𝑓𝑡
Physical properties of Hydrocarbons
Specific gravity of Crude Oil:

𝜌𝑜
𝑆𝐺𝑜 =
𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

P=14.7 psi = 101.325 kPa =1atm 𝑘𝑔 𝑙𝑏

𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 999 3 = 62.4 3
at 𝑚 𝑓𝑡
T= 60 °F = 15 °C = 288.15 °K

𝜌𝑜
The specific gravity of crude oils ranges from 𝑆𝐺𝑜 =
𝑙𝑏
about 0.75 to 1.01. 62.4
𝑓𝑡 3
Physical properties of Hydrocarbons
The American Petroleum Institute gravity, or API gravity
 Although the density and specific gravity are used extensively in the petroleum
industry, the API gravity is the preferred gravity scale.
 This gravity scale is precisely related to the specific gravity by the following
expression:

141.5
𝐴𝑃𝐼 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 = − 131.5
𝑆𝐺𝑜

141.5
Conversely, 𝑆𝐺𝑜 =
𝐴𝑃𝐼 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 + 131.5
Physical properties of Hydrocarbons
• API gravity, is a measure of how heavy or light a petroleum liquid is compared
to water.
• Crude oil is classified as light, medium or heavy, according to its measured API
gravity.

 Light crude oil is defined as having an API gravity higher than 31.1 °API (less than
870 kg/m3)
 Medium oil is defined as having an API gravity between 22.3 °API and 31.1 °API (870
to 920 kg/m3)
 Heavy crude oil is defined as having an API gravity below 22.3 °API (920 to
1000 kg/m3)
 Extra heavy oil is defined with API gravity below 10.0 °API (greater than 1000 kg/m3)
Crude Oils
Light Crude Heavy Crude
Palo Pinto Field Humble Oil Field
North Texas Southwest Texas
Physical properties of Hydrocarbons
Viscosity:
 The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of the internal fluid friction (resistance) to
flow.
 If the friction between layers of the fluid is small, i.e., low viscosity, an applied
shearing force will result in a large velocity gradient.
 As the viscosity increases, each fluid layer exerts a larger frictional drag on the
adjacent layers and velocity gradient decreases.

Symbols: o, g, w

Units: cp
Range and typical values
0.25 to 10,000 cp, Black oil
0.5 to 1.0 cp, Water
0.012 to 0.035 cp, Gas
Physical properties of Hydrocarbons