T h e h y d rod yn am ics o f n o n -N e w to n ia n fluids.

B y R . S. R iv lin

British Rubber Producers’ Research Association, Welwyn Garden City, Herts.,

England, and National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C., U.S.A.
{Communicated by E. K. Rideal, F.R.S.—Received 12 November 1947)

The classical theory of the hydrodynamics of viscous fluids depends on the assumption of a
particular law governing the relations between the components of stress in a fluid and those
of the strain-velocity. This assumption limits its applicability to Newtonian fluids. Here, the
most general possible relations between the stress and strain-velocity components, which
can be obeyed by an incompressible, visco-inelastic fluid, are derived. These relations also
apply to an incompressible, visco-elastic fluid in a steady state of laminar flow. It is shown
how equations of motion and boundary conditions can be obtained if these relations are
known. Two problems involving laminar flow are then discussed in some detail. These are:
(i) the torsional motion of a cylindrical mass of fluid, produced by means of forces applied
to its plane ends, and (ii) the laminar flow of a mass of fluid contained between two coaxial
cylinders rotating with different angular velocities.
It is found in case (i) that, in general, normal tractions must be applied to the plane
surfaces of the fluid, in addition to the azimuthal tractions expected from the classical
theory, in order to produce the specified motion. Analogous results are obtained in case (ii).
These results apply even when centrifugal forces are neglected and so imply a qualitative
difference between the behaviour of fluids in general and those for which the special case of
classical hydrodynamics is valid.

1 . I n t r o d u c t io n

The classical theory of the hydrodynamics of viscous fluids seeks to answer questions
of the following ty p es: (i) I f a mass of fluid is subjected to a specified system of forces,
w hat is the resulting flow configuration in the fluid ? (ii) W hat are the forces necessary
to produce a specified state of flow in a fluid ?
In order to answer these questions, some m athem atical description m ust be given
of the fundam ental physical properties of the fluid as regards flow. In the classical
theory, the assum ption is made in the form of a definite relationship between the
stress components a t a point of the fluid and the strain-velocity components. This
relationship is linear, invariant under a transform ation of the axes of reference and
does not involve time derivatives of the stress or strain-velocity components. From
a m athem atical point of view, it forms a sufficiently comprehensive description of
the basic flow properties of an ideal fluid to form an adequate starting-point for the
development of a m athem atical theory. The applicability of the results of this theory
are, of course, limited by the assumed stress-strain-velocity relationships. The wide­
spread agreement of the predictions of the theory with the experim ental results,
for such fluids as water, air, mercury, etc., provides justification for it and inspires
confidence in its predictions.
I t has long been realized, however, th a t the fundam ental stress-strain-velocity
relations of classical hydrodynamics are not applicable to a vast num ber of highly -
viscous fluids. Many of these have great technological im portance and, w ith the
[ 260 ]
 Thehydrodynamics of non-Newtonian fluids. I 261
growth of scientific investigation of macro-molecular m aterials and colloids, an
increasing scientific interest. To avoid confusion over the use of these term s, it is
stated explicitly th a t, in this paper, fluids will be described as Newtonian or non-
Newtonian accordingly as the classical hydrodynam ics does or does n ot apply to
them . Non-Newtonian fluids m ay be either visco-elastic or visco-inelastic.
In th e present paper, a hydrodynam ic theory is form ulated w ithout the restric­
tions implied by the assumed stress-strain-velocity relations of the classical theory.
The only physical assum ptions made regarding the fluid are (i) th a t it is in ­
compressible, (ii) th a t it is visco-inelastic, and (iii) th a t it is isotropic when all
components of the strain-velocity, as classically defined, are zero.
The mere fact th a t the m aterial considered is a visco-inelastic fluid implies th a t
the stress-strain-velocity relations do not involve tim e derivatives of the stress or
strain-velocity components. The classical theory, for incompressible fluids, forms
a special and simplest case of the theory developed here.
In p art A, the kinematics of flow is developed in a form suitable for the purposes
of the present theory.
In p art B, the m ost general possible form of the stress-strain-velocity relations,
subject to the lim itations implied by the assumptions made above, are obtained and
the equations of m otion and boundary conditions are discussed.
In p art C, two simple problems involving steady-state lam inar flow are discussed.
These are: (i) the torsional m otion of a cylindrical mass of fluid, produced by forces
applied to the plane ends, and (ii) the torsional motion of a mass of fluid between
infinite coaxial cylinders rotating with different angular velocities about their
common axis.
In both cases, the relation between the force system and th e flow-velocity and the
resulting stress distribution in the fluid are derived.
Throughout the paper a rectangular, Cartesian reference system has been used.
Much of the discussion could, of course, be readily expressed in the notation of the
tensor calculus, b u t in the interests of ease of application and availability to a wider
circle of readers, this has not been done.

A. THE KINEMATICS OF FLOW

2 . D e s c r ip t io n o f a s t a t e o f s t e a d y f l o w

Consider a viscous, incompressible fluid in a state of steady flow. The state of

flow m ay be described completely w ith reference to a fixed rectangular, Cartesian
co-ordinate system (x,y,z). The velocity of a point of the fluid which is a t
has components u, v and w parallel to the axes x, y and z respectively. Since the
state of flow is steady, u, v and w are functions of x, y and z only and independent of
time.
The velocities of two neighbouring points P and P' situated a t (x,y,z) and
(x + Sx, y + 8y,z + 8z)respectively have components (u, v, w) and (u
 262 R. S. Rivlin
respectively. Then 8u,8v and 8w are the components of the velocity
to P. Since u, v and w are functions of x, y and
8u=
together with two similar equations for 8v and 8w.
The velocity of P' relative to P can be considered to be made up of two parts:
(i) th a t due to the pure rotation of the element of volume containing P P ' ; this
has components 8mlf8vj2 and 8m3,given by
8wi = \{7j8z —C , 8 y ) , 8 m 2 = \{^8x-E,8z) and
in which £ = wy - v z, y = uz - w xand £= v
(ii) th a t due to the irrotational deform ation of the elem ent of volume con­
taining P P ' ; its components 8u',8v' and 8w' are given by
8u' — a,8x + \h 8y +
8v’ = \h 8x + b8y + \f8 z > (2*4)
and 8w' = \g8x + \f 8 y + c8z, _
where
a = ux, b = vy, c = wz, f = v s + wy, g = wx + uz and (2*5)
I t can readily be seen th a t
8u = 8u' + m
8j , 8v = 8v' + and 8w = (8w'
2 *6 )+ 8m3,

where 8u, 8v and 8w are given by (2-1).

The m agnitude 8V of the relative velocity (8u, 8v, ) is given by

(£F)2 = (&*)2+(&;)2+(<to;)2
(8x)2+ y8(B
)2 + C(8 (2*7)
where A = u2 + v2 + w2, F = 2 (UyUz + VyVz + W
'
B = u2 + v2 + w2, G = 2(uzux + vzvx + wzwx), ( 2 *8 )

C= u2+ v2+ w2, H = 2 (UXUy + Vx Vy + W

Again, the magnitude 8V' of the irrotational relative velocity is

given by
(SF' ) 2 = ( 8u ' ) 2+ (& > ')2 + (& *>')2

= A'{8x)2+ B'(8y)2+ C'{8z)2+ F'8y8z+G '8z8x +(2-9)

where A' = a2+ \{g2+ h2), F' = \gh + (6 + c)/,'
B' = b2+ l(h2+ / 2), G' = - ( 2 - 10)

C ' = c2+ \ { f 2+ g2), H' = $fg + (a + b)h„

and a, b, c, /, g and h are given by (2*5).
 Thehydrodynamics of non-Newtonian fluids. I 263
Since the length 8s of the element P P ' is given by
{8s)2 = ( x82)+ {8y)2+ {8z)2, (2-11)
and its direction-cosines {l, m, n) by
l = 8x/8s,m= 8y/8s and n = 8zj8s, (2*1
we obtain, from (2-7),
{dV/ds)2= (8V/8s)2 = A l2+ Bm2+ Cn+
and, from (2*9),
{dV'jds)2= {8V'18s)2= A'l2+ B'm2+ C 'n (2-14)
I f 6 is the angle between the directions of the relative velocity (8u, 8v, 8w) and the
linear element P P ', we have
8V 8s cos 6 = 8x8u + 8y 8v+ 8z8w
= a{8x)2+ b{8y)2+ c{8z)2+ f8y8z + g8z8x + h8x8y. (2-15)
Thus, employing the relations (2*11), (2*12) and (2-15), we have
{dV/ds) cos 0 = (8V/8s) cos 0
= al2+ bm2+ cn2+fmn +
I f 0' is the angle between the irrotational relative velocity (8u', 8v', 8w') and the
element P P ', we can similarly obtain
8V'8s cos 0' = a{8x)2+ b(8y)2+ c(8z)2+ f8y8z + g8z8x + h8x8y, (2-17)
or {dV'/ds) cos 0’ = '/s)cos 0'
{8V
= al2+ bm2+ cn2+fm n + gnl + hlm. (2*18)

3. The f l o w q u a d r ic s

I f we consider a small element of the fluid in the neighbourhood of the point

(re, y, z) and take (8x, 8y, 8z) as the current co-ordinates of a point P' in this element,
in the co-ordinate system (8x, 8y, 8z) whose origin P is a t (x, y, z) and whose axes are
parallel to those of the original reference axes {x, y, z), then equation (2-7), in which
£F is given some constant value, represents the surface on which the velocity of P'
relative to P has this value. We can choose the axes of reference (x, y, z)—and hence
(8x, 8y, 8z)—to be parallel to the axes of this quadric. The axes of reference will, of
course, then vary in direction from point to point of the fluid. W ith this choice of
axes the equation of the quadric takes the form
V2{8x)2+ = (<$F)2, (3-1)
where V\, V\ and F§ are the values of F 2 given by
A - V\H \G
\H 2 0. (3-2)
bG bF
264 R. S. Rivlin
I f we p u t 8y = 8z—0 in (3-1), we obtain

(£F)2 =

Thus, V\ is inherently positive. Analogously, F | and F | are positive. Therefore, the

quadric represented by equation (3-1) or (2-7) is an ellipsoid.
The lengths of the semi-axes of the flow ellipsoid (3-1) or (2-7) are proportional to
1 fVx, ljV2and 1/F, and it should be noted th a t the motion of the element of fluid in
the neighbourhood of P—ap art from any translational motion of
a whole—may be considered to consist of three components of relative motion,
parallel to the axes of the ellipsoid (3-1). These components are V2 and F, per unit
length in the appropriate direction.
In a similar manner, equation (2-9), in which has some constant value, repre­
sents a surface on which the irrotational portion of the velocity of P' relative to P,
has the value 8V'.Again, we can choose the axes of reference to be paralle
axes of the ellipsoid (2*9). Then, equation (2*9) takes the form

F i2( ^ ) 2+ F '2% ) 2+ F ^ 2 ) 2 = (£F')2, (3-3)

where V[2, V'2 and V'z2are the values of V'2 given by

A '-V '2 \H '
B '-V '2 P ” = 0. (3-4)
\G ‘ P ' C '-V '2

As in the case of equation (2*7), it can be seen th a t the quadric represented by (3*3)
is an ellipsoid.
The lengths of the semi-axes of the flow ellipsoid (2*9) or (3-3) are proportional to
1/F£, l/Fg and l/V z. Again, it is noted th a t the irrotational portion of the motion in
the fluid element in the neighbourhood of P m ay be considered to consist of three
components of relative motion, parallel to the axes of the ellipsoid (2-9). These com­
ponents are V[, V2 and Vz per u n it length in their directions.
Again, let us consider the flow quadric (2-17). Transforming this to its axes as
axes of reference, it takes the form

Ux{8x)2+ U2{8y)2+ l\{8z)2= (3-5)

where Ux,XJ2 and Uz are the values of u given by

a -U \h \g
b -U \f = 0. (3-6)
i f c-U
I t can be seen th a t the direction of the velocity 8V' a t any point of the surface of
the quadric (2-17) or (3-5) is th a t of the normal to the quadric a t th a t point.
 The hydrodynamics of non-Newtonian fluids. I 265
4. S calar in v a r ia n t s o f t h e st a t e o f f l o w

From equation (3*2), we see th a t Ff, Ff and Ff are the values of F 2 for which the
equation
F 6 —^ F 4 + I2F 2 —/ 3 = 0, (4*1)
in which Ix = A+ B + C,
I2 = A B + B C + C A - I F * - I G * - I H 2 (4-2)
and J3 = A B C + ± F G H - I A F * - \ B G * - I C H * K
is satisfied.
Thus, we have l x= Ff + Ff + F f,
h = F f FI + F | Ff + Ff(4-3)
Ff -
and h = V \V \V l
Since the solutions of (4-1) for F 2 are independent of the choice of the axes of
reference, any symmetrical function of Ff, F | and F | m ust be independent of the
choice of the axes of reference and m ust therefore be a scalar invariant of the flow
w ith respect to a transform ation of axes. In particular, the three independent
functions of Ff, Ff and Ff, given by equations (3-2) or (4-1), m ust be scalar invariants
of the flow. This could be directly proved by carrying out the transform ation of the
expressions on the right-hand side of equations (4-2) from one rectangular, Cartesian
co-ordinate system to another, bearing in mind th a t and H are defined,
in any rectangular, Cartesian co-ordinate system, by (2-8).
Again, by writing equation (3-4) in the form
F '6 — JxF '4+ J2F '2—J3 = 0, (4-4)
where Jx = A ' + B ' + C',
J2 = A'B' + B'C' + C ' A ' - I F ' * - I G ' * - I H ’*- (4-5)
and J3 = A'B'C' + l F ' G ' H ' - l A ' F ' t - l B ' G ' t - l C ' H ' * ^
we readily see th a t if V'x2, V22and F 32 are the values of F '2 for w
is satisfied, = j/ jz + y% +
j 2 = f ;2 f ' 2+ r : / r ^ + f ^ f ;2]- (4-6)
and j 3 = f ;2 f ' 2f ' 2.
By an argum ent similar to th a t used in establishing the invariance of / 2 and / 3,
it can be seen th a t Jx, J 2and J 3, given by (4-5) or (4*6), are ind
invariants of the flow.
Again, by writing by equation (3-6) in the form
U * - K 1U* + K 2U - K 3 = 0, (4-7)
where K-i ^ U±-\- U2-\- = a -{- b c, \
K% = UxU2+ J72^3 + U2 = cib + be + ca —Jf 2—^(/2—J/&2i (4-8)
and K s = UxU2Uz = abc + \fgh - £ a/2- \bg2- J
we can establish th a t K x, K 2and K z are independent scalar invarian
Ux, U2, U3 are the values of U for which equation (4*7) is satisfied.
 266 R. S. Rivlin
5. R e l a t io n s b e t w e e n t h e sc a l a r in v a r ia n t s o f fl o w

In this section we shall state certain relationships between the scalar invariants
of flow K x, K 2and K 3,defined by (4 -8 ), and the scalar invar
J3, defined by (4*5).
The relations are
JX= - 2 K 2+ K 2, J2 = K 2- 2 K xK 3and = (5-1)
These may be readily proved by employing equations (4-8) to express K 2 and
K 3 in term s of a, b, c,f, g and h and equations (4-5), together with equati
to express Jv J2and J3in terms of a, 6, c,f, g and h. By simple algebraic manipulation,
the relations (5 T ) are derived.
If the fluid is incompressible, it can readily be shown (see, for example, Lamb
(1924, § 12)), th a t , r u e /=•
" K x = a + b + c =0.
In this case, the relationships (5*1) become
Jx= —2 K 2,J2 =
The following further relationship, which is readily proved, by simple algebraic
manipulation, from (2-10) and (4-8), is w orthy of note:
aA' + bB' + cC' + \f F ' + \gQ' + \KH' = K l ~ 3 K xK 2+ S K 3. (5-4)
If the fluid is incompressible, so th a t the relation (5*2) is obeyed, equation (5-4)
becomes + bB' + cC' + \f F ' + + \hH' = 3K3. (5-5)

6. R elations between the axes of the flow quadrics

In this section we shall first prove th a t
'* = U \, V22 = U\and V'2 = U2, (6-1)
where V[, V2 and V3 and Ux, U2 and U3 are defined as in § 3. Then, it will be shown
th a t the axes of the flow quadrics (2*9) and (2-17), a t any point, are parallel.
Squaring equation (4-7), we have
U6- 2 KU
x * + (K2+ 2 K 2) U4
- (2
+ (2K xK 3+= 0. (6-2)
From (4-7), U2 = K x U2- K 2U + K 3.
Introducing this expression for U3 in the term of (6-2) in U5, we have
U6- { K 2- 2 K 2) U * - 2 K 3U3 + K 2U2- 2 K 2K 3U + K 2 = 0. (6-3)
Again, from (4-7), K 2U = K XU2 + K 3—U3.
Employing this to substitute for K 2 U in the term —2K 2K 3 U of (6*3), we obtain
U * - ( K 2- 2 K 2) U i + (K 2- 2 K xK 3) U 2- K 2 = 0. (6-4)
 The hydrodynamics of non-Newtonian . I 267
Introducing into (6-4) the relations (5-1), we obtain
U6
Comparing equations (6*5) and (4-4), it can readily be seen th a t the values of for
which equation (6-5) is satisfied are equal to the values of V'2 for which equation
(4-4) is satisfied. Now, since equation (6-5) is obtained by squaring (4-7), the values
Ux, U2 and U3 of U which satisfy (4*7) also satisfy (6-5). Thus, we obtain the relations
( 6 *1).
L et (lx,m x,n x)be the direction-cosines of an axis of th e flow ellipsoid (2-17) w ith
respect to the co-ordinate system (x,y, z). Then, if Ux is
lx, m1 and nxare given by
(a - XJx) lx+ \hmx+ = 0,
\hlx+ ( b - U x)m x+ \ f n x = 0 -
and \glx+ %fmx+ (c - Ux) nx = 0.,
Multiplying these three equations by a, \h and \g respectively and adding, bearing
in m ind the relations (2*10), we obtain
A'lx+ \H 'm x+ \G 'nx—Ux(alx+ \hm x+ \gn
Substituting from the first of equations (6*6) in (6-7), we obtain
(A '- U\) lx+ \H 'm x+ = 0.
Introducing into this equation the first of the results (6-1), we obtain
(A' - V'2) lx+ \H'm + \G'n
In an analogous manner, we can obtain the further equations
\H 'lx+ ( B '- V 'x2)mx+ \F 'n x= 0 |
and \ G ,lx+ \ F ,mx+ ( C ' - V ' 2)nx = 0.(J > )
Now, equations (6*8) and (6-9) are the equations determining the direction-cosines
(lx,m x,n x) of an axis of the ellipsoid (2*9) w ith respect to x, y, z. Thus, the flow
quadrics (2*9) and (2-17) m ust have their axes parallel.

7. T r a n s f o r m a t io n o f t h e s t r a i n - v e l o c it y c o m p o n e n t s

If the rectangular, Cartesian co-ordinate systems (x,y,z) and (x0, y0, z0) are
oriented with respect to each other according to the scheme
x y z

xQ k
Vo l2 m2 n2
Zo h m3 nz
then x0 — lxx + mxy + nxz,
y Q= l2x + m2y + n2z (7-1)
and z0 = l2x + msy + n3z.
268 R. S. Rivlin
If (Uq, Vq, Wq)are the velocity components in the co-ordinate system (a;0, y 0, z0)
corresponding to the velocity components ( w) in the co-ordinate system y,
we have
u = lxuQ+ l2vQ+ l3wQ,
v = mxUQ+ m2vQ+ m3w0
and w= n1u()-\-
Now, employing the relations (7-1) and (7-2), the six equations relating
{a, b, c, i f , ig, )h
\a nd (a0, 60, c0, | / 0,
can be obtained as
a— ux— l\bQ+ £§c0+ ^2 ^3 /0 ^i{7o
and \ f = i{vz + wy) = m1n1a0 + m2ni b0+ m3► (7-3)
+ {m3n1+ m1n3)(ig0) + (m1n2+ ni2n1)(ih 0), etc.,
where a0, b0, c0, i f 0,ig0, ih 0 are the components of the strain-velocity in
ordinate system (x0,y 0,z0); i.e. a0 = dujdx0, etc.
In (7-3) the expressions for b and \g are obtained from those for a and i f by
replacing lby m, m
by nan d n by l. Those for c and \h are similarly obtaine
the expressions for b and \g.
From the relations (7*3) we can readily find A', B', C', iO' and \H ' in term s
of A'0, B'0, C'0, iF'0, iO'0a nd iH'0, where
A'0 = al + \{gl + hi), etc. and F'0 = ig 0h0+ (b0+ c0) /0, etc. (7-4)
We obtain
A' = q A l + QBl + l!Cl + 2Iala(lFl) + 2I9l1( W ) + 2l1la(iH lh e tc /
and iF ' = m1n1A'0 + m2n2B'0 + m3n3C'0 + (m2n3+ m 3n 2) (7-5)
+ {m3nl + m1n3)(iGQ) + {m1n2+ m2n1)(iH'0), etc. ,

B. THE DYNAMICS OF NON-NEWTONIAN FLUIDS

8. T he dissipation-function
I f we consider an element, of volume dr, in the neighbourhood of the point
P(x, y, z) of a mass of fluid, then the rate a t which energy is dissipated in this volume
in the form of heat is O dr (say), where O is dependent on the state of flow within the
element of volume. We shall call O the dissipation-function* Now, C> cannot be
dependent on the choice of the axes of reference and m ust therefore be a scalar
invariant of the state of flow.
We have already seen in § 2 th a t the state of flow m ay be completely described by
specifying a purely rotational velocity for the volume elements in the neighbourhood
* The dissipation-function as defined here is not identical with the Rayleigh dissipation-
function. The latter is equal to half the rate at which energy is dissipated per unit volume.
 Thehydrodynamics of non-Newtonian fluids. I 269
of each point of the fluid together with a velocity of'relative separation of th e various
points of the element. The purely rotational motion of the element involves no
relative separation of the points of the fluid and therefore involves no energy dis­
sipation in the element itself.
The dissipation-function <f>is therefore dependent purely on the irfotational com­
ponent of the flow and is therefore a function of the scalar invariants K 2 and K z
of the irrotational com ponent of the flow. Bearing in mind th a t for an incompressible
fluid K x = 0, the dissipation-function is then a function of K 2 and only. Thus,
O= <&(K2, K 3).(8-1)
W hatever the form of O as a function of K 2 and it can be approxim ated, with
any desired degree of accuracy, by a polynomial expression. Thus

4> = £ £ h sK \ K l (8-2)
i= 0 J=0
where are constants characterizing the particular fluid considered. Since, when
th e fluid is stationary, K 2, K zand O m ust all be zero, y 00 = 0

9. T he r e l a t io n b e t w e e n s t r e s s a n d s t a t e o f f l o w

I t has been shown (see, for example, Lam b (1924, § 329)) th a t the rate 0 a t which
energy is dissipated, per u nit volume of a fluid, is related to th e stress components
txx, tyy,. .., txy by the formula
^ = tXXa J r t y y b - \ - t zzC - \ - t y j Jr t z x g - \ - t Xy h . ^ ’l )

The argum ent leading to this relation is a purely mechanical one and does not in ­
volve any assumptions regarding the physical properties of the fluid and so can be
taken over here w ithout change.
In developing our hydrodynam ic theory for incompressible, visco-inelastic,
non-Newtonian fluids, it is now necessary to find a set of relationships between the
stress components a t a point and the values of the components a, b, c, \f , \h of
the strain-velocity, corresponding to any specified dissipation-function. I t can
readily be seen th a t although this cannot be done uniquely, the specification of a
particular dissipation-function limits the form which can be taken by the stress-
strain-velocity relationships, because of the relation (9-1).
Let us consider the stress-strain-velocity relation
txx = 2 ya+p,e tc. and tyz = /if, etc. (9-2)
This is the classical stress-strain-velocity relation for an incompressible, Newtonian
fluid. I t is readily seen, in view of equations (9-1), (4-8) and (5*2), th a t for such
a flmd O= - 4 (9-3)
Again, let us consider the stress-strain-velocity relation
txx = 2y'A'+j), etc. and tyz = , etc. (9-4)
270 R. S. Rivlin
Then, in view of equations (9-1), (5-5) and (5*2), the corresponding form of the
dissipation-function <I>is given by
O= §/(9-5)
For stress-strain-velocity relations having the form (9-2) or (9*4), it is seen th a t the
corresponding dissipation-functions, given by (9*3) and (9-5), are functions of the
scalar invariants of flow, K 2 and K 3.
Generalizing this result, let us consider the stress-strain-velocity relations to
have the form
txx= 2(da + 2YA' + p , etc. and = S f+
where 0 and are any functions of the scalar invariants of flow K 2 and
Then, by similar arguments to those employed in deriving equations (9-3) and (9-5)
from (9-2) and (9-4) respectively, we obtain the dissipation-function corresponding
to the stress-strain-velocity relations (9*6) as
<D = - 4 0 ^ 2 + 6 ^ 3 . (9-7)
This dissipation-function is clearly a function of the scalar invariants of flow
K 2 and K 3.
Of course, for a set of stress-strain-velocity relations to be admissable as the
description of the flow properties of a fluid, they m ust not only lead to a dissipation-
function which is independent of the state of flow, b u t m ust also be invariant under
a transform ation of the axes of reference. I t can readily be shown th a t the relations
(9-6) satisfy this condition and this will be done in the next section.

10. I nvariance of the stress-strain-velocity relations

The stress c o m p o n e n ts^ , tyy, ..., tx
tyransform (see, for exam
according to the law

Lx — ^1G0x0+ tUoVo+ ll tZoz0+ 2Z2l3tyoZo+ tZoXo+ l2tXoUo, etc.

tyz = mxnxtXoXo+ m2n2tyoVo+ rn3n3tZo+ (m2n3
( 10+
- 1m3n2)
) tyoZo
+ (w3 nx+ mxn3)tZoXo
where tXoXQ, tyot/Q, ...,tXoVo are the components of stress in the co-ordinate system
(#0, Vo, z0) defined as in § 7.
I t is readily seen, by comparing equations (10*1) with equations (7-3) and (7*5),
th a t the stress components txx, tyy,. ..,
(A', B', C', %F',\G', \H') all transform according to the same laws, when the axes
of reference are transformed. The stress-strain-velocity relations (9-6) are therefore
invariant under a transform ation from one set of rectangular, Cartesian co-ordinates
to another. I t is noted th a t 0 and T*, being functions of the flow invariants, are
unaltered by a transform ation of the axes. Also, p is unaltered by a transform ation
of the axes.
 Thehydrodynamics of non-Newtonian fluids. 1 271
I t is notew orthy th a t the law of transform ation of the quantities ( ...,txy) or
(a, or (A',...,\H') is th a t for a contravariant tensor.
I t has now been shown th a t the stress-strain-velocity relations (9-6) are admissible
as the description of the flow properties of an incompressible fluid from the stan d ­
points th a t they are invariant under a transform ation from one rectangular,
Cartesian reference system to another and th a t they lead to a dissipation function
which is a function of the flow invariants. In the n ex t section it will be shown th a t
equations (9-6) represent the most general form which can be taken by the stress-
strain-velocity relations for an incompressible, visco-inelastic fluid.

11. T he general stress-strain -velocity relations

In this section, we shall prove th a t any stress-strain-velocity relations which are
suitable for describing the properties of an incompressible, visco-inelastic fluid m ust
have the form of equations (9-6) or be capable of being w ritten in this form.
I f the axes ( X, Y, )Zo f th e flow quadrics, repres
(2*17), are taken as the axes of reference, then the stress-strain-velocity relations
(9*6), in the neighbourhood of the point to which these flow quadrics apply, take
the form _T _ T„TTa .
tx x = 2®U1+ 2x¥ U l + p ,
tYY — 2@U2+ 2 xYU
(1M)
tzz = 2QU3+ 2XF +
and tYz = tz x = Cy f = A*
Conversely, if the stress-strain-velocity relations take this form in the axial system
{X, Y, Z), they will take the form (9-6) in the axial system ( , y, z).
Since the fluid is isotropic in its state of rest, th e stress-strain-velocity relations
in the axial system ( X, Y,
of the co-ordinates (X, Y, Z) and since the fluid is visco-inelastic th e principal
stress components m ust be functions of UxU2 a
form for the stress-strain-velocity relationships in the co-ordinate system (X, F, Z) is

tx x ~ T(UX, , +p,
tYY = F(U2,U3,U1) + p , .
V (Li'2)
tzz = T(U3, Ux, U2) + p
and tYZ = tZx ~ Cef = .

where F is an arbitrary function.

Two of the relations (4*8) can be used to eliminate U2 and U3 from th e first of
equations (11-2), U3 and Uxfrom the second of equations (11 -2) and Uxand U2from the
third of equations (11*2). Equations (11*2) then take the form

tx x —T'(K2, K 3,Ux)+ p, etc. (11-3)

272 R. S. Rivlin
Now F'(K2, K z, Ux)can be expanded, with any desired degree of accuracy, ov
desired range of values of Ux,as a polynomial in the coe
functions ofthe flow invariants K 2and

Employing this expression to substitute for in the polynomial expansion of

F'(K2, K z, Ux),we obtain
F'(K2, K z, Ux)=
where 0 and T* are functions of K 2and K z only. Strictly
(11-4) contains, in general, a further term which is a function of and only,
b ut this may be incorporated with pi
n (11-3).
In a similar manner, analogous expressions for U2) and F'(K2, Uz)
can be found. Introducing these into equations (11*3), we obtain equations (11*1),
which are therefore the most general stress-strain-velocity relations th a t can be
used to describe the flow properties of a fluid. These are, of course, referred to the
axes of flow as reference co-ordinates. Referred to the general rectangular, Cartesian
co-ordinate system ( x,yz),
, they take the form (9-6).
Reiner (1945) obtained stress-strain-velocity relations similar to (9*6) for a general,
compressible fluid, in order to explain the phenomenon of dilatancy. In his equations
p is replaced by an arbitrary function of the strain-velocity invariants K x, K 2
and K z, and 0 and T* are also functions of these three strain-velocity invariants. I t
does not appear th a t the non-vanishing of T is in any way essential to dilatancy.

12. T he E ulerian equations of motion

The Eulerian equations of motion for a fluid may be w ritten (see, for example,
Lamb (1924, §328)) in term s of the stress components in the co-ordinate system
(x,y,z) as
Du
p X + ^xx , ycjf . etc. ( 12 - 1)
dx dy dz
where p is the density of the fluid and X, Y, are the components parallel to the
axes x, y and z respectively of the body force per unit mass of the fluid acting a t the
point (x,y, z). The operator D/Dt has the meaning expressed by
D a 0 0 0
( 12- 2 )
D r d t + u s i + % + w Fz-
Substituting in equations (12-1) the general expressions (9-6) for the stress com­
ponents, we obtain the equations of motion for an incompressible, non-Newtonian
fluid in term s of the velocity components u, v and w.

13. T he boundary conditions

Let us suppose th a t surface tractions, of which the components parallel to the axes
x, y and z are X v, Yv and Zv respectively per unit area of the boundary, are applied
to the boundary surface of the fluid a t the point (x, y, z) on it. X v, Yv and Zv are
 Thehydrodynamics of non-Newtonian fluids. I 273
functions of the position (x, y, z) on the boundary and of the time t. A t each in stan t,
the components parallel to x,y and z of the forces, due to the st
of the liquid m ust be in equilibrium w ith those due to the applied surface tractions.
We thus obtain, th e three boundary conditions (Lamb 1924, §§325 and 327)
txx cos (x,v) + txy cos (y, v) + 1„ cos (2, v) = X v, etc.
where (x, v), (y, v) and (z, v) are the angles between the normal v to the surface a t
the point (x, y, z) and the x, y and z axes respectively.
Again we can substitute in (13* 1) the expressions for the stress components given
in equations (9-6) and so obtain the boundary conditions in term s of the components
u, v and w of the velocity.
As in classical hydrodynam ical theory, the boundary conditions m ay not be given
in the form of applied surface tractions, b u t as specified values of the velocity com­
ponents u, v and w over the boundary. Again, the boundary conditions m ay be of
the mixed type, in which specified values of the surface tractions are given over p art
of the boundary surface and specified values of the velocity components u, v and w
over the rem ainder of the boundary.

C. PROBLEMS INVOLVING LAMINAR FLOW

14. I n t r o d u c t o r y rem arks

I t can readily be seen th a t for lam inar flow of the zz-planes of the fluid parallel
to the ar-axis,
f(V),
E quations (2*5) and (2-10) yield
a —b = c = f = g = 0 and h — uy (14*1)
and A' = B' = \u \, V = 0, H' = 0. (14*2)
Substituting from (14*1) and (14*2) in (9-6), we obtain
txx tyy ~ f ^ u y -\-'p, t~z j), tyz tzx 0 and txy Qiiy. (14 3)
Thus, ap art from an arb itrary hydrostatic pressure, the stress system associated
with lam inar flow consists of a tangential component and normal components txx
and tyy. These normal components vanish for a Newtonian fluid and indeed for any
fluid for which T* = 0 in equations (9*6).
In §§ 15 and 16, we shall consider in greater detail certain problems of lam inar
flow which are of practical interest.

15. T o r s io n a l m o t io n o f a c y l i n d r i c a l m a s s o f f l u i d

In this section the torsional motion of a cylindrical mass of incompressible fluid

about its axis will be considered. Let us assume th a t the radius and length of this
mass of fluid are a and l respectively. Let us assume th a t each point of the fluid
274 R. S. Rivlin
moves in a circular p ath about the axis of the cylinder with a speed which is pro­
portional to its distance r from the axis and its distance from one end of the cylinder.
Let us take as axes of reference, a rectangular, Cartesian co-ordinate system
( x, y, z), which has its z-axis coincident with the axis of the cylinder and its and
y-axes in the plane of one end of the cylinder. Then the components u, v and w of the
velocity of a point of the fluid, which is a t ( , y, z), parallel to the axes x, y and z of
the rectangular, Cartesian co-ordinate system, are given by
u = —\,zyrJ v=
where r2 = x2+ y 2(15-2)
and is a constant. From equations (15-1) and (2*5), we see th a t for this motion
of the fluid,
a = 0, 6 = 0, c = 0, f = xjrx, g = —rfry and 6 = 0. (1
Again, from equations (15-3) and (2-10), we see th a t
A' \xjf2y 2, B' = l ^ 2x2, C
(15*4)
O'= 0 and II' — —\\]f2xy.
F urther, employing the relations (15*3) in (4-8), we obtain
K 2 = - { r r *and K 3 = 0. (15*5)
Also, it is seen th a t the relation (5*2), which m ust be valid for an incompressible
fluid, is autom atically satisfied.
I f the stress-strain-velocity relationships take the form (9-6), we can find the
stress components a t the point (x,y,z) by introducing the relations (15-3), (15*4)
and (15-5) into (9-6). We obtain
txx = 2'¥(li/r2y 2) + p ,
tyy = 2'¥(\ijr2x2
2 'F ( i^ V ) + p ,
(15-6)
tyz =

hx =
and txy = ^ ( - ^ x y ) , .
where © and T are now functions of K 2 only, K 2 being given by (15*5).
Introducing these expressions for the stress components into the equations of
motion (12-1), together with the formulae (15-1) for u, v and w, we obtain

—pxlr2xz2 = p X + ^ —

- p\jr2yz2= p F + (15-7)

and 0 = pZ +
dz ’
 Thehydrodynamics of non-Newtonian fluids. I 275
L et us assume th a t pz2 is small compared w ith T a t all points of the fluid mass, so
th a t the components of the centrifugal force and —p\jr2yz2 in equations
(15*7) can be neglected. If, further, the applied body forces are zero, then equations
(15*7) become ? ~ ~
g = ^ V F , f y = W y V and | = 0 . (15-8)

I t is readily seen th a t these equations are compatible and lead to the following
equation for p: ~
^= 1^W . (15-9)

Thus, the state of m otion described by equations (15-1) can be supported by

surface tractions alone.
L et us take a t each point of the fluid a rectangular, Cartesian co-ordinate system
(r, 6, z), the axes of which are parallel to the radial, azim uthal and axial directions
a t th a t point. Then, the orientations of the axes ( , z) w ith respect to the axes
(x, y, z) are given by the scheme
r 6 z

X * xjr -y /r 0
y y/r x/r 0
z 0 0- 1
Therefore, the components of stress t„, ted,. .., in
given by
_ x2
*"rr — txx + ^2 ''VV + ^

* _ %W4
l0d ~ A lxx ^ A lyy VV a 1X\

x y (15-10)
toz —~tyz—- tex,
y x
^zr= ~tyZ+ ~ tzx

and ^re — 2^ XX+ —y 2) tXy.

Introducing into these equations the expressions (15-6) for txx, tyy, . . . , t xu, we obtain

^rr V->
he = T ‘( |f V 2) + p ,
hz = T W 2r2)-l-p, ► (15-11)
t6e = rxjrtd
and ^zr = tr0 ~ 0* i

VoL 193. A. 18
276 R. S. Rivlin
L et us assume th a t when r = a, trr= 0 and hence p = 0. This enab
the constant of integration in the integral of equation (15-9), giving

p= f
Ja s
Now, the surface tractions which m ust act on the plane ends and on the curved
surface of the mass of fluid to m aintain the state of m otion described by equations
(15*1) are given by equations (13*1) and, for the particular problem considered here,
could be calculated by introducing the expressions (15*6) for and writing
cos (x, r) = cos ( y,
over the plane ends of the cylinder, and
cos (x, v) = x/r, cos ( y,v) = y/r and
over the curved surface of the cylinder. However, it is simpler to calculate directly
the radial, azim uthal and longitudinal components, , 0 ' and Z' respectively,
directly by noting th a t over the curved surface
R' = t„, 0 ' = t6r and Z' — (15*13)
and over the plane ends
R' = trz, 0 ' = tdz and Z' = tzz. (15*14)

Substituting in (15*13) and (15*14) the expressions for trnt0d, ... given in equations
(15*11), where p is given by (15*12), we see th a t, over the curved surface of the
cylinder, the surface tractions vanish and, over the plane ends, they are given by

R ' — 0, & '= riJrQ and = f rT* (15*15)

• Ja
The couple which m ust be exerted on a plane end of the cylindrical mass of fluid is

I Q'2nr2dr = 2nr/f j rz&dr. (15*16)

Jo Jo
Since 0 is a function of K 2 and K z which, for the motion considered, are given by
(15*5), the expression (15*16) can readily be calculated if the form of 0 as a function
of K 2 and K z is known.
I t is apparent from (15*15) th at, in general, to produce the motion described by
(15*1) it is necessary to exert, in addition to the couple, a normal surface traction.
The presence of the term s 2lFJ4', . . . , XY F ’, on the right-hand sides of the stress-
strain-velocity relations (9*6) does not alter the value of the couple (15*16) and the
presence of the term s 2 0 a , ..., 0/ , . . . does not affect the value of normal surface
traction Z' given by (15*15). Therefore, experiments in which the dependence of the
couple (15*16) on rfsi measured can only yield inform ation on the form of 0 for the
m aterial and, since K z= 0 for the motion considered, only on its de
 Thehydrodynamics of non-Newtonian fluids. I 277
K 2when K 3 = 0. Again, experim ents in which is measured can yield inform ation
only on the form of T as a function of K 2, when K z = 0.
In the simplest case of equations (9*6), for which T 4=0 ,0 and T are both constants.
Then the norm al surface tractions Z ’, which m ust be
the cylindrical mass of fluid, are given, from (15-15), by
Z’= ^VrJr2(Zr2(15-17)

and the couple which m ust be exerted is given by (15-16) as

^ 0 a 4. (15-18)

I t is seen from (15-17) th a t Z ’ changes sign when r = a/yj3, and is positive or negative
when r= 0 accordingly as T is negative or positive.

16. F low between rotating infinite cylinders

We shall now consider the motion of an incompressible fluid, whose stress-strain-
velocity relationships take the form (9-6), between two infinite, coaxial cylinders
of radii ax and a2 respectively (a2> a 1), when the angular velocity of the outer
cylinder is £22 and th a t of the inner cylinder is Q1# We shall assume th a t each point
of the fluid moves in a plane perpendicular to the common axis of the cylinders
and in a circular orbit about this axis.
I f the angular velocity of th e fluid a t a point d istan t r from the axis of th e cylinders
£2 = Q1? when r = ax, and Q = Q2, whe
I t is noted th a t for the state of m otion described, £2 is a function of r only. L et us
take as axes of reference a rectangular, Cartesian co-ordinate system (x,y,z), the
z-axis of which coincides w ith the axis of the cylinders. Then, if and w are the
components of velocity of the point (x, y, z) of the fluid parallel to x, y and z
respectively, we have
v= .Q
xand 0. (16*2)

Introducing these expressions for u, v and w into (2-5) and noting th a t r2 = x2 + y 2,

we obtain
— ar * . r < = o,
(16-3)
/ = 0, g= 0 and h = - ( x 2—y 2)Q.

Substituting these expressions in (2-10), we obtain

A' = \ r 2£l2, B' = i r 2Q2, C' = 0, = 0, = 0 and H' = 0. (16-4)
I t is readily seen th a t the relation (5-2), which m ust be obeyed for any motion of
an incompressible fluid, is autom atically satisfied by (16-3) and hence for the motion
described by (16-2).
 278 R. S. Rivlin
Substituting in (4*8), from (16*3), we see th a t for this motion of the fluid
K 2 = -\r * & rand = 0.
Now, let us consider the case when the stress-strain-velocity relations for the
material take the form (9-6). For the motion considered these become

txx = - 2 0 ^ Q r + 2 'F £ r2n2+j9,

2 0 ^ Q r + 2W frK % + P ,
(16-6)
hz =P,
tyg hx^
and hy = ® \ { x 2~ y 2)&r

The components o f-stress t^., tee,...,tr0, defined as in §1

combining equations (16-6) with (15*10). We obtain
hr = he= t„ p,
(16-7)
hz = hr — ^ and = 0rQ r.:■)
Substituting the expressions (16*7) and (16*2) in the equations of motion (12*1),
we obtain, when the body forces are zero (involving neglect of the gravitational
forces on the fluid) so th a t X = Y = Z = 0,

-p * ™ = a - ; 0 A - J' 4 ( 0 ?n') +l (JTrU2)>

- « ' Q* = (16*8)

and 0 = |? .
CZ
dp _ x dp
Since
dr r d x r dy
(16*9)
and
BO ‘'dx d y ’)
we obtain, from (16*8),

% — e*
(16*10)
and

I f p is independent of 6, as it m ust be for the cylindrically symmetrical state of flow

we have assumed, dpjdd = 0 and the second of equations (16*10) yields

0 -n r (16*11)
r
where Ci
s a constant of integration.
 The hydrodynamics of non-Newtonian fluids. I 279

I t can readily be seen, by direct substitution in (16-8), th a t if 0 - Q r is given by

(16-11), equations (16-8) are compatible. I f the form of 0 as a function of K 2 and K z
and hence, from (16-5), of —| r 2Q2, is known, equation (16-11) can be used to obtain
II as a function of r. The integration involved introduces a further constant of
integration and this, together w ith C in (16-11), can be obtained by employing the
two boundary conditions (16-1). I t is clear th a t the radial distribution of the
angular velocity is unaffected by the presence in the stress-strain-velocity relations
(9-6) of the term s containing T . However, from the first of equations (16-10), it
is seen th a t .
p = - iprQ.2dr-W r*Q? (16-12

where C' is a constant of integration.

Introducing expression (16-12) for p, the stress
of m otion considered become
hr~ tee -jp rW d

tsz = - ^ Pr C lM r - \'¥ r * a i+ C , (16-13)

hz hr
and hd 0 rfL
I t is seen th a t the presence of the term s containing T* in the stress-strain-velocity
relations (9-6) modifies the expressions for the stress components to the extent of
the term —|TV 2fl2 in the expression for tzz.
I f the form of the stress-strain-velocity relations is known, then (16-13) can be
used to determine the necessary surface tractions th a t m ust be applied to the mass
of fluid to produce the state of motion described by (16-2).
If the angular velocity II is sufficiently small then the term s — in (16-13)
can be neglected. I f the length of the cylindrical mass of fluid is finite, then the system
of external forces which m ust be applied to m aintain the state of motion considered
consists of (i) azim uthal surface tractions acting over the inner and outer curved
surfaces of the fluid mass of am ounts C/a\ and C /a| respectively, (ii) a normal surface
traction acting over the plane ends of the fluid mass of am ount —^F(72/ 0 2r4, and
(iii) an arbitrary uniform normal surface traction C", acting over the whole of the
surface of the fluid.
The surface tractions (i) imply th a t in order to produce in the fluid the state of
motion under discussion, equal and oppositely directed couples of magnitude 2nC
m ust be applied to the confining cylinders per unit length. I t is noted too th a t the
surface traction (ii) vanishes when T* = 0, for the state of motion considered.
F o rth e particular case, when 0 is a constant, we find, from (16-11) and (16-1), th a t
a\a\
C - 20(Q 1- Q 2) (16-14)
a\ —d
280 R. S. Rivlin
so th a t the surface traction (ii) becomes

(16-15)

I f T* is constant, this is positive or negative depending on the sign of T*. I f the

surface traction (16-15) is not applied, the surface of the fluid will have a tendency
to rise or fall a t the surface of the inner cylinder accordingly as T* is positive or
negative. In either case, the effect will be greatest a t the inner confining cylinder.

17. G e n e r a l rem arks

A fluid is generally recognized as non-Newtonian on the basis of viscosimetric

experiments. For a Newtonian fluid in a steady state of lam inar flow, a linear
relation obtains between the shearing stress and rate of shear. I t is generally assumed
th a t if such a relation is obtained experimentally, the fluid under investigation is
Newtonian and th a t the whole of the classical hydrodynamic theory for viscous
fluids is applicable. I t is seen, from the results of §§ 15 and 16, th a t this is by no means
correct. Fluids, which appear Newtonian on the basis of experiments involving
steady-state lam inar flow, may, from the stand-point of the phenomenological
theory, be non-Newtonian and distinguishable from Newtonian fluids by other
steady-state experiments in which the flow is not laminar.
I t should be remarked th a t any visco-elastic material, which is fluid-like in its
ability to be continuously deformed, cannot be distinguished from a visco-inelastic
fluid solely by means of steady-state experiments, in which the flow is laminar.
F or example, suppose the fundam ental stress-strain-velocity relations for the
m aterial involve time derivatives of the stress components. For a steady state of
flow, these vanish and the stress-strain-velocity relations are indistinguishable from
those describing a true fluid.
I t may well be th a t the theory formulated in the present paper may have as an
im portant field of application the correlation of the steady-state lam inar flow
properties of such visco-elastic materials.
Effects similar to those predicted from the theory of §§15 and 16 have been
described in a num ber of fluids by Weissenberg (1947). They are interpreted by him
as arising from the fact th a t the fluids concerned have highly-elastic as well
as viscous properties. I t does not, however, appear th a t this explanation can
be correct, from a phenomenological point-of-view, since, in the experiments, the
fluids are in a steady-state of lam inar flow. In the theory presented here, these
phenomena appear to arise from the non-vanishing of T* in the stress-strain-velocity
relations. From a phenomenological point-of-view, this does not imply th a t the
fluid is visco-elastic. However, it may be th a t the microscopic or molecular features
of a fluid, which lead to a non-zero value for T*, also result in the fluid having visco­
elastic properties.
 Thehydrodynamics of non-Newtonian fluids. I 281
This work forms p a rt of a program m e of fundam ental research undertaken by
th e Board of the B ritish R ubber Producers’ Research Association. The work was
carried out a t the N ational B ureau of Standards, W ashington, D.C., U.S.A., while
th e author was a guest-worker there.

R eferences

Lamb, H. 1924 Hydrodynamics, 5th ed. Camb. Univ. Press.

Love, A. E. H. 1927 The mathematical theory of elasticity, 4th ed.
Camb. Univ. Press.
Reiner, M. 1945 Amer. J. Math. 67, 350-362.
Weissenberg, K. 1947 Nature, 159, 310.

A theory of the yielding and plastic flow of

anisotropic metals
B y R . H ill

( Communicated by E. Orowan, —
S
.R
F Received 13 November 1947)

A theory is suggested which describes, on a macroscopic scale, the yielding and plastic
flow of an anisotropic metal. The type of anisotropy considered is that resulting from preferred
orientation. A yield criterion is postulated on general grounds which is similar in form to the
Huber-Mises criterion for isotropic metals, but which contains six parameters specifying the
state of anisotropy. By using von Mises’ concept ( 1928 ) of a plastic potential, associated
relations are then found between the stress and strain-increment tensors. The theory is applied
to experiments of Korber & Hoff ( 1928 ) on the necking under uniaxial tension of thin strips
cut from rolled sheet. It is shown, in full agreement with experimental data, that there are
generally two, equally possible, necking directions whose orientation depends on the angle
between the strip axis and the rolling direction. As a second example, pure torsion of a thin-
walled cylinder is analyzed. With increasing twist anisotropy is developed. In accordance
with recent observations by Swift ( 1947 ), the theory predicts changes in length of the cylinder.
The theory is also applied to determine the earing positions in cups deep-drawn from rolled
sheet.
1 . I n t r o d u c t io n

The macroscopic yielding and plastic straining of isotropic ductile metals has been
described by theories which m ay be regarded as essentially satisfactory. The well-
known Huber-Mises criterion for determining th e elastic limit under combined
stresses of metals which deform homogeneously, for example, copper, aluminium,
nickel, has been confirmed by m any experiments over the last tw enty years. There
are one or two exceptions, notably annealed mild steel which softens after yielding.
The specimen is traversed by Luders’ bands and the deformation is non-uniform.
In such circumstances th e maximum shear-stress criterion of Coulomb or Tresca
is found to be a better approxim ation th an th a t of Huber-Mises. This is hardly