Group members:

Aliza Tariq fdm-2a

Safiya shabbir fdm-2b
hunza rafique fdm -2b
Shoaib hanif amm-2a

Abu Rayhan Al-Biruni

George Sarton, the founder of the History of Science discipline, defined al-Biruni as
“one of the very greatest scientists of Islam, and, all considered, one of the greatest
of all times”. A universal genius that lived in the Central Asia a thousand of years ago,
al-Biruni “was so far ahead of his time that his most brilliant discoveries seemed
incomprehensible to most of the scholars of his days”

Background & Research

Abu Rayhan al-Biruni was born in Khwarazm, a religion adjoining the Aral Sea now
known as karakalpakstan. The two major cities in this region were Kath and
jurjaniyya. Al -Biruni was born near Kath and the town where he was born is today
called Biruni after the Great Scholar. In fact, the word “Biruni” means “from an outer
district”, in Persian, and so he was known as “the Birunian”, with the Latinized name
“Alberonius”. In his early youth, fortune brought al-Biruni in contact with an
educated Greek who was his first teacher. His foster father, Mansur, was a member
of the royal family and a distinguished mathematician and astronomer. He
introduced al-Biruni to Euclidean Geometry and Ptolemaic astronomy. Then, al-
Biruni spent his first twenty-five years in Khwarazm where he studied the body of
Islamic law, theology, grammar, mathematics, astronomy and other sciences. In the
time, Khwarazm had long been famed for its advance culture. Its cities had
magnificent palaces and religious colleges, and the sciences were esteemed and
highly developed. He lived both in Kath and in Jurjaniyya as he grew up and we know
that he began studies at a very early age under the famous astronomer and
mathematician Abu Nasr Mansur. Certainly, by the age of seventeen al-Biruni was
engaged in serious scientific work for it was in 990 that he computed the latitude of
Kath by observing the maximum altitude of the sun.

Other work which al-Biruni undertook as a young man was more theoretical. Before
995 (when he was 22 years old) he had written a number of short works. One which
has survived is his Cartography which is a work on map projections. As well as
describing his own projection of a hemisphere onto a plane, al-Biruni showed that by
the age of 22 he was already extremely well read for he had studied a wide selection
of map projections invented by others and he discusses them in the treatise. The
comparatively quiet life that al-Biruni led up to this point was to come to a sudden
end. It is interesting to speculate on how different his life, and contribution to
scholarship, might have been but for the change in his life forced by the political
events of 995.

The end of the 10th century and beginning of the 11th century was a period of great
unrest in the Islamic world and there were civil wars in the region in which al-Biruni
was living. Khwarazm was at this time part of the Samanid Empire which ruled from
Bukhara. Other states in the region were the Ziyarid state with its capital at Gurgan
on the Caspian Sea. Further west, the Buwayhid dynasty ruled over the area between
the Caspian Sea and the Persian Gulf, and over Mesopotamia. Another kingdom
which was rapidly rising in influence was the Ghaznavids whose capital was at
Ghazna in Afghanistan, a kingdom which was to play a major role in al-Biruni's life.

The Banu Iraq were the rulers of the Khwarazm region and Abu Nasr Mansur, al-
Biruni's teacher, was a prince of that family. In 995 the rule by the Banu Iraq was
overthrown in a coup. Al-Biruni fled at the outbreak of the civil war but it is less clear
what happened to his teacher Abu Nasr Mansur at this stage. Describing these
events later al-Biruni wrote

After I had barely settled down for a few years, I was permitted by the Lord of Time
to go back home, but I was compelled to participate in worldly affairs, which excited
the envy of fools, but which made the wise pity me.
Exactly where al-Biruni went when he fled from Khwarazm is unclear. He might have
gone to Rayy (near to where the city of Tehran stands today) at this time, but
certainly he was there at some time during the following few years. He writes that he
was without a patron when in Rayy and lived in poverty. al-Khujandi was an
astronomer who was working with a very large instrument he had built on the
mountain above Rayy to observe meridian transits of the sun near the solstices. He
made observations on 16 and 17 June 994 for the summer solstice and 14 and 17
December 994 for the winter solstice. From these values he calculated the obliquity
of the ecliptic, and the latitude of Rayy but neither are particularly accurate.

Al-Khujandi discussed these observations, and his large sextant, with al-Biruni who
later reported on them in his Tahdid where he claimed that the aperture of the sextant
settled by about one span in the course of al-Khujandi's observations due to the weight
of the instrument. Al-Biruni is almost certainly correct in pinpointing the cause of al-
Khujandi's errors. Since al-Khujandi died in 1000, we can be fairly certain that al-
Biruni spent part of the time between 995 and 997 at Rayy. He must also have spent
part of this time in Gilan, which is bordered by the Caspian Sea on the north, for
around this time he dedicated a work to the ruler of Gilan, ibn Rustam, who had
connections with the Ziyarid state.

We know certain dates in al-Biruni's life with certainty for he describes astronomical
events in his works which allow accurate dates and places to be determined. His
description of an eclipse of the moon on 24 May 997 which he observed at Kath
means that he had returned to his native country by this time. The eclipse was an
event that was also visible in Baghdad and al-Biruni had arranged with Abu'l-Wafa to
observe it there. Comparing their timings enabled them to calculate the difference in
longitude between the cities. We know that al-Biruni moved around frequently during
this period for by 1000 he was at Gurgan being supported by Qabus, the ruler of the
Ziyarid state. He dedicated his work Chronology to Qabus around 1000 and he was
still in Gurgan on 19 February 1003 and 14 August 1003 when he observed eclipses
of the moon there. We should record that in the Chronology al-Biruni refers to seven
earlier works which he had written: one on the decimal system, one on the astrolabe,
one on astronomical observations, three on astrology, and two on history.
By 4 June 1004 al-Biruni was back in his homeland, for on that day he observed
another eclipse of the moon from Jurjaniyya. Ali ibn Ma'mun had ruled over
Khwarazm and he remained at the court when his brother Abu'l Abbas Ma'mun
succeeded him as ruler. Both the Ma'mun brothers married sisters of the ruler
Mahmud from the powerful state at Ghazna which would eventually take control of
Abu'l Abbas Ma'mun's kingdom.

Both Ali ibn Ma'mun and Abu'l Abbas Ma'mun were patrons of the sciences and
supported a number of top scientists at their court. By 1004 Abu'l Abbas Ma'mun was
ruler and he provided generous support for al-Biruni's scientific work. Not only did al-
Biruni work there but Abu Nasr Mansur, his former teacher also worked there,
allowing the pair to renew their collaboration. With Abu'l Abbas Ma'mun's support al-
Biruni built an instrument at Jurjaniyya to observe solar meridian transits and he made
15 such observations with the instrument between 7 June 1016 and 7 December 1016.

Wars in the region were to disrupt the scientific work of al-Biruni and Abu Nasr
Mansur and eventually both left Khwarazm in about 1017. Mahmud was extending
his influence over the region from his base in Ghazna and made a demand of Abu'l
Abbas Ma'mun in 1014 to have his name inserted into the Friday prayers. This was a
signal that he wanted an end to Ma'mun's rule and he was making a bid for the region
to come under his control. After Ma'mun had at least partially agreed to Mahmud's
demands, he was killed by his own army for what they considered to be an act of
treachery. Following this Mahmud marched his army into the region and gained
control of Kath on 3 July 1017. Both al-Biruni and Abu Nasr Mansur left with the
victorious Mahmud, perhaps as his prisoners.

There follows a strange period during which there is evidence in al-Biruni's own
writings that he suffered great hardships but he also seems to have been supported by
Mahmud for some scientific work. Some reports that Mahmud was cruel to al-Biruni
may have some basis despite the limited patronage al-Biruni received from the ruler.
Some dates and places from this period can again be deduced from descriptions of
astronomical events recorded by al-Biruni. He was in Kabul on 14 October 1018 but,
despite having no instruments with which to observe, he was able to make an
observation with an ingenious instrument he made from materials at hand. At
Lamghan, north of Kabul, on 8 April 1019 he observed an eclipse of the sun, writing

... at sunrise we saw that approximately one-third of the sun was eclipsed and that
the eclipse was waning.
Between 1018 and 1020, supported by Mahmud, al-Biruni made observations from
Ghazna which allowed an accurate determination of its latitude. On 17 September
1019 there was a lunar eclipse observed by al-Biruni from Ghazna and

He gives precise details of the exact altitude of various well-known stars at the
moment of first contact.
The relationship between Mahmud and al-Biruni is interesting. It is likely that al-
Biruni was essentially a prisoner of Mahmud and was not free to leave. However,
Mahmud's military excursions into India meant that al-Biruni was taken to that
country, and there can have been few experiences that al-Biruni would have enjoyed
more. He may have wished for better treatment from Mahmud but al-Biruni's
scientific work certainly benefited. From around 1022 Mahmud's armies began to
have success in taking control of the northern parts of India and in 1026 his armies
marched to the Indian Ocean. Al-Biruni seems only to have been in the northern
parts of India, and we are uncertain how many visits he made, but observations he
made there enabled him to determine the latitudes of eleven towns around the
Punjab and the borders of Kashmir. His most famous work India was written as a
direct result of the studies he made while in that country.

The India is a massive work covering many different aspects of the country. Al-Biruni
describes the religion and philosophy of India, its caste system and marriage
customs. He then studies the Indian systems of writing and numbers before going on
to examine the geography of the country. The book also examines Indian astronomy,
astrology and the calendar.

Al-Biruni studied Indian literature in the original, translating several Sanskrit texts
into Arabic. He also wrote several treatises devoted to certain aspects of Indian
astronomy and mathematics which were of particular interest to him. Al-Biruni was
amazingly well read, having knowledge of Sanskrit literature on topics such as
astrology, astronomy, chronology, geography, grammar, mathematics, medicine,
philosophy, religion, and weights and measures.

Mahmud died in 1030 and he was succeeded by his eldest son Mas'ud, although not
before a difficult political situation in which the two sons of Mahmud each tried to
follow their father as ruler. Clearly al-Biruni was unsure who would succeed for he
chose not to give a dedication in his India which appeared at this time. Better to have
no dedication than to choose the wrong one. Mas'ud proved to be a ruler who
treated al-Biruni more kindly than his father had done. If al-Biruni had been a virtual
prisoner before, he now seems to have become free to travel as he pleased. Mas'ud
was murdered in 1040 and succeeded by his son Mawdud who ruled for eight years.
By this time al-Biruni was an old man but he continued his enormous output of
scientific works right up to the time of his death.

The total number of works produced by al-Biruni during his lifetime is impressive.
Kennedy. writing in, estimates that he wrote around 146 works with a total of about
13,000 folios (a folio contains about the same amount as a printed page from a
modern book). We have mentioned some of the works above, but the range of al-
Biruni's works cover essentially the whole of science at his time.

Kennedy writes:

... his bent was strongly towards the study of observable phenomena, in nature and
in man. Within the sciences themselves he was attracted by those fields then
susceptible of mathematical analysis.
We have mentioned al-Biruni's astronomical observations many time above. It is
worth noting that he had a better feel for errors than did Ptolemy. In the author
comments that Ptolemy's attitude was to select the observations which he thought
most reliable (often that meant fitting in with his theory), and not to tell the reader
about observations that he was discarding. Al-Biruni, on the other hand, treats errors
more scientifically and when he does choose some to be more reliable than others,
he also gives the discarded observations. He was also very conscious of rounding
errors in calculations, and always attempted to observe quantities which required
the minimum manipulation to produce answers.

One of the most important of al-Biruni's many texts is Shadows which he is thought

to have written around 1021. Rosenfel'd has written extensively on this work of al-
Biruni. The contents of the work include the Arabic nomenclature of shade and
shadows, strange phenomena involving shadows, gnomonic, the history of the
tangent and secant functions, applications of the shadow functions to the astrolabe
and to other instruments, shadow observations for the solution of various
astronomical problems, and the shadow-determined times of Muslim
prayers. Shadows is an extremely important source for our knowledge of the history
of mathematics, astronomy, and physics. It also contains important ideas such as the
idea that acceleration is connected with non-uniform motion, using three
rectangular coordinates to define a point in 3-space, and ideas that some see as
anticipating the introduction of polar coordinates.
The book details the mathematical contributions of al-Biruni. These include
theoretical and practical arithmetic, summation of series, combinatorial analysis, the
rule of three, irrational numbers, ratio theory, algebraic definitions, method of
solving algebraic equations, geometry, Archimedes' theorems, trisection of the
angle and other problems which cannot be solved with ruler and
compass alone, conic sections, stereometrics, stereographic projection,
trigonometry, the sine theorem in the plane, and solving spherical triangles.

Important contributions to geodesy and geography were also made by al-Biruni. He

introduced techniques to measure the earth and distances on it using triangulation.
He found the radius of the earth to be 6339.6 km, a value not obtained in the West
until the 16th century. His Masudic canon contains a table giving the coordinates of
six hundred places, almost all of which he had direct knowledge. Not all, however,
were

measured by al-Biruni himself, some being taken from a similar table given by al-
Khwarizmi. The author of remarks that al-Biruni seemed to realize that for places
given by both al-Khwarizmi and Ptolemy, the value obtained by al-Khwarizmi is the
more accurate.

Al-Biruni also wrote a treatise on time-keeping, wrote several treatises on the

astrolabe and describes a mechanical calendar. He makes interesting observations
on the velocity of light, stating that its velocity is immense compared with that of
sound. He also describes the Milky Way as

... a collection of countless fragments of the nature of nebulous stars.

Topics in physics that were studied by al-Biruni included hydrostatics and made very
accurate measurements of specific weights. He described the ratios between the
densities of gold, mercury, lead, silver, bronze, copper, brass, iron, and tin. Al-Biruni
displayed the results as combinations of integers and numbers of the form 1/n, n = 2,
3, 4, ..., 10.Many of al-Biruni's ideas were worked out in discussions and arguments
with other scholars. He had a long-standing collaboration with his teacher Abu Nasr
Mansur, each asking the other to undertake specific pieces of work to support their
own. He corresponded with Avicenna, in a rather confrontational fashion, about the
nature of heat and light. In eighteen letters which Avicenna sent to al-Biruni in
answer to questions that he had posed are given. These letters cover topics such as
philosophy, spherical versions of the sine theorem. Al-Biruni says were due to his
teacher Abu Nasr Mansur.
Finally we should say a little about the personality of this great scholar. In contrast
with the works of many others, we find out a lot about al-Biruni from his writings.
Despite the fact that no more than one fifth of his works have survived, we get a
clear picture of the great scientist. We see a man who was not a great innovator of
original theories, mathematical or otherwise, but rather a careful observer who was
a leading exponent of the experimental method. He was a great linguist who was
able to read first hand an amazing number of the treatises that existed and he clearly
saw the development of science as part of a historical process which he is always
careful to put in proper context. His writings are therefore of great interest to
historians of science.

It appears clear that, despite his many works on astrology, al-Biruni did not believe in
the 'science' but used it as a means to support his serious scientific work. A devout
Muslim, he did write religious texts to suit his patrons particular sect. He shows no
prejudice against different religious sects or races, but he does have strong words to
say about various acts they committed. For example, the Arab conquerors of
Khwarazm destroyed ancient texts - what sin could be worse than that to the scholar
as dedicated to learning and history as was al-Biruni. On the Christian faith al-Biruni
considered the doctrine of forgiveness, writing in India 

Upon my life, this is a noble philosophy, but the people of this world are not all
philosophers. ... And indeed, ever since Constantine the Victorious became a
Christian, both sword and whip have been ever employed.
An indication of the sarcasm that he employed against those he saw to be foolish we
give the reply that he made to a religious man who objected to the fact that an
instrument which al-Biruni was showing him to determine the time for prayers had
Byzantine months engraved on it. Al-Biruni reports in Shadows that he said to him.
Al-Biruni Believed the world, that is the universe, had come into existence in time, as
Muslims believed, and then it was not eternal like Aristotle told. However, it is
impossible to determine the creation of the world in term of human calculations. The
Earth arose from the natural adjustment of the four elements with each other at the
center of the universe, and all the heavenly bodies gravitate towards it. The Earth is a
globe, with a rough surface due to the presence of mountains and depressions, but
these are negligible when compared with the size of the globe. Because of this
irregular surface, the water is not covering it completely, as it would happen for a
smooth sphere. “While water, like earth, has a certain weight and falls as low as
possible in the air, it is nevertheless lighter than earth, which therefore settles in
water, sinking in the form of sediments at the bottom… The earth and the water
form one globe, surrounded on all sides by air. Then, since much of the air is in
contact with the sphere of the Moon, it becomes heated in consequence of the
movement and friction of the parts in contact. This there is produced fire, which
surrounds the air, less in amount in the proximity of the poles owing to the
slackening of the movement there”. When discussing the geological changes on the
Earth, al-Biruni says that “the center of gravity of the Earth also changes its position
according to the position of the shifting matter on its surface”. “With the passing of
time, the sea becomes dry land, and dry land the sea” al-Biruni wrote, but “if such
changes took place on earth before the appearance of man, we are not aware of
them”. For instance, he tells of the Arabian desert, which was a sea and then became
filled of sand. He also reports of the discovery of “stones which if broken apart,
would be found to contain shells, cowry shells and fish-ears”. By “fish-ears” he must
have meant fossils. In the Mas'udi Canon, al-Biruni writes that the Earth is at the
center of the universe and that it has no motion of its own, as it is in the Ptolemaic
system. However, in this book, he takes issue with this system on several points. “He
holds, for example, that the Sun’s apogee is not fixed, and while he accepts the
geocentric theory, he shows that the astronomical facts can also be explained by
assuming the Earth revolves around the Sun”. Then, continuing his speculation on
the motion of the Earth, al-Biruni tells that he could neither prove nor disprove it,
but commented it favourably. It seems also that he wrote in a commentary on Indian
astronomy that he resolved the matter of Earth's motion in a work on astronomy
that is no longer extant, his “Key to Astronomy”. Let us summarize his point of view
reporting what he tells us about an astronomical instrument, the “Zuraqi”, probably
an armillary sphere or a spherical astrolabe, or even a mechanical astrolabe. AlBiruni
writes that Sijzi, a Persian astronomer and mathematician from Sistan, a region lying
in the south-west of Afghanistan and south-east of Iran, invented an astrolabe the
design of which was A.C. Sparavigna - The Science of al-Biruni – Dec 2013 4 based on
the idea that the Earth moves “I have seen the astrolabe called Zuraqi invented by
Abu Sa'id Sijzi. I liked it very much and praised him a great deal, as it is based on the
idea entertained by some to the effect that the motion we see is due to the Earth's
movement and not to that of the sky. By my life, it is a problem difficult of solution
and refutation. … For it is the same whether you take it that the Earth is in motion or
the sky. For, in both cases, it does not affect the Astronomical Science. It is just for
the physicist to see if it is possible to refute it”

Al- Biruni’s Instruments and their importance

The Zijes The Islamic Golden Age (8th-15th centuries) strongly promoted the
astronomy and several scholars contributed to its development. The Islamic
scientists assimilated and amalgamated disparate material to create their
astronomical science. This material included Greek, Sassanid, and Indian works in
particular. In turn, Islamic astronomy had a significant influence on the astronomy of
the medieval Europe. Many stars and astronomical terms such as alidade, azimuth,
and almucantar, are still referred to by their Arabic names. From 700 to 825, we have
the period of assimilation and syncretisation of earlier Hellenistic, Indian, and
Sassanid astronomy. Some first astronomical texts, translated into Arabic, had Indian
and Persian origin. The most notable of these texts was the “Zij al-Sindhind”, an 8th-
century Indian astronomical work that was translated by al-Fazari and Yaqub ibn
Tariq after 770 under the supervision of an Indian astronomer who visited the court
of Abbasid caliph al-Mansur. During this period, the Arabs adopted the sine function,
inherited from Indian geometry, instead of chords of arc used in Greek trigonometry.
From 825 to 102, there was a period of vigorous investigation, in which the
Ptolemaic system of astronomy was accepted, however, under the possibility of
observational refinements and mathematical revisions. One of the major works was
the “Zij al-Sindh” written by al-Khwarizmi in 830. In this period, a great impulse to
astronomical research came from the Abbasid caliphs. They supported this scientific
work financially and gave it a formal prestige. Zij is the generic name of Islamic
astronomical books that tabulate parameters used for astronomical calculations
concerning the positions of the Sun, Moon, stars, and planets. The name is derived
from a Persian term meaning cord. May be, this is a reference to the arrangement of
the threads on a loom, like the tabulated data are arranged in rows and columns. Let
us remark that the medieval Muslim zijes were more extensive, typically including
materials on chronology, and the geographical latitudes and longitudes. Going
beyond the traditional contents, some zijes even explain the theory or report the
observations from which the tables were computed. Besides the Zij written by al-
Khwarizmi, other famous zijes are those of the Egyptian astronomer Ibn Yunus (c.
950-1009). In one of them he described, with precision, forty planetary conjunctions
and thirty lunar eclipses. His astronomical tables give data obtained with very large
astronomical instruments and the use of trigonometric identities. Probably it was not
the entire driving force to this growth of astronomy, but religion contributed to it. In
fact, the Islam needed a way to figure out how to orient all sacred structures toward
Mecca. And then a precise celestial mapping was necessary to find the right
direction, or qibla, toward the Kaaba. By the 9th century, the astronomers were
commonly using trigonometry to determine the qibla from geographical coordinates,
turning the qibla determination into a problem of spherical astronomy. Al-Biruni for
example, in “The Determination of the Coordinate of Locations and for Correctly
Ascertaining the Distances between Places”, has the goal to find the qibla at Ghazni.
One of the al-Biruni zijes contains a table giving the coordinates of six hundred
places, almost all of them measured by al-Biruni himself. For some places he is
reporting data taken from similar tables given by al-Khwarizmi. Al-Biruni seems to
have realized that for places given by both AL Khwarizmi and Ptolemy, the value
obtained by al-Khwarizmi was more accurate. Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwarizmi (c.
780 – c. 850) was a Khwarezmian too. In the early 9th century, he produced accurate
sine and cosine tables, and the first table of tangents. He was also a pioneer in
spherical trigonometry. By the 10th century, Muslim mathematicians were using all
six A.C. Sparavigna - The Science of al-Biruni – Dec 2013 5 trigonometric functions.
Let us note that the term “algorithm” is coming from medieval Latin “algorisms”, a
mangled transliteration of Arabic al-Khwarizmi, “native of Khwarazm”. The earlier
form of this word in Middle English was “algorism” (early 13th c.).
Quadrants, Astrolabes and Clocks As told in al-Biruni was among those deported in
Afghanistan by Mahmud of Ghazni. He was then 44 years old. On 14 October 1018,
we find him in a village south of Kabul, where he wanted to measure the height of
the sun but had no instrument to hand. So, he was obliged to draw a calibrated arc
on the back of a reckoning board and used it, with the aid of a plumb line, as a
makeshift quadrant. On the basis of the measurements made with this crude device
he calculated the latitude of the locality. This quadrant was probably an inclinometer
based on quarter-circle panel.

Along one edge there were two sights forming an alidade. A plumb bob was
suspended by a line from the centre of the arc as in the Figure 2. In order to measure
the altitude of a star, the observer would view the star through the sights (pinholes
in the case of the Sun) and hold the quadrant vertical. The plumb indicates the
reading on the graduation. It is better to have a person concentrated on observing
the star and holding the instrument and another person to take the reading. The
accuracy of such an instrument is limited by its size. An astrolabe is a more elaborate
instrument. It helps in measuring the positions of Sun, Moon, planets, and stars, and
it is therefore fundamental to determine the local time at a given latitude and vice-
versa. An astrolabe consists of a disk, the “mater”, deep enough to hold one or more
flat plates called “tympans”. Each tympan is made for a specific latitude and
engraved with a projection of the ecliptic plane and several pointers indicating the
positions of the brightest stars. The rete is free to rotate. When it is rotated, the stars
and the ecliptic move over the projection of the coordinates on the tympan. One
complete rotation corresponds to a day. On the back of the mater, there is often
engraved a number of scales, useful in various applications, and a graduation of 360
degrees around the rim. The alidade is attached to the back face. When the astrolabe
is held vertically, the alidade can be rotated and the Sun or a star sighted along its
length, so that its altitude in degrees can be read from the graduated edge of the
astrolabe.

Al-Biruni, in a treatise on the Astrolabe, describes how to tell the time during the day
or night and use it, as it can be used a quadrant, for surveying. In fact, the astrolabe
is a complex instrument, and all its features have been added over centuries.
Moreover, several other instruments have been used at the time of al-Biruni. The
mechanical astrolabes with gears were invented in the Muslim world. These geared
instruments were designed to produce a continual display of the current position of
Sun and planets. We find a device with eight gear-wheels (Figure 4, on the right)
illustrated by al-Biruni in 996, so that this Al-Biruni mechanism can be considered an
ancestor of the astrolabes and clocks developed by later Muslim engineers. The
same author of François Charette, is considering it a simpler version of the
Antikythera mechanism, such as previously proposed by Derek J. de Solla Price.
Al-Biruni developed experimental methods to determine the density of substance,
some based on the theory of balances and weighing and others based on the volume
of fluids. He also generalizes the theory of the centre of gravity and applies it to the
volumes.
al-Khāzini (Abu al-Fath Khāzini, who fourished 1115–1130) described an instrument
used by al-Biruni in measuring densities. It was a hydrostatic balance. The scales
were used to test the purity of metals and to ascertain the composition of alloys. The
Arabs used a method based on comparison of the weights of equal volumes: Al-
Biruni for example, takes hemispheres of the different metals or rods of equal size
and compares their weight

Al-Khazini had drawn much from the work of Al-Biruni. The hydrostatic balance is an
old instrument. The Latin poem “Carmen de Ponderibus et Mensuris” of the 4th or
5th century describes the use of it referring to Archimedes . This balance is also
linked to a widely known anecdote. A votive crown for a temple had been made for
King Hiero II of Syracuse, who supplied the pure gold, and Archimedes was asked to
determine whether some silver had been substituted by the goldsmith. Archimedes
had to solve the problem without damaging the crown, so he could not melt it down
into a regularly shaped body and calculate its density from weight and volume.
Concerning the anecdote of the golden crown, Galileo Galilei suggested that
Archimedes used the hydrostatic balance.

However, to evaluate the density or specific weight of materials, al-Biruni refers to

another method too. This method is based on the volumes of fluids and on the use of
a specific instrument. It was a vessel in which the level of water or oil remained
constant, since any excess was drained out of the holes made for this purpose. He
was able to measure the displaced water with such exactitude that his findings
nearly correspond with modern values . The Figure 6 shows this vessel depicted by
al-Khāzini, as a cone-shaped vessel. To measure the specific gravities of gemstones,
al-Biruni used it. Al-Biruni filled with water the vessel in the Figure 6 until the water
began to run out by a pipe at the side; then a definite mass, as large as possible, of
the substance is weighed (P1) and the pan (P2) of a scale placed under the outlet
pipe. Then, the substance is put in the vessel. This body displaces the water so that it
flows in the pan. The pan and the water are weighed (P2+P3). The difference
((P3+P2) −P2) is the weight of the displaced water. By the ratio P1/P3 we can have
the density of the substance. Al-Biruni applied the method to determine the density
of precious stones. For instance, the sapphire has a specific gravity (the ratio of the
density of a substance to the density of a reference substance) of 3.95–4.03,
whereas the glass of 2.4–2.8. Using his method, it is possible to distinguish them. For
what concerns the accuracy of the method, al-Khāzini remarks that it is difficult to
weigh the amount of water displaced, because the water sticks to the sides of the
outlet-tubes. And in fact, al-Biruni tells that it is better to use a mass as large as
possible in order to increase the accuracy. The determination of specific gravity
played a quite important role in the al-Biruni’s researches, and the results he
obtained were propagated by various scholars of the Islamic countries. One may ask
why this research was so relevant because al-Biruni acknowledged a social
importance for it, that is, an intrinsic worth in metals and jewels. Therefore, certain
physical properties had to be found to evaluate them. For instance, al-Biruni
objected against the classification of gems on the basis of their colors only, as was
the common practice of the time. The color is a secondary property: specific gravity
brilliance and hardness are the relevant properties of materials. The hardness was
determined by the use a tip of a sample material and by observing the indentation it
is producing.
Al-Biruni’s Religious point of views
As a believing Muslim, he simply welcomed certain differences among different
peoples. In other words, he believed that "God has created the world as containing
many differences in itself,"(Morgenstern 8, 1973: p 6) and these differences should
be welcomed. For prove his argument, he attempted to explore some of the most
disputed issues, such as God, polytheism,
ii creation, caste system and so on, in different cultures. Al-Biruni begins his
treatment of Hindu religion and philosophy by a definition of their concept of God as
understood by the educated people. The Hindus believe with regard to God that he
is one, eternal, without beginning and end, acting by free-will, all-wise, almighty,
living, giving life, ruling, preserving; one who in his sovereignty is unique, beyond all
likeness and unlikeness, and that he does not resemble anything nor does anything
resemble him… (Jeffery5 ,1951: p 129). According to Al-Biruni what the educated
Hindus believe about God.
iii as for the uneducated class, AlBiruni finds most of their views on the concept of
God are simply worthless. But he argues that, similar errors also occur in other
religious traditions. He specifically refers to Islam, criticizing what he calls the
anthropomorphic doctrines and teachings of the Jabriyya sect, for instance.
(Sachau14, 2002: p 31-32). The discussion of the concept of God is closely related to
the much-discussed issue of the Indian idol worshipping (Shirk). It is well known, idol
worshipping is considered to be the greatest sin in Islamic and Muslims had regarded
Hindus as idol worshippers, at least in the theological language. Although there was
no clear reference to the Hindu religion in the Qur’an, Al-Biruni attached Quranic
term `` the mushrikun’’ to Hindus.
i The Sabians (Arabic:‫( صابنه‬of Middle eastern tradition are a variety of monotheistic :
Gnostic (Mandeans), (Harranian) as well as Abrahamic religions mentioned three
times in the Quran with the people of the Book, "the Jews, the Sabians, and the
Christians".]In the hadith, they are described merely as converts to Islam, but
interest in the identity and history of the group increased over time, and discussions
and investigations about the Sabians begin to appear in later Islamic literature
ii Polytheism is a religious construct and a type of theism. Within theism, it contrasts
with monotheism, the belief in a singular God. Polytheists do not always worship all
the gods equally, but can be henotheists, specializing in the worship of one particular
deity.
iii Instead of commenting on the possible differences between the Islamic concept of
God and the Supreme Being of the Hindus, Al-Biruni quotes extensively from the
Hindu literature, notably from Patanjali, Gita and Samkhya to give a correct
definition of the Hindu concept of God as it is described in their own literature.
However, even a superficial analysis will reveal the fact that Al-Biruni seems to avoid
deliberately the subtler theological discussions, discussions about the nature of
personal versus impersonal God in Hindu and Islamic theologies.
iv The Qur’an reads explicitly that shirk is the one sin that God will not forgive
(Qur’an, 4:48, 116); paradise will be absolutely denied to a person who is guilty of
this sin (Qur’an, 5:72). He is aware about that idol worshipping is abominable. He
argues that, all the Hindus are not idolworshippers. With this argument Al-Biruni has
the educated class in mind. About this classification he writes: "Those who march on
the path to liberation or those who study philosophy and theology and who desire
abstract truth, which they callsara, are entirely free from worshipping anything but
God alone and never would dream of worshipping an image to represent him."
(Sachau14, Edward, 2002: p113). In another place he discusses the divisions of Hind’s
society from a theological point of view and its cultural castes or social classes (al-
tabaqat). He also recognizes that castes or colors (Sans. varna; Ar. alwan). “We
Muslims,” al-Biruni states, “stand entirely on the other side of the question,
considering all men as equal, except in piety (taqwa).” ( Reference from Sachau14,
2002: p 100) He also mentions a sort of caste system found in ancient Persia that
bears certain similarities to caste system of Hind. For example, Ardhasir ben Babak
divided the following social hierarchy: the knights (al-usawirah) and princes (abna’
almul ´k); the monks or pious men (al-nussak), fire-priests (sadanat al-nayyiran), and
lawyers (arbab al din); the physicians (al-atibba’), astronomers (al-munajjimin), and
scientists (ashab al-`ul´m); and, finally, the farmers or peasants (al-zarra’i) and
artisans (al-sunna’i). (Sachau14, 2002: p100) The Hindus, as al Biruni explains, have
four major castes, each of which is determined by their texts and associated with
Brahman’s primordial existence: brahmana (brahmins [priests and teachers]),
kshatria (warriors and rulers), vaisya (farmers, merchants, artisans), and sudra
(laborers) and other low-caste people. This, according to Al-Biruni, was inconsistent
with the ethical framework provided by the Scriptures of both Christianity and Islam.
He illustrates his argument by referring to the Qur’an and the Bible respectively. The
Qur’an reads, "Speak the truth, even if it were against you." in a similar vein it is
stated in the Bible that "Do not mind the fury of kings in speaking the truth before
them. They only possess your body, but they have no power over your soul"ii It is
therefore safe to argue that it was religious and ethical concerns, more than
anything else that led Al-Biruni to study other cultures from a comparative
perspective. Thus, towards the end of India, he says, "We ask God to pardon us for
every statement of ours which is not true," acknowledging the fact that as human
beings we see the world through the lenses provided to us by the society and culture
in which we find ourselves. Conclution: Al-Biruni presents a large number of data
about several ancient religious communities, history of religion, religious
rituals/festivals in his both book kitab al-athar and kitab al-hind. In presenting the
types of Hindu believers, al-Biruni differentiates between philosophers and ordinary
people. This workable categorization is still used by modern scholars of religion and,
perhaps, some anthropologists who study religious systems. His conclusion that the
Hindus’ theological concept is monotheistic is unusual and surprising, but his
assertion of an intellectual gap between the educated and the uneducated believers
is a common phenomenon and can be used to analyze. AlBiruni’s comparative
explanation about this, as in the case of Greek, Arab Islam, Hebrew, and among
Christians, reveals different probabilities in producing anthropomorphism.
Interestingly, as modern scholars point out, theology is also constructed by the
structure of a given society’s language As al-Biruni explains, idolatry is a major
tradition within Hind’s religious traditions, especially among those Hindus who need
symbolic and iconographic representations of the Highest Being, various deities, and
angels. This tradition absolutely contravenes Islam, which is totally against idolatry
and all other iconographic symbols. Even so, al-Biruni highlights\ another viewpoint
of Hinduism: At its philosophical core, Hinduism exhibits a monotheistic tendency.
Monotheism is not the only theological inclination among Hindu philosophers, since
there is also a pantheistic mystical view.