Gợi ý lời giải các bài tập

Chương 3
Câu hỏi: Ứng với từng lập luận sau đây, hạy chỉ ra loại nào là Tam đoạn luận khẳng định
tiền đề điều kiện, theo chuỗi, từ chối hệ quả, từ chối tiền đề giả định, và khẳng định hệ quả.
Một số câu cần được sắp xếp trở lại cho rõ ràng hơn về phương diện logic
1. If we’re in London, then we’re in England. We are not in England. So, we are not in
London (từ chối hệ quả hay tiền đề sau)
2. If we’re in Los Angeles, then we are in the United States. We are in the United States.
So, we are in Los Angeles (khẳng định hệ quả)
3. If we’re in the United States, then we are on Earth. We are in the United States. So, we
are on Earth (khẳng định tiền đề giả định)
4. If we’re in Paris, then we are in France. If we’re in France, then we are in Europe. So,
if we are in Paris, then we are in Europe (lập luận theo chuỗi)
5. If we’re in Houston, then we are in the United States. We are not in Houston. So, we
are not in the United States (từ chối tiền đề điều kiện)
6. If we’re in Shanghai, then we are in China. So, we are in China, because we are in
Shanghai (khẳng định tiền đề điều kiện)
7. We are not in Mexico, because if we are in Mexico City, we are in Mexico, and we are
not in Mexico City (từ chối tiền đề điều kiện)
8. Since we’re in India, we are in Calcutta, since we are in India if we are in Calcutta.
(chấp nhận tiền đề hệ quả)
9. If we’re in Toronto, then we are in Canada. So, because if we are in Canada, we are in
North America, if we are in Toronto, then we are in North America (lập luận theo chuỗi)
10. We’re in Berlin, given that if we are in Berlin, then we are in Germany, and we are in
Germany. (chấp nhận tiền đề hệ quả)
Determine whether the following arguments are deductive or inductive. For each
argument, state which test(s) you used in reaching your decision (i.e., the indicator word
test, the strict necessity test, the common pattern test, and/or the principle of charity test).
If the common pattern test is used, indicate which specific pattern the argument
exemplifies (e.g., causal argument, argument from authority, and so on).
1. Because x 3 and y 5, then x y 8. (deductive-statistics)
2. According to the New York Public Library Desk Reference, the pop-up toaster was
invented by Charles Strike in 1927. The New York Public Library Desk Reference is a
highly reliable reference work. Therefore, it’s reasonable to believe that Charles Strike
did invent the pop-up toaster in 1927. (inductive-argument from authority)

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3. Seventy-three percent of Ft. Gibson residents enjoy fishing. Lonnie is a Ft. Gibson
resident. So, it’s likely that Lonnie enjoys fishing. (inductive-statistics)
4. Either Elmo will win the election or Schlomo will win the election. But Elmo won’t
win the election. Therefore, Schlomo will win the election (deductive-alimination).
5. The burglar is tall and thin. Duncan is short and fat. Obviously, therefore, Duncan isn’t
the burglar. (deductive –elimunate))
6. There are no visible signs of forced entry. It seems certain, therefore, that the burglar
had a key. (deductive-argument from authority)
7. The sign says it is seven miles to Lake Lily. Therefore, it is approximately seven miles
to Lake Lily.(Inductive-because the sign may be wrong)
8. Joan is an extrovert. It follows that she is outgoing.(Deductive-causal)
9. All inductive generalizations are inductive. Some inductive generalizations are
unreliable. Therefore, some inductive arguments are unreliable. (deductive-causal)
10. If it rains, the game will be postponed until next Saturday. According to the National
Weather Service, there’s a 90 percent chance of rain. Therefore, probably the game will
be postponed until next Saturday. (Inductive-argument from authority)
11. If the batter bunts (vận động viên bóng chày chặn bóng) in this situation, he’ll move
the runner over to second base. But the batter won’t bunt in this situation. Therefore, the
runner will never be moved over to second base.(deductive-argument from authority)
12. Hughie is the father of Louie. It follows that Hughie is the grandfather of Dewey
because Louie is the father of Dewey. (deductive-argument from authority)
13. Mandatory school uniforms are a good idea because they keep students’ minds
focused on their schoolwork rather than on what the kid sitting next to them is wearing
(inductive-principle of charity)
14. Klaus ingested a large dose (liều lượng) of rat poison (thuốc chuột) just before he
died. Therefore, the rat poison must have caused Klaus’s death (deductive-causal)
15. All previously observed polar bears have weighed less than 1,500 pounds. Therefore,
all polar bears probably weigh less than 1,500 pounds (deductive-argument from
authority)
16. Kevin says he can lift 1,000 pounds over his head. A full-grown cow weighs less than
1,000 pounds. So, Kevin can lift a full-grown cow over his head (inductive-argument
from authority)
17. If my car is out of gas, it won’t start. My car won’t start. Therefore, it is out of gas
(deductive-causal)

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 18. Yale is an Ivy League school, and it has a good library. Harvard is an Ivy League
school, and it has a good library. Therefore, because Brown is an Ivy League school, it
must have a good library, too. (inductive-argument from analogy)
19. I wouldn’t swim in that water if I were you. It might be pollute. (Inductive-causal)
20. This tree is deciduous (rụng lá). It must be the case, therefore, that it periodically
sheds (rụng) its leaves. (deductive-causal)
21. Whatever my church teaches as infallible (không thể sai) doctrine is true. My church
teaches as infallible doctrine that God is eternal (bất diệt). Therefore, God is eternal.
(Deductive-argument from authority)
22. Every argument is either deductive or inductive. Because this argument isn’t
deductive, it must be inductive. (deductive)
23. Five alleged eyewitnesses have testified that they saw Frank Lane stab (đâm bằng
dao) Melissa Jenkins. So, Frank Lane did stab Melissa Jenkins. (Deductive – argument
from authority)
24. Tiger Woods is one of the best golfers in the world. Melvin Rumsley has never
played golf in his life. It is certain, therefore, that Melvin Rumsley could never beat Tiger
Woods in a round of golf (deductive)
25. If Steve is 48 years old and Pam is exactly 19 years younger than Steve, it necessarily
follows that Pam is 29 years old. (Deductive-mathematic)
Determine whether the following arguments are deductive or inductive. If the argument is
deductive, determine whether it is valid or invalid. If the argument is inductive, determine
whether it is strong or weak. Explain your answer in each case.
1. If Boston loses, Cleveland will make the play-offs. If Cleveland makes the play-offs, the first
play-off game will be played in Seattle. Therefore, if Boston loses, the first play-off game will be
played in Seattle. (Deductive, strong)
2. All birds can fly. Penguins (chim cánh cụt) are birds. So, penguins can fly. (deductive-weak)
3. Most college students sleep late on Sunday mornings. Wes is a college student. So, Wes
probably sleeps late on Sunday mornings. (Inductive-strong)
4. Exercise is good for the vast majority of people. Therefore, it would be good for my ninety-
five-year-old grandfather to run in next year’s Boston Marathon. (Inductive-weak)
5. John’s home address is 47 Riverside Drive. It follows that he must live near a river.
(Deductive –weak)
6. It is totally dark in here, but I know that the only things in the drawer (ngăn kéo) are socks, ten
black, ten white. I had better take out eleven socks to be sure I get a matched pair. (Inductive-
weak)

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7.According to the Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy, philosopher William James was born in
New York City in 1842. So, William James was born in New York City in 1842 (Inductive-
strong)
8. If it rained, then the streets are wet. The streets are wet. So, it rained. (Deductive-strong)
9. This bathwater is tepid (âm ấm). It follows that it is neither extremely hot nor extremely cold.
(deductive-strong)
10. States were justified in suing (yêu cầu) tobaco companies to recover the health-care
(Inductive-weak)
11. There are more than fifty students in this class. It must be the case, therefore, that at least one
of them is a Capricorn. (Inductive-weak)
12. In a recent Gallup poll, 72 percent of Americans said they favored the death penalty.
Therefore, approximately 72 percent of Americans do favor the death penalty. (Inductive-strong)
13. On Monday I drank ten rum-and-Cokes, and the next morning I woke up with a headache.
On Wednesday I drank eight gin-and-Cokes, and the next morning I woke up with a headache.
On Friday I drank nine bourbon-and Cokes, and the next morning I woke up with a headache.
Obviously, to prevent further headaches, I must give up Coke. (Inductive-weak)
14. Smedley ran 5 miles in 38 minutes. It follows that he must have run at least 1 mile in less
than 8 minutes. (Deductive-strong)
15. Some Native Americans are Democrats. Some Democrats are Supreme Court justices. So,
some Supreme Court justices must be Native Americans. (Inductive-weak)
16. Nearly all U.S. presidents were born before 1925. It stands to reason, therefore, that the next
U.S. president will have been born before 1925. (Inductive-weak)
17. The Empire State Building is taller than the Sears Tower. Therefore, because the Eiffel
Tower is shorter than the Empire State Building, it follows that the Sears Tower is taller than the
Eiffel Tower. (Deductive-weak)
18. Do most Americans like rap music? Apparently not. In a random survey of ten thousand
nursing home patients around the country, fewer than 5 percent said they enjoyed listening to
rap. (Inductive-weak)
19. Richard Dawkins, the famous scientist, has said that the heavy elements like iron and zinc
(kẽm) that compose human bodies were created billions of years ago in the interiors of long-
extinct stars. Moreover, virtually all scientists agree with Dawkins on this point. Therefore, it is
probably true that the heavy elements like iron and zinc that compose human bodies were created
billions of years ago in the interiors of long-extinct stars. (Inductive-strong)
20. Jerry was born on Easter Sunday (ngày lễ Phục sinh). It necessarily follows, therefore, that
his birthday always falls on a Sunday (deductive-strong).

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Chương 5
Xác định xem các tiền đề trong những lập luận sau đây có tương thích tích cực, tiêu cực,
hay không tương thích với mệnh đề kết luận
1. Carlos recently gave Amy an engagement ring. Therefore, Carlos loves Amy (positive
relevant)
2. Thousands of tobacco farm workers will lose their jobs if cigarette taxes are doubled.
Therefore, smoking does not cause cancer. (logically irrelevant)
3. Emily is CEO of a Fortune 500 company. Thus, it’s likely that Emily earns more than
$50,000 a year. (positive relevant)
4. You should believe in God. You have everything to gain if God does exist, and little to
lose if He doesn’t (Positive relevant: Although the premises don’t provide evidence for
God’s existence, they do provide prudential, or self-interested, reasons for belief in God.
Whether these prudential reasons are properly convincing is, of course, another
question)
5. Martina partied all night last night. However, Martina was valedictorian (đại biểu học
sinh phát biểu) of her high school class. Therefore, she will do well on her critical
thinking test this morning (The first premise is negative relevant. The second is positive
relevant)
I. Nhận dạng các lập luận có sai lầm không tương thích (Lập luận ngụy biện không tương
thích) cho các phát biểu sau đây:
1. The new Volkswagon Beetle is the coolest car around. It’s selling like hotcakes (bánh
nhân thịt). You should ask your parents to buy you one. (Bandwagon argument)
2. School superintendent (giám thị) Kate Duncan has argued that children in public schools
should be allowed to participate in a voluntary moment of silence at the beginning of
each school day. But it’s wrong to allow teachers to indoctrinate (truyền bá) children with
their own religious views. Duncan’s argument must be firmly rejected. (Strawman)
3. Paper is combustible because it burns. (Equivocation)
4. Consider the following conversation (two wrong make a right)
1. Al:I can’t believe it! My bank made a mistake on my account balance. There’s an
extra $3,000 in my checking account.
2. Joe: Are you going to report the mistake?
3. Al: Why should I? They’ve been ripping me off for years with their high ATM
fees.

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 5. Dean of students to student: Mr. Boosely, you’ve twice been cited for violating the
college’s alcoholic beverage policy. If you commit a third violation, I’ll have no choice
but to suspend you from school. (no fallacy)
6. Only man has an immortal soul. No woman is a man. Therefore, no woman has an
immortal soul.(equivocation)
7. Recently, a scientific study found that eating large amounts of chocolate ice cream is
actually good for you. We shouldn’t be too quick to accept this conclusion, however,
because the study was funded entirely by Baskin Robbins and other leading ice-cream
makers (No fallacy)
8. Rachel Peters has argued that assault weapons should be outlawed. Apparently, Rachel
believes that no one has the right to own firearms for purposes of self-protection. But
such a view is completely indefensible. It would leave law-abiding citizens defenseless
against predatory criminals (tội phạm cướp giật). (Straw man)
9. Karen has argued that the secretaries at Acme Steel will get more respect if they change
their title from “secretary” to “office assistant.” But everyone knows that Acme Steel has
a bottom-line mentality. They’ll let you call yourself anything you want, but they won’t
raise your salary a nickel. (Red herring)
10. At the global-warming conference in Kyoto, many developing nations argued against
setting strict emissions standards, claiming that this would put them at a competitive
disadvantage against rich industrialized nations that have already benefited from lax
environmental standards. But these developing nations are just jealous of the high
standard of living industrialized nations have achieved. Sour grapes, that’s all their
arguments amount to (Attacking the motive))
Chương 6
I. Nhận dạng những ngụy biện do thiếu minh chứng trong những phát biểu sau đây.
Nếu đó là ngụy biện thì nó thuộc dạng nào?
1. I’d better eat my Wheaties. Michael Jordan says that it’s the breakfast of champions (có
uy tín thì đúng)
2. Podunk State University is a better university than Harvard University. I’ve been assured
of this by Dr. Bigelow Hype, dean of admissions at Podunk State (có uy tín thì đúng)
3. Ford cars are lemons. I’ve owned two, and they gave me nothing but trouble. (khái quát
hóa vội vã)
4. Old Mr. Ferguson (who resides at the Burnside Home for the Blind) claims he could read
the car’s license plate from more than 150 feet away. I’ve never known Mr. Ferguson to
be deliberately dishonest. Therefore, we should conclude that Mr. Ferguson really did
read the car’s license plate from more than 150 feet away (có uy tín thì đúng)

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 5. A Saint Bernard is large, cuddly, furry, and makes a great house pet. A baby grizzly bear
is also large, cuddly, and furry. Therefore, a baby grizzly bear would make a great house
pet, too. (Tương đồng kém)
6. Most immigrants who enter this country wind up in jail (cầm tù) or on welfare. I know
this because I read it on a White Power Web site. (có uy tín thì đúng)
7. On Tuesday I was passed by a reckless (liều lĩnh) woman driver. On Thursday I was
passed by a reckless woman driver. On Friday I was passed by a reckless woman driver.
It’s clear that most reckless drivers today are women.(Khái quát hóa vội vã)
8. My taxicab driver this morning told me he once drove from New York to Los Angeles in
less than 18 hours at an average speed of 165 miles per hour. I hate to think how many
speeding tickets he must have gotten along the way (có uy tín thì đúng)
9. Everything that exists is animal, or vegetable, or mineral. The number 7 obviously isn’t
an animal or a vegetable. Therefore, the number 7 is a mineral (Các phương án lựa chọn
sai)
10. Judge :“You say you’re innocent, yet five people swore they saw you steal the watch.”
Defendant :“Your honor, I can produce 500 people who didn’t see me steal it.” (adapted
from Richard Lederer, Anguished English) (phán quyết đúng sai vì thiếu minh chứng)
Chương 7
Vẽ sơ đồ các lập luận sau đây
1. ➀ Bertie probably isn’t home. ➁ His car isn’t in the driveway, and ➂ there are no lights
on in his house. (hai tiền đề đôc lập dẫn đến kết luận 1)
2. ➀ Affirmative action in higher education is morally justifiable because ➁ it compensates
for past discrimination, ➂ provides valuable role models for women and minorities, and
➃ promotes multicultural understanding (ba tiền đề 2, 3, 4 dẫn đến kết luận 1)
3. ➀ Only three people could have stolen the CD: Danny, Stacy, or Patrick. But ➁ Stacy
couldn’t have stolen the CD because ➂ she was out riding her bike. ➃ Patrick couldn’t
have stolen the CD because ➄ he was at a friend’s house. Therefore, ➅ Danny must
have stolen the CD (3 dẫn đến 2; 5 dẫn đến 4; và 1, 2, 4 hỗ trợ cho kết luận 6)
4. Several states have abolished the insanity defense against criminal responsibility. ➀ This
may be popular with voters, but it is morally indefensible. ➁ Insanity removes moral
responsibility, and ➂ it is wrong to punish someone who is not morally responsible for
his crime. Moreover, ➃ it is pointless to punish the insane because ➄ punishment has no
deterrent effect on a person who cannot appreciate the wrongfulness or criminality of his
or her actions. (5 dẫn đến 4; 2 + 3 và 4 hỗ trợ cho kết luận 1)
5. ➀ If today is Saturday, then tomorrow is Sunday. ➁ If tomorrow is Sunday, then we’ll
be having pasta for dinner. ➂ If we’ll be having pasta for dinner, then I should pick up
some red wine today because ➃ in this state wine can be purchased only at liquor stores,

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 and ➄ the liquor stores are closed on Sundays. ➅ Today is Saturday. Therefore, ➆ I
should pick up some red wine today. (4+5 dẫn đến 3; 1+2+3+6 hỗ trợ cho kết luận 7)
6. Since ➀our feelings, desires, and preferences can be either beneficial or harmful, noble
or ignoble, praiseworthy or damnable, and since ➁they can be either in harmony or in
conflict with other people’s feelings, desires, and preferences, ➂they are obviously not
accurate tools for analysis of moral issues or rustworthy guidelines to action. (Vincent
Ryan Ruggiero, The Moral Imperative,2nd ed.) [ 1 và 2 là hai tiền đề độc lập dẫn đến
kết luận 3]
7. ➀School tests should be abolished. ➁Tests introduce competition where it does not
belong. ➂They deny the individuality of students’ talents and interests. ➃They degrade
education by encouraging passivity, mindlessness, and triviality. Finally, ➄they send the
wrong messages about what is valuable in education and in life. (stated but not endorsed
in E. D. Hirsch Jr., The Schools We Need and Why We Don’t Have Them) [các tiền đề
độc lập 2, 3, 4, 5 hỗ trợ cho kết luận 1]
8. ➀Education implies teaching. ➁ Teaching implies knowledge. ➂Knowledge is truth.
➃The truth is everywhere the same. Hence➄education should be everywhere the same.
(Robert Maynard Hutchins, The Higher Learning in the United States) [các tiền đề 1, 2,
3, 4 liến kết để hỗ trợ cho kết luận 5]
9. ➀Planetary exploration has many virtues. ➁It permits us to refine insights derived from
such Earth-bound sciences as meteorology, climatology, geology and biology, to broaden
their powers and improve their practical applications here on Earth. ➂It provides
cautionary tales on the alternative fates of worlds. ➃It is an aperture to future high
technologies important for life here on Earth. ➄It provides an outlet for the traditional
human zest for exploration and discovery, our passion to find out, which has been to a
very large degree responsible for our success as a species. And ➅it permits us, for the
first time in history, to approach with rigor, with a significant chance of finding out the
true answers, questions on the origins and destinies of worlds, the beginnings and ends of
life, and the possibilities of other beings who live in the skies—questions as basic to the
human enterprise as thinking is, as natural as breathing. (Carl Sagan, Broca’s Brain: Ref
lections on the Romance of Science)
Giả định các lập luận dưới đây là suy diễn. Nhận dạng các tiền đề hay kết luận còn thiếu để
lập luận suy diễn có giá trị.
1. Because this is a Mazda Miata, it’s a convertible. (Missing premise: All Mazda Miata are
convertibles)
2. This is a Civic only if it’s a Honda. Therefore, this is not a Civic. (Missing premise: This
is not a Honda.)

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 3. If this is a Camry or a Corolla, then it’s a Toyota. If this is a Toyota, then it gets good gas
mileage. This is a Corolla. Therefore, it gets good gas mileage . (Missing premise
(subconclusion): This is a Toyota)
4. Some Fords are trucks because all Rangers are trucks (Missing premise: Some Fords are
Rangers).
5. If this car gets good gas mileage, it’s good for the environment. If this car doesn’t get
good gas mileage, I don’t want it. This car isn’t good for the environment. Therefore, I
don’t want it.
Nhận dạng các tiền đề và kết luận còn thiếu trong các lập luận tam đoạn luận giản ước sau
đây (Một số lập luận là diễn dịch và một số là quy nạp).
1. Li Fong is from Singapore, so she probably speaks English. (Missing premise: Most
people from Singapore speak English)
2. it’s snowing, then it’s cold. My car won’t start if it’s cold. My car will start. If it’s not
snowing, then Uncle Fred will be coming over for dinner. (Missing premise
(subconclusion): It is not cold; Missing premise (subconclusion): It is not snowing;
Missing conclusion: Uncle Fred will be coming over for dinner)
3. If today is Thursday, Zoe is either at work or on the golf course. Therefore, Zoe is at
work. (Missing premise: Today is Thursday; Missing premise: Zoe is not on the golf
course)
4. Most Hampton College students are Republicans. Therefore, Jay is probably a
Republican. I know he voted the straight Republican ticket in the last election. I also
know that he regularly attends meetings of the Young Republicans. Because Jay is
probably a Republican, it’s likely that he favors a constitutional amendment banning
abortion. (Jay is a Hampton College student; Missing premise: Anyone who voted the
straight Republican ticket in the last election and regularly attends meetings of the young
Republicans is probably a Republican; Missing premise: Most Republicans favor a
constitutional amendment banning abortion).
5. Everything in this world will come to an end. So, my life will come to an end, and all the
consequences of my life will come to an end. Thus, my life is meaningless, and so is
everything else.
Hãy chuẩn hóa các đoạn văn sau đây
1. Professor Jack W. Meiland, offering advice to new college students: There is one
question which you should no task, nor feel any temptation to ask, your instructor. That
question is: “Will this be on the exam?” This question infuriates many instructors, and
rightly so. For this question indicates that your main interest is in getting through the
course with a good grade rather than in learning what the instructor has to teach. It is
insulting to the teacher who has worked hard to put you in a position to appreciate the
material—its intrinsic interest, its subtlety, its complexity.

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 2. Professor Vincent Ryan Ruggiero on teaching critical thinking to students of all ability
levels: Thinking instruction in elementary and secondary education should not be limited
to the honors program. Everyone needs thinking skills to meet the demands of career and
citizenship. More important, everyone needs such skills to realize his or her potential as a
human being. The highest of Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of human needs, self-
actualization, is unachievable without the ability to think productively. Thus to deny
meaningful instruction in thinking to students below a certain IQ or proficiency level is to
deny them an essential part of their humanity. Similarly, the constitutional guarantees of
freedom to speak, to choose one’s own religion, and so on, lose much of their meaning
when only some individuals are trained to evaluate and choose among competing views.
Bài giải gợi ý: Bài 1
1. Asking the question “Will this be on the exam?” indicates that your main interest is in
getting through the course with a good grade rather than in learning what the instructor
has to teach.
2. The question is insulting to the teacher, who has worked hard to put you in a position to
appreciate the material—its intrinsic interest, its subtlety, its complexity.
3. Thus, the question “Will this be on the exam?” infuriates many instructors, and rightly so.
(from 1and 2)
4. Therefore, you should not ask, nor be tempted to ask, the question “Will this be on the
exam?”
Bài giải gợi ý: Bài 2
1. Everyone needs thinking skills to meet the demands of career and citizenship.
2. The highest of Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of human needs, self-actualization, is
unachievable without the ability to think productively.
3. (Maslow correctly identifies self-actualization as the highest human need)
4. Thus, everyone needs thinking skills to realize his or her potential as a human being.
(from 2 and 3)

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