Technical Note

Time Factor in Consolidation: Critical Review

Julie Lovisa, M.ASCE1; Wayne Read2; and Nagaratnam Sivakugan, M.ASCE3

Abstract: The magnitude of consolidation settlement is often calculated using Terzaghi’s expression for average degree of consolidation (U)
with respect to time. Developed during a time of limited computing capabilities, Terzaghi’s series solution to the one-dimensional consolidation
equation was generalized using a dimensionless time factor (T), where a single U-T curve is used to describe the consolidation behavior of both
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singly and doubly drained strata. As a result, any comparisons between one- and two-way drainage are indirect and confined to discrete values of
time. By introducing a modified time factor T p in terms of layer thickness (D) instead of the maximum drainage path length (Hdr ), it is now
possible to observe the effect of drainage conditions over a continuous range of time for a variety of asymmetric initial excess pore pressure
distributions. Although two separate U-T plots are required (for singly and doubly drained cases), the time factor at specific times remains the
same for both cases, enabling a direct visual comparison. The importance of a revised time factor is evident when observing the endpoint of
consolidation, which occurs as U approaches 100%. This occurs at T p ≅ 0:5 for two-way drainage and at T p ≅ 2 for one-way drainage, an
observation not possible using the traditional expression for time factor. DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)GM.1943-5622.0000178. © 2013 American
Society of Civil Engineers.
CE Database subject headings: Pore pressure; Soil consolidation; Clays; Time factors.
Author keywords: Pore pressure; Soil consolidation; Clays; Time factors.

Introduction Furthermore, a variable referred to as the maximum drainage path

The existence of both one-way and two-way consolidation has
been acknowledged throughout geotechnical history (Terzaghi and
Frohlich 1936; Jumikis 1962; Craig 1974; Perloff and Baron 1976;
Singh 2007; Singh and Swamee 2008; Lovisa et al. 2010, 2012;
Kim and Mission 2011). In a consolidating stratum with two free
drainage faces, a doubly drained system is said to exist where pore
water is expelled from the voids through the top and bottom drainage
boundaries. A drainage face can occur in the form of ground level
exposed to atmospheric pressure, generally at the top of the soil profile,
or surrounding material of very high permeability (e.g., a sand seam).
However, when a consolidating stratum contains an impervious
boundary (e.g., bedrock or very stiff clay), the system is said to be singly
drained, and consolidation can be expected to proceed comparatively
slower provided the compressibility of the soil remains the same.
The average degree of consolidation curve (or U-T curve) de-
veloped from Terzaghi’s one-dimensional consolidation equation is
widely used to determine the coefficient of consolidation for a
particular soil based on available settlement data (Singh 2007). When
Terzaghi (1925) first developed the series solution to theoretically
predict consolidation settlement, a number of dimensionless factors
(time Tand depth Z) were also established to generalize the solution.
1
Ph.D. Student, School of Engineering and Physical Sciences, James
Cook Univ., Townsville 4811, Australia (corresponding author). E-mail:
julie.lovisa@jcu.edu.au
2
Associate Professor, Head of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
School of Engineering and Physical Sciences, James Cook Univ., Towns-
ville 4811, Australia. E-mail: wayne.read@jcu.edu.au
3
Associate Professor, School of Engineering and Physical Sciences, James
Cook Univ., Townsville 4811, Australia. E-mail: siva.sivakugan@jcu.edu.au
Note. This manuscript was submitted on February 27, 2011; approved on
August 25, 2011; published online on January 15, 2013. Discussion period
open until July 1, 2013; separate discussions must be submitted for in-
dividual papers. This technical note is part of the International Journal of
Geomechanics, Vol. 13, No. 1, February 1, 2013. ©ASCE, ISSN 1532-
3641/2013/1-83–86/$25.00.
length (Hdr ) was introduced, so that the solution for both singly and
doubly drained systems could be represented by a single average
degree of consolidation curve, independent of soil properties, namely,
the coefficient of consolidation (cv ) and layer thickness (D). Here, the
overall solution remains the same, but the time factor differs accord-
ing to the drainage path length, which is dependent upon drainage
conditions. In a time of limited computing capabilities, this gener-
alizing technique was necessary. However, despite subsequent tech-
nological advancements, the solution to Terzaghi’s consolidation
equation in terms of these factors remains the conventional method of
analysis. As a result, U-T curves for singly and doubly drained strata
cannot be compared, because two variables simultaneously exist,
namely, time and drainage path length. Using conventional U-T
curves, the difference in percentage consolidation settlements for
singly and doubly drained cases can only be indirectly compared for
discrete values of T—it is not possible to conveniently compare the
consolidation behavior as a whole (i.e., from t 5 0 to t → ‘). For
instance, to determine how much more advanced a doubly drained
layer would be in comparison with its singly drained counterpart at
a particular point in time (t) using the conventional U-T curve, a user
would have to calculate two separate T-values for each drainage
situation and use the U-T curve to observe the corresponding
U-values. If the difference in settlement over the entire period of
consolidation is required, this tedious procedure would have to be
repeated numerous times for a large range of t-values. However, if
separate U-T curves existed for each drainage situation, a direct
comparison could be more conveniently made by ‘dividing’ one curve
by the other, effectively obtaining the ratio between U-values for
doubly and singly drained cases during the entire consolidation period
(or for all T). In this paper, a modified version of Terzaghi’s time
factor (T p ) is proposed, where the drainage path length is no longer
a required variable. Corresponding U-T p curves have been generated,
so that the consolidation behavior of singly and doubly drained strata
subjected to a variety of asymmetric ui distributions can be directly
compared. Furthermore, the merits of logarithmic scaling for one or
both axes of the U-T p plot are discussed.

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Int. J. Geomech., 2013, 13(1): 83-86

 Current Best Practice conducted using asymmetric initial excess pore pressure distributions,
the need for separate Uz -Z-T plots and U-T curves has become
The differential equation governing one-dimensional consolidation evident. It is here that Terzaghi’s time factor becomes redundant and
and the dissipation of excess pore water pressures is as follows: actually hinders comparative efforts between singly and doubly drained
cases, as the exponential component in Eq. (2) is scaled differently
∂2 u ∂u depending on whether initial conditions are singly or doubly drained.
cv ¼ ð1Þ
∂z2 ∂t
Modified Time Factor
where cv 5 coefficient of consolidation of the soil; u 5 excess pore
water pressure; z 5 distance measured downward from the surface of
Because Terzaghi’s time factor is dependent upon two variables, it is
the consolidating clay layer; and t 5 time (Terzaghi 1925). The
impossible to draw a true comparison between the effects of single
differential equation is valid for both singly and doubly drained
and double drainage conditions over a continuous consolidation
situations.
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period. Thus, the following modified expression for the time factor
Using the boundary conditions specified in Table 1, the solution
is proposed, which replaces the variable Hdr with D, the layer
to Terzaghi’s differential equation governing one-dimensional con-
thickness:
solidation can be obtained by means of a series solution through
separation of variables. The results in this paper were obtained using cv t
Tp ¼ ð4Þ
a collocation approach to solve for the series coefficient An in D2
Eq. (2). A more detailed explanation of this procedure, along with
the steps taken to eliminate Gibb’s phenomenon, can be found in In Eq. (4), T p is only dependent upon the variable time and is
Lovisa et al. (2010). By specifying the stratum thickness (D) as H therefore directly proportional to t; cv and D are now constants
and 2H for singly or doubly drained systems, respectively, only one (unique to each particular soil configuration). Using this modified
solution is required. That is, boundary conditions 3a and 3b from expression for T, two separate series solutions now exist for singly
Table 1 are essentially identical and produce the series solution and doubly drained strata
shown in Eq. (2) P‘    
npz
doubly drained: uðz, tÞ ¼ exp 2n2 p2 T p
  2 2 
An sin
P‘  D
An sin npz exp 2n p T
n¼1
uðz, tÞ ¼ ð2Þ
n¼1 2H 4 ð5Þ

cv t P
‘    2 2 p

T ¼
Hdr 2
ð3Þ singly drained: uðz, tÞ ¼ Am sin mpz exp 2m p T
m¼1 2D 4
where An 5 the series coefficients, which are determined by the ð6Þ
initial excess pore water pressure distribution (boundary condition 1
from Table 1). The dimensionless time factor T in Eq. 2 is a function where m 5 2n 2 1. The exponential component of the series solu-
of time (t), the coefficient of consolidation of the soil (cv ), and the tion governs the rate of decay of excess pore water pressure during
maximum drainage path length (Hdr ), which is H for both singly and consolidation. As expected, the decay rate is greater for the doubly
doubly drained cases because of the specified original thicknesses of drained case, as the pore water has two exits through which it may
2H and H, respectively. Thus, the degree of consolidation (Uz ) dissipate.
isochrones only need to be generated once to describe both drainage New U-T curves can now be generated to describe one- or two-
conditions. When considering the Uz -Z-T plot, the entire thickness way drainage for a stratum of thickness D subjected to various
from z 5 0 to D is observed, where D 5 2H for a doubly drained uniform and nonuniform ui distributions (see Fig. 1), where the effect
layer and D 5 H for a singly drained layer. However, the advantage of drainage conditions can be observed over a continuous period of
of combining singly and doubly drained configurations in one figure consolidation, as shown in Figs. 2–4. If a user were to assess the effects
is only applicable for an initial excess pore water pressure distribution of one- or two-way drainage for a designated stratum thickness, T p is
that is symmetric about D 5 H. Because a uniform initial excess pore the same for both drainage configurations, and the overall differences
pressure distribution is commonly assumed in many geotechnical in trends can be directly compared. That is, the differences in average
consolidation problems, there has not yet been a need for a revised degree of consolidation as a result of doubly or singly drained
solution. However, in light of recent work (Lovisa et al. 2010) conditions can be visually observed over the entire period of con-
solidation, because two U-T curves are now available. Using the
conventional single U-T curve, no graphical comparison can be made,
Table 1. Traditional Boundary Conditions and the effect of one or two drainage boundaries on the consolidation
Mathematical Stratum settlement can only be determined for individual values of t. Here, two
Boundary condition expression thickness, D different time factors are required for each drainage case—from this,
the single U-T curve is used to identify the corresponding U-values
1. The initial excess pore water When t 5 0, u 5 ui .
for comparison. If the differences in settlement are required for the
pressure distribution is specified
entire period of consolidation, this procedure would become quite
as a function of depth.
time-consuming, as two different time factor values would be required
2. There is complete drainage When z 5 0, u 5 0.
for each different value of t to determine the corresponding average
at the top of the stratum.
degree of consolidation for an overall comparison.
3a. There is complete drainage When z 5 D, u 5 0. 2H
The merits of axis scaling in U-T p curves are dependent upon the
at the base of the stratum.
region of time over which the user wishes to analyze the average
3b. There is no drainage at the When z 5 D, ∂u=∂z 5 0. H
degree of consolidation. For example, if the consolidation settle-
base of the soil layer.
ment during the initial stages of construction is required, a log U-log T p

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Fig. 1. Distributions of ui

or U-log T p curve is often useful to amplify the early stages of con-

solidation. Many geotechnical textbooks have presented U-T curves
(using Terzaghi’s time factor) with either no scaling (Taylor 1962;
Scott 1963; Sowers 1979; Das 2010; Sivakugan and Das 2010;
Coduto et al. 2011) or a logarithmic scaling of only the T-axis (Jumikis
1962; Leonards 1962; Berry and Reid 1987; Lancellotta 2009) or have
presented U-T curves in both forms (Terzaghi 1943; Terzaghi et al.
1996). The U-T p curves for both singly and doubly drained strata
subjected to Taylor’s six distributions in Fig. 1 are shown in Figs. 2–4.
Although the consolidation process theoretically ends when t → ‘,
in practice the process is often considered finished when T ≅ 2
(Lancellotta 2009), which corresponds to 99.42% of the final con-
solidation settlement. This applies to both singly and doubly drained
systems, because T is dependent upon the maximum length of the
drainage path, and identical values of T would correspond to different
original stratum thicknesses. However, by observing the average
consolidation in terms of T p , it is possible to specify this endpoint for
a clay stratum of constant thickness with either drainage configura-
tion. As shown in Figs. 2–4, the process of consolidation can be
considered finished when T p ≅ 0:5 for two-way drainage, in com-
Fig. 2. The U-T p curves for singly and doubly drained soil strata
parison with T p 5 2 for one-way drainage.
subjected to the ui distributions in Fig. 1
During the early stages of consolidation, when T p , 0:1, having
one or both of the axes in logarithmic scale enables a more precise
definition of the values of T p and U. For example, in Fig. 2, all six
cases appear to fall into two closely spaced single curves when the both singly and doubly drained situations when the initial excess
clay is doubly drained. These trends can be viewed more precisely pore pressure is the same at all depths. The definition of T is such that
using Figs. 3 and 4. Similarly, for singly drained situations also, ui it generates different time factor values for singly and doubly drained
cases (d) and (f) appear to be the same in Fig. 2; the differences layers of the same thickness at a specific time. This paper suggests
become clearer in Figs. 3 and 4. During the later stages, when replacing Hdr by the layer thickness D, defining a modified time
T p . 0:1, having both T p and U in arithmetic scale (see Fig. 2) factor T p 5 cv t=D2 , and using two separate U-T p charts for singly
enables a more precise evaluation of the U- and T p -values. and doubly drained situations. This way, the modified time factor is
proportional to the time and will produce values that are identical for
singly and doubly drained situations, making a comparison more
Conclusion effective.
The benefits of using a modified time factor (T p ) are seen when
Terzaghi defined the time factor T based on the maximum length of it comes to analyzing the average degree of consolidation of a
the drainage path (Hdr ) and presented a single U-T plot to describe clay layer, as a graphical comparison can be conducted when two

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Fig. 3 The U-log T p curves for singly and doubly drained soil strata
subjected to the ui distributions in Fig. 1
Fig. 4. The log U-log T p curves for singly and doubly drained soil
strata subjected to the ui distributions in Fig. 1
separate U-T curves are provided for doubly and singly drained
situations. For a uniform initial excess pore water pressure (ui )
distribution, these differences in consolidation settlement with time
are quite well known. However, by observing separate U-T curves
for each drainage situation, it is easier to observe the effect of
double or single drainage on clay layers subjected to lesser-studied
asymmetric ui distributions. In fact, the differences in consolidation
behavior can be further highlighted by changing the scale of the U-T
axes, depending on the period of consolidation that is to be studied.
For example, a more in-depth study of the initial stages of con-
solidation (T p , 0:1) can be achieved by presenting one or both of
U and T p using a logarithmic scale. During later stages (T p . 0:1), it
is better to display both axes using a linear scale as presented in
most geotechnical textbooks.
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Int. J. Geomech., 2013, 13(1): 83-86
Notation
The following symbols are used in this paper:
Am 5 series coefficient;
An 5 series coefficient;
cv 5 coefficient of consolidation;
D 5 stratum thickness;
H 5 Terzaghi stratum thickness;
Hdr 5 Terzaghi drainage path length;
M 5 number of z-terms;
N 5 number of terms;
T 5 time factor;
T p 5 modified time factor;
t 5 time;
U 5 average degree of consolidation;
Uz 5 degree of consolidation along depth of soil strata;
u 5 excess pore pressure; and
z 5 depth.
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