Platfroming of Naphtha Project

PLAT FORMING OF
NAPHTHA
Project Advisor
Prof. Dr. Shahid Naveed
Project Members
Abaidullah Sajjad 2001-CHEM-1139

Shahzad Mirza 2001-CHEM-1100
Ashhab Ahsan 2001-CHEM-1241
Adeel Shahzad 2001-CHEM-1169
M.Naeem Hafeez 2001-CHEm-1202
M.Abu Bakar 2001-CHEM-1229
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
UNIVERISITY OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

LAHORE-PAKISTAN
PLATFORMING OF NAPHTHA
This report is submitted to department of Chemial

Engineering, Univerisity of Engineering & Technology
Lahore- Pakistan for the partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the
Bachelor’s Degree
in
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
Internal Examiner: Sign:_______________
Name:______________
External Examiner Sign:_______________
Name:_______________
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

UNIVERISITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
LAHORE-PAKISTAN
1
Our
Beloved Parents,
Respected Teachers,
And
Sincere Friends
2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We express gratitude and praise to ALMIGHTY ALLAH, the
creator of universe, who is beneficent and merciful, guided us in
difficult and congeal circumstance, who endowed us with the will
to undertake this design project. Great respect our Holy Prophet
Hazrat Muhammad (PBUH), who taught us to learn till lap of
grave.
We are highly thankful to our honourable project advisor Prof. Dr.

Shahid Naveed who provided us with a chance to work on such an
interesting topic. His constructive suggestions, constant guidance
and friendly attitude encouraged us to work in a better manner.
We are also thankful to our honourable teacher Prof. Dr.

Mahmood Ahmed (Chairman of Chemical Engineering
Department), for their nice cooperation in our design work.
We are very thankful to our parents who pay us special attentions

in their prayers to complete this creative work.
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PREFACE
Gasoline is a major oil refinery product. Different
processes are available for the production of gasoline.
This design report is about the “ Production of gasoline
by Platforming Process”. This report is divided in
different sections. First of all the introduction of
platforming process is given, which highlights the
importance of this process. Different manufacturing
processes for gasoline are also described in chapter 1.
Detailed description of “ Production of Gasoline by
Platforming process” is also presented in chapter 2.
Afterwards material and energy balance for each
equipment is presented.
In preceding chapters introduction to different

equipments of plant along with their designing
procedure and specification sheets are presented.
Hazop study, Instrumentation & Control, Environmental

Impact Assessment and Cost Estimation for this plant
are also included in this report.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1........................................................................................................................1
INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................1
CATALYTIC REFORMING……………………………………………………….1
NAPHTHA…………………………………………………………………………2
SCOPE OF REFROMING…………………………………………………………4
THE AVAILABLE PROCESSES…………………………………………………6
SETTING CAPACITY…………………………………………………………….8
CHAPTER NO 2.................................................................................................................1
PLATFORMING REACTIONS.....................................................................................1
REACTIONS…………………………………………………………………….10
HEAT OF REACTIONS………………………………………………………...14
MECHANISM OF SOLID CATALYSED REACTIONS………………………15
CHAPTER 3........................................................................................................................1
FEED STOCK.……………………………………………………………………….17
PROCESS....................................................................................................................1
FEED STOCK PROPERTIES……………………………………………………...17
CHAPTER 4........................................................................................................................1
PLATFORMING CATALYSTS.....................................................................................1
REFORMING CATALYST AND ITS PROPERTIES……………………………21
DUAL FUNCTION OF CATALYST……………………………………………..24
ACTIVITY DUE TO ACID FUNCTIONS………………………………………. 26
PLATINUM CATALYST ACTIVITY…………………………………………... 27
CATALYST REGENARATION………………………………………………….29
CATALYST POISONS…………………………………………………………... 29
CHAPTER 5........................................................................................................................1
PROCESS VARIABLES AND PROCESS FLOW DESCRIPTION............................1
PROCESS VARIABLES…………………………………………………………32
PROCESS CONDITIONS………………………………………………………..36
PROCESS FLOW DESCRIPTION………………………………………………36
CHAPTER 6.......................................................................................................................1
MATERIAL & ENERGY BALANCE........................................................................1
MATERIAL BALANCE...........................................................................................1
ENERGY BALANCE................................................................................................1
CHAPTER 7........................................................................................................................1
DESIGNING OF EQUIPMENTS.................................................................................1
DESIGNING OF HEAT EXCHANGER....................................................................1
FURNACE DESIGN...................................................................................................1
REACTOR DESIGN...................................................................................................1
AIR COOLER DESIGN……………………………………………………………85
DESIGNING OF SEPATOR.......................................................................................1
DISTILLATION COLUM DESIGN...........................................................................1
PARTIAL CONDENSER DESIGN...........................................................................1
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HAPTER 8...........................................................................................................................1
Hazop study.....................................................................................................................1
INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………..125
ENVIRONMENTAL STATUS IN REFINARIES………………………………126
HEALTH IMPACTS……………………………………………………………128
SAFETY…………………………………………………………………………133
CHAPTER 9........................................................................................................................1
INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL.....................................................................1
CONTROL SCHEME FOR DISTILLATION COLUMN……………………...136
OBJECTIVES…………………………………………………………………..136
CONTROL SCHEME………………………………………………………….137
CHAPTER 10......................................................................................................................1
COST ESTIMATION....................................................................................................1
COST INDEX.............................................................................................................1
COST OF HEAT EXCHANGERS.............................................................................1
COST OF FURNACES...............................................................................................1
COST OF SEPARATOR.............................................................................................1
COST OF FRACTIONATOR.....................................................................................1
Reference....................................................................................................................1
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.0 CATALYTIC REFORMING:
In general, the reforming process converts paraffins and naphthenes

to aromatics. Some undesired side reactions that produce butanes and lighter
gases also occur. It is important to note that even though it is a catalytic process,
reaction conditions in the cat reformer are very severe: 200-500 psi pressure and
900-935oF temperature. Typical crudes produce naphtha that is approximately
85% by volume paraffins and naphthenes. The purpose of reforming is to convert
these to aromatics, as aromatics have a very high octane rating. However, that
other reactions also take place. Of particular importance is isomerization, which
will be the way of the future for the reforming process. With the exception of the
isomerization reactions.
Reforming is the process of rearranging of the molecular structure of the

hydrocarbon by converting long chain paraffins to branched chain iso-paraffins
and aromatic form. Two methods are available to carry out the reforming process
which are thermal reforming and catalytic reforming.
Catalytic reforming is the rearranging of molecules in a gasoline boiling
range material to give a higher antiknock quality over a bed of catalyst.
Practically the feed to the catalytic reforming units are hydro treated to remove
non hydrocarbons which affect the stability of the catalyst and the material
removed include S, N2, O2 and organic compound of as and Pd which are
catalyst poisons.
Naphtha feed is first mixed with hydrogen rich gas then passed through a
series of fixed bed catalyst reactors the reaction takes place. The gas produced
is separated from the liquid and and part of it is recycled. The liquid produced is
stabilized to give high octane gasoline.
1
The catalytic reforming has largely replaced the thermal reforming which is due
to the reason that thermal reforming gives low octane numbers and considerable
loss due to the formation of the gaseous products but the catalytic reforming
gives higher yield and higher octane numbers.
1.01 Naphtha
Naphtha is widely used in fertilizer plants and petrochemical industries

as a feed stock. It is a highly volatile product, manufactured from crude oil by
direct atmospheric distillation and by catalytic cracking of heavy residues. There
are two types of Naphtha marketed namely, High Aromatic Naphtha (HAN) and
Low Aromatic Naphtha (LAN) known as Naphtha (Petrochemical). Naphtha
essentially consists of paraffinic, naphthenic and aromatic Hydrocarbons. The
presence of Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Naphtha is very critical especially when it
is used in fertilizer plants. In fact, the design of a fertilizer plant may entirely
depend upon the composition of Naphtha available or a refinery has to produce
Naphtha according to the needs and specifications demanded by a fertilizer
plant. This is one of the reasons that IS Specifications for Naphtha has been
withdrawn.
Naphtha is used as a fuel in fertilizer plant reformers where high temperatures
are required. It is also used as a fuel for steam generation in the plants where
2
reforming is done with the help of steam. Some gas turbines for power
generation have also been installed recently which will require Naphtha as fuel.
Physical properties
Boiling point: 138-178°C
Melting point: -48 - -26°C
Density: 0.75-0.82 g/cm³
Solubility in water: none
Vapour pressure, kPa at 20°C: 0.2-0.6
Relative vapour density (air = 1): 4.0
Flash point: 38-60°C c.c.
Auto-ignition temperature: 229-260°C
Explosive limits, vol% in air: 0.6-6.5
1.02 Gasoline:
Gasoline is a volatile mixture of liquid hydrocarbons suitable for
use in spark-ignition internal combustion engines. Gasoline is formulated from
the "light" end of refinery runs and generally contains petroleum molecules
having between 4 and 10 carbon atoms. Accordingly, the boiling range of
gasoline is usually very wide, from approximately 40 degrees to 165 0C degrees
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1.03 OCTANE NUMBER:
Octane number is a measure of the fuels ability to avoid knocking
which is determined in a special single cylinder engine where various combustion
conditions can be controlled.
The octane number scale is from 0-100 and based upon two primary
reference fuels, iso octane (2,2,4-tri methyl pentane) and normal heptane.
Defining iso octane as (100) octane number and normal heptane as (0) octane
number, the volumetric percentage of iso octane in heptane that matches knock
from the unknown fuel is reported as the octane number of the fuel.
1.1 KNOCKING PHENOMENAN:

The gasoline engines keep running smoothly if the air fuel mixture
burns at a precise time in the combustion cycle where an electrical spark starts
ignition while the remaining mixtures should be consumed by the flame out from
the initial spark. In some cases a portion of fuel air mixture will ignite
spontaneously instead of waiting for the flame from the carefully timed spark. The
extra pressure pluses resulting from the spontaneous combustion appeared
above the normal sounds of the engine and give rise to the phenomenon known
as knocking.
1.2 Scope of Reforming Process
The process, first commercially demonstrated at the Old Dutch Refinery in

Muskegon, Mich., employs a precious metal, platinum. The catalytic reforming
process enables refiners to significantly increase the yield of high octane
gasoline from a barrel of crude. At the same time, the process provides
petrochemical producers with a lower cost way to make aromatic compounds for
plastics and fibers, while also providing refiners with a low-cost source of
hydrogen that can be used to improve the quality of refined products.Platforming
boosted the manufacture of synthetic fibers and related products by generating
4
large quantities of aromatic hydrocarbons. By 1965, petroleum refiners were
producing 1.6 billion gallons of benzene, toluene and xylenes annually in the US
alone, nearly 10 times the amount previously available from the coal tar industry,
the only major source."Because of the Platforming process, today's fuel for cars
and trucks is more efficient, more environmentally friendly and easier to produce.
In addition, we can rely on inexpensive plastics for manufacturing our medical
devices, synthetics for clothing, tape for audio aid video recording, and
thousands of other uses. "The Platforming process was both revolutionary leap
and paradigm of how UOP does business."
5
1.3THE AVAILABLE PROCESSES:
The commercial processes available are
1.3.1CATFORMING PROCESS:
It is a naphtha reforming process the catalyst is a platinum-alumina

composition (Pt 0.3 – 0.7 %) in form of pallets placed in a fixed bed reactor.
The catalyst is regenerated with a dilute air steam mixture.
1.3.2 HYPEREORMING PROCESS:

It is a catalytic hydrogenation process for improving octane number of
naphtha through removal of sulphur and nitrogen compounds. The catalyst is
a cobalt molybdate on a silica alumina base in form of pallet and the catalyst
moves by gravity down through the reactor and return to the top by means of
solid convaying system called hyper flow.
1.3.3REXFORMING PROCESS:
Is a process of combining platforming with aromatic extraction and
the low octane raffinate is recycled to the platforming. Glycol is used to
extract low boiling high octane paraffins and aromatics.
1.3.4 THERMOFER CATALYTIC REFORMING:

Is a reforming process in which a synthetic bead type catalyst of
chromia and alumina flows down through reactor co-current with the feed
which is a naphtha gas recycle mixture. The catalyst is transported from
bottom of the reactor to the top of the regenerator by bucket elevator then
recycled to the reactor.
6
1.3.5 PLATFORMING PROCESS:
The main catalytic reforming process in which platinum (0.1 – 1 %)
and (0.1 – 0.8 %) chlorine on an alumina base is used. It is characterized by
highest liquid product yield with high octane number.
Flow Diagram
All flow sheets available for platfroming have common equipments and with out
those equipments process of platfroming can not be carried out . but there is a
Fuel
choice in hear exchangers and separator. To make our process economical we Gas
have found from literature that air cooler is more economical to cool to about
650C and then air cooler will be more economical from 650C to about 30 to
400C.so we have choose these equipments and for separation first of all high
purity of gas is required for recycling in reactor. For this purpose we have
selected simple gravity two phase separator at high pressure followed by
fractionator so that purity of liquid product can be obtained. All other equipments
are compulsory for our plant.
Air cooler
1.4 Setting capacity
Typically naphtha produces about 85% reformat , 10% hydrogen , 5% LPG.

For economic reasons the capacities of platforming unist vary from 1000, 4500
ton per day , the operating pressure vary in wide range , units with from 3.5 barg
to 30 barg can be found.As we have seen from graph that imports of gasoline is
more then export of naphtha but for economical reasons. Therefore feed flow
rate is selected as as 1000 ton/hr.
Exports of Naphtha
Exports of Naphtha
180
160
140
120
Tonnes
100
Series1
80
60
40
20
0
3 4 5 6 7 8
2 -9 3 -9 4 -9 5 -9 6 -9 7 -9
9 9 9 9 9 9
19 19 19 19 19 19
year
8
Imports of gasoline
Imports of Gasoline
250000
200000
Tonnes
150000
Series1
100000
50000
93 94 95 96 97 98
92- 93- 94- 95- 96- 97-
19 19 19 19 19 19
Year
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CHAPTER NO 2
PLATFORMING REACTIONS
2.1 Reactions:
The following major reactions take place in the platforming process and are
dependent on the type pf catalyst, quality of the feed and on the severity of the
operation.
1.Dehydrogenation of naphthenes.
2.Dehydrocyclization of paraffins.
3.Paraffin isomerization.
4.Dehydroisomerization of naphthenes.
5.Paraffin hydrocracking.
6.Desulphurization.
7.Demethylation.
Generalized Diagram of platforming reactions
2.1.1 DEHYDROGENATION OF NAPHTHENES:
10
Is the dominant reaction. The final step in the formation of an aromatic from
naphthene (alcylcyclohexane or alkylcyclopentane) is the dehydrogenation of an
alkylcyclohexane.
This reaction is extremely rapid and essentially quantative. By this naphthenes

are the most desirable feed components because the dehydrogenation reaction
is easy to promote and produces hydrogen as well as the aromatic
hydrocarbons. The reaction is very endothermic and is promoted by a metal
catalyst function and is favored by high reaction temperature and low pressure.
2.1.2 ISOMERIZATION OF PARAFFINS AND NAPHTHENES:

Isomerization reactions result from carbonium in intermediate reactions.
These reactions are promoted by an acidic catalyst and are slightly dependent on
operating pressure.The isomerization of an alkylcyclopentane to an
alcyclohexane must occur as the first step in converting the alkylcyclopentane to
aromatic. This reaction is strongly dependent on the processing conditions.
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Paraffin isomerization occurs readily in the process and make a significant
contribution to octane improvement of naphtha.
2.1.3 DEHYDROCYCLIZATION OF PARAFFINS:

This type is most difficult platforming reaction to promote and consists
of a very difficult molecular rearrangement from paraffin to naphthene. As the
molecular weight of the paraffin increases paraffin-cyclization becomes easier.
This reaction is favored by low pressure and high temperatures and both metal
acid and
catalyst functions are needed to promote the reaction.
De hyd
rocy cliz
atio n
involves two processes namely the conversion of open paraffin chain to ring from
(cyclization) eventually of aromatic form and dehydrogenation yielding aromatic
species.
2.1.4 HYDROCRACKING:
12
The hydrogen evolved by the dehydrogenation is used to promote the
cracking of large molecules to smaller saturated species and to hydrogenate any
unsaturated olefinic products of the cracking stage paraffin hydrocracking is
relatively rapid and is favored by high pressure and high temperature.The
disappearance of paraffins from the gasoline boiling range through hydrocracking
concentrate aromatic in the product and improve the octane. The reaction
consume hydrogen and result in lower platformate yield.
2.1.5 DEMETHYLATION:
Demethylation occur only at high temperature and pressure and under
certain condition they occur during the startup of a unit following catalyst
replacement or generation. The reaction is metal catalyzed and can be inhibited
by attenuation of the metal-catalyst function by the addition of sulphur or a
second metal.
2.1.6 DESULPHURIZATION:
Some of the hydrogen is also used in removing sulphur from thio-
compounds in the feed stock and the sulphur appears in the product as hydrogen
sulphide H2S.
Because of the wide range of paraffins and naphthenes present

in the feed and because the reaction rates vary with the carbon number of the
reactant, these reactions occur in the series and in parallel to each other and
forming complicated overall reactions.
13
2.2 HEATS OF REACTION:
Dehydrocyclization of paraffins and dehydrogenation of naphthenes
are very endothermic and show large temperature decreases through the first
two reactors where they occur. In general the third reactor is promoting the
combination of paraffin dehydrocyclization and hydrocracking reaction while the
net heat effect in this reactor is either endothermic or exothermic depending on
feed characteristics, processing condition and catalyst.
REACTION H Kcal/gm mol H2

Paraffin  naphthene + 10.5 Endothermic
Naphtha  aromatic + 16.9 Endothermic
Hydrocracking - 13.5 Exothermic
The catalytic reforming has largely replaced the thermal reforming which is due
to the reason that thermal reforming gives low octane numbers and considerable
loss due to the formation of the gaseous products but the catalytic reforming
gives higher yield and higher octane numbers.
14
2.3 MECHANISM OF SOLID CATALIZED
REACTIONS:
In general a catalyst is considered to form an intermediate
compound with some of the reactants which in interacts with other reactants to
form the desired products and releasing the catalyst and by this the catalyst
enables a reaction to proceed at faster rate by a mechanism that requires a lower
activation energy than that for the uncatalized one. There are some hypothesis
steps envolved in solid catalyzed fluid phase reactions which are
1. Diffusion of reactants from the bulk of the fluid phase to the exterior
surface of the catalyst and into the catalyst pores.
2. Adsorption of reactants on to the exterior and pore surfaces (active
centers).
3. Reaction of the adsorbed reactants on the surfaces to form products.
4. Desorption of the products to the fluid phase near the surfaces.
5. Diffusion of the products through the pores and from the exterior
surfaces in to the bulk fluid phase.
The factors affecting the catalytic reactions are
1. The catalytic properties such as particle size and pores dimensions.
2. The diffusion characteristics of fluid reactants and products.
3. Activation energy of the surface reaction.
4. Fluid dynamic factor such as mass velocity.
5. Activation energy requirements for adsorption and desorption of fluid
reactants and products.
6. The thermal factor such as temperature.
15
16
CHAPTER 3
3.1 FEED STOCKS FOR PLATFORMING
PROCESS
Catalytic reformer feeds are saturated (i.e not olefinic) materials boiling
up to maximum of about 160 C. In the majority of cases the feed will be straight –
run naphtha, but other by-product low-octane naphthas (e.g. coker naphtha) may
be processed after treatment to remove olefins and other contaminants.
Hydrocracker naphtha that contains substantial quantities of naphthenes is also
suitable feed. It is not usual to include C 5 in the cat. reformer feed as the only
reaction capable of giving increased octane number is isomerization, and the
equilibrium ratio at reaction temperatures does not give any great improvement.
In addition, the hydrocracking reactions breaks C 5 wholly into fuel gas (C2 + C3 or C1+
C4), and thus reduces the yield of gasoline on feed.
The yield of gasoline of given octane number and at given operating
conditions depends on the hydrocarbon type analysis of the feed, high
naphthene stocks , which readily give high aromatic gasolines, are the easiest to
reform and give the highest gasoline yields. Paraffinic stocks, however , which
depend on the more difficult isomerization, dehydrocyclization and hydrocracking
reactions, require more severe conditions and give lower gasoline yields than do
the naphthenic stocks.
3.2 FEED STOCK PROPERTIES

Hydrocarbon types by paraffin, naphthenes, and aromatic and
American Society for Testing and Materials(ASTM) distillation are the minimum
required to characterize a charge stock. While these analysis do not completely
describe the charge stocks and its effect on yields, activity, and stability, they
serve as basis for selectivity and stability evaluation.
Feed stocks such as Fluid Catalytic Cracking (FCC) process naphtha ,

hydrocracked naphtha, and raffinates have a higher ratio of C5 and C6
17
naphthenes than do most crude-derived naphthas. This makes them more
difficult to re-form. Stocks such as coker naphthas tend to carry with them
polycyclic material for a given boiling range. For this reason, these synthetic
naphthas should not be compared directly with crude-drived naphthas.
3.3 COMPOSITION OF PLATFORMER FEED

The primary purpose of the Platforming process is to produce
aromatics from naphthenes and paraffins, either for use in a motor fuel
(because of their very high octane ratings) or as a source of specific aromatic
compounds. In motor –fuel applications , the feed naphtha generally contains the
whole range of C6 through C11 hydrocarbons in order to maximize the
gasoline produced from the crude run. In aromatics applications, the feed
naphtha generally contains a more select range of hydrocarbons (i.e.. C 6 , C6 to
C7 , C6 to C8. C7 to C8 )in order to maximize the desired aromatic products. For
either application the basis naphtha chemistry is identical. Aromatics processing,
in most cases, involves C6 , C7 and C8 hydrocarbon reactions.
Naphthas from various crude sources vary greatly in their “ease of re-forming “.
This ease of re-forming is primarily determined by the amount of the various
hydrocarbon types( paraffins, naphthenes, aromatics) contained in the naphtha.
Aromatic hydrocarbons pass through the platforming unit essentially unchanged.
Most naphthenes react rapidly and efficiently to aromatics, as this is the basic
reaction of platforming. Paraffins are the most difficult compounds to convert. In
most low – severity applications, there is only a small amount of paraffins
conversion to aromatics. In high – severity applications, paraffin conversion is
higher but still slow and inefficient relative to naphthene conversion .
Figure indicates the hydrocarbon conversion that must take place in a typical
platforming operation on a high – paraffin , low-naphthene content and a low –
paraffin, higher- naphthene content feed. For the richer (high –naphthenes )
feed, less paraffin conversion will be necessary , in making the operation much
easier and more efficient.
18
3.4 Feed stream requirements
1. The S content should be less than 1 ppm, but has to be les than10 ppm.
2. The N-content should be lower than 2 ppm (N converts to ammonia
poisoning acid sites).
3. Water and Cl in the feed change the properties of the catalyst.
4. As, Pb and Cu are strong catalyst poisons even at very low
concentrations.
3.4.1 FEED PREPARATION

As produced feed stocks are sometimes not suitable for catalytic
reforming and feed preparation operations may be required. The feed
preparation steps may consist of prefractionation, catalytic treatment to remove
poisons, or both.
3.4.2 PREFRACTIONATION
Except where benzene is a primary product, materials lighter than
heptanes do not make good feed stocks. It is generally desirable to exclude
materials lighter than heptanes from the reformer charge, and a prefractionation
step to remove light ends is often included in the reforming plant .
Because aromatics are higher boiling than the corresponding naphthenes
paraffins, aromatics produced from high boiling components products. Aromatics
19
outside the gasoline range are usually less valuable than the materials from
which they were produced . Also, they tend to form coke on the reforming
catalyst and thus deactivate it. For these reasons, fractionation to remove heavy
ends from the feed is often desirable, the end point of the feed being controlled
so that the product has the proper and point without further fractionation.
In some refineries , the feed to reforming is fractionated into cuts of different
boiling ranges , and each cut is reformed under the conditions optimum for it.
3.4.3 PRETREATING
Catalytic treatment of feed stokes is required only for platinum
catalysts , which are sensitive to certain trace elements such as sulfur, nitrogen,
water, chloride, lead , and arsenic. Sulfur nitrogen , chlorides, and metals can be
removed from the feed by mild hydrogenation , usually over a cobalt –
molybdenum catalyst; hydrogen required is available, of course, from the
reforming operations. Sulfur and lead are eliminated from some virgin naphthas
by a bauxite pretreatment at high temperatures, and arsenic is taken out by
passing the feed through a bed of clay at atmospheric temperature. Arsenic
and lead can also be removed by acid treatment.
20
CHAPTER 4
PLATFORMING CATALYSTS
4.1 PLATFORMING CATALYST AND ITS

REPARTION
The purpose of platinum of the catalyst is to promote dehydrogenation
and hydrogenation reactions, i.e. the production of aromatics, participation in
hydrocracking, and rapid hydrogenation of carbon –forming precursors. For the
catalyst to have an activity for isomerization of both paraffins and naphthenes,
the initial cracking step of hydrocracking, and participate in paraffin
dehydrocyclization, it must have an acid activity. The balance between these two
activities is most important in a reforming catalyst and, in fact, may require to be
different to different duties. For example, in the production of aromatics from
naphthenes it is important that hydrocracking should be minimized to avoid loss
of yield, and thus the acid activity should be lower than in the case of gasoline
production from a Paraffinic feed, where dehydrocyclization and hydro cracking
play an important part .
The acid activity can be obtained by means of halogens(usually
fluorine of chlorine up a about 1 per cent wt in catalyst) or silica incorporated in
the alumina base. Platinum content of the catalyst is normally in the range 0.3-
0.8 per cent wt. At higher levels there is some tendency to effect demethylation
and naphthene ring opening, which is undesirable, while at lower levels the
catalysts tend to be less resistant to poisons.
The choice of platinum content of the catalyst is, in general one of
economics. Platinum is extremely expensive (about pound 50/troy ounce) and
the metal content of the catalyst represents a substantial amount of capital tied
up. As the platinum content of catalyst is reduced its resistance to deactivation
is also reduced, and the reduction of capital invested must be balanced against
the reduction of time between regenerations and a reduction of ultimate catalyst
21
. Normally the high platinum catalyst ( 0.6 -0.8 percent wt Pt) are used for severe
operations such as the production of 100 octane number gasoline from feeds
with only moderate naphthene contents .
According to patents catalyst can be prepared by precipitating an
alumina hydrogen by reaction of ammonium hydroxide with aluminium chloride
and washing the gel until the chlorine content is less than o.1 percent wt . the
gel is filtered and reslurried , and the correct quantity of halogen(as HCI or HF
solution) added . The platinum is than added in the form of chloroplatinic acid
solution treated with H2 S. After mixing , the gel is dried , pelleted and calcined at
about 500o C.
Another patent claims the importance of the presence of a large proportion of
alumina trihydrate in the catalyst base. The alumina is precipitated from
aluminum chloride with ammonium hydroxide and the gel, after washing to
remove chloride to less than 0.2 per cent wt, aged for several days at a pH of
about 8. It is claimed that the resultant alumina base has a large proportion of its
available surface are in pore sizes in the 100-1000 Angstrom units instead of in
the 10-50 Angstrom units in normal aluminas, and that these high-pore aluminas
give catalysts which show lower rates of activity decline under reforming
conditions. Small catalysts particles give the best activity , and it is normally
produced either as 1/16 inch spheres of 1/16 inch extrudates.
The latest development is the use of bimetallic catalysts which
incorporates other metals (rhenium and tin have been claimed) in addition to
platinum. It is claimed that this catalyst can operate at lower hydrogen partial
pressure then can the normal platinum catalyst without deactivation. It is thus
possible to take advantage of the increase in gasoline yield associated with lower
pressure operation without incurring the penalty of short catalyst life. This
development could also mean that in certain cases it may be possible to use
catalysts of lower platinum content than previously, thus reducing the amount of
capital tied up in platinum.
22
All catalysts are reported to be regenerate able a number of times provided there
has been no poisoning.
4.2 Preparation of supported catalysts

1. Co-precipitation
2. Impregnation
3. Wet chemical impregnation
4. Incipient wetness impregnation
5. Adsorption
6. Ion exchange
7. Exchange in aqueous medium
8. Solid state ion exchange
9. The catalyst precursor will be dried, calcined and reduced in hydrogen.
10. The ion-exchange procedure seems to result in atomic dispersion of the
metal.
11. During reduction the metal atoms migrate and form small metal particles
of 0.8 to 10 nm.
4.2.1 Differences in preparation procedures
23
1.
Excessive firing temperatures

2. appear to lead to sintering.
3. Ion exchanged particles are
4. more thermo-stable.
5. Ion exchange leads to smaller particles.
6. Impregnated particles sinter easier.
4.3 DUAL FUNCTION NATURE OF THE

CATALYST
The various reactions which , in total, constitute a reforming process,
are exceedingly complex in the sense that these are consecutive reactions which
occur over a single catalyst. In order to understand the catalyst behaviour and
24
the influence of the experimental conditions, one should have an understanding
of the action of the catalyst.
Complex- action catalyst is a general concept introduces to describe
the performance of two or more catalytic substance each capable of catalyzing a
particular reaction. Reforming catalysts , in general , posses a duality of function.
An acidity function is necessary to promote isomerization and an electron defect
structure to promote dehydrogenation. It is, of course recognized catalyst
function can promote not only desirable reaction such as isomerization but also
undesirable reaction such as cracking, polymerization , and coke formation. It
then becomes necessary to balance the properties of the dual catalyst to
optimize its use for a particular feed stoke and for the operating conditions.
The hydrogenation function is generally a metal of group VIII of the periodic
table. Platinum , molybdenum and nickel have been used in this respect. The
acidity function is associated with the support material, usually alumina which
may be acid treated . the design of a catalyst with the proper balance of
properties will depend largely upon the anticipated charge stock.
Several laboratory studies with poor hydrocarbons have been made to give
information concerning the duality of function. For instance, cyclohexane ,
methylcyclopentanl and the olefins derived from each were reacted at 510 o C
(950o F) . Under a hydrogen pressure of 300 p.s.i. and a space velocity of 3. In
each case, an isomerization catalyst , a dehydrogenation catalyst and a dual
function catalyst were used. Cyclohexane was not appreciable changed by the
isomerization catalyst but was largely converted to aromatics by
dehydrogenation catalyst and by dual function catalyst . Neither of the single
function catalyst affected large amounts of isomerization to C 5 –cylices, but , in
the case of the dual function catalyst, the C 5- cylices predominated in the
naphthenic portion of the product. In the case of methylcyclopentane only the
dual –function catalyst was able to effect large amounts aromatization. Again ,
only in this case was appreciable isomerization noted in the naphthene portion
of the product . Qualitatively , the olefins, cyclohexene and methylcyclopentane ,
25
gave similar results over the three catalyst . the notables difference was the
extensive isomerization over the isomerization catalyst.
It is important to note that, with the cycloalkanes , isomerization did not
occur to a large extent over the isomerization catalyst but that both isomerization
and dehydrogenation were major reactions over the dual function catalyst.
Another example of dual functionality is the conversion of C 6 cyclo paraffin over

dual function catalysts. The dual function catalyst can convert
methylcyclopentane to benzene. Two types of catalytic sides are required with
transferal of an olefinic intermediate between sides. Chemical transformation
occur on the dehydrogenation site , where isomerization take place horizontally.
For a diagonal chemical change, A transfer from one to the other type of site is
required in certain cases, Dehydrocyclization occur on metal sites.
4.4 CATALYST COMPOSITION AND REACTION RATE

CONTROL
4.4.1 ACTIVITY DUE TO THE ACID FUNCTIONS
The acid activity of catalyst causes paraffin molecules to hydrocrack at
their respective centers,causes paraffin isomerization ,and participates in paraffin
dehydrocyclization along with necessary naphthene isomerization needed to
from the six –membered aromatic product structures. The relative acidity of the
catalyst can be adjusted to produce paraffin products predominantly in the C 3, C4
and C5 range.
Acidity is an important function in achieving a certain degree of
conversion; that is , product octane number at a given time-temperature
condition, However, it should be remembered that high activity of a catalyst—as
measured in terms of producing a given octane number at a given physical
severity – is not necessarily desirable from the standpoint of selective production
of specially products. In fact, true, catalytic effectiveness should be defined in
terms of ability to produce maximum yields of the desired materials.
26
4.4.2 PLATINUM ACTIVITY
The principal purpose of the presence of platinum in the catalyst is to
promote dehydrogenation and hydrogenation reaction. This implies production of
aromatics, participation in hydrocracking (which, in reality, is a hydrogenolysis
reaction) and a continuous hydrogenation and release of the carbon forming
precursors. At higher platinum levels there is some tendency to effect
demethylation and naphthene ring opening, neither of which is desirable in most
instances, while a lower levels there is a tendency for the catalyst to be less
resistant to poison.
Another limitation on platinum content is , of course the investment in
this is precious metal in any given installation. Platinum activity of a catalyst may
be adjusted by setting the concentration, controlling the poison levels (e.g.
carbon level)or controlling the dispersion of platinum in chemical complex with
the alumina base and the halogen portion of the catalyst.
Thus, platinum content is determined by a balance between economics
and reaction rates. The solution to the problem has been to provide for a
maximum platinum availability and, in addition it is very desirable that such
availability be mentioned through out the catalyst life. We have found that
platinum availability for hydrocarbon conversion can be correlated with the
laboratory –determined carbon monoxide to platinum ratio. The determination is
carried out by contacting a measured amount of carbon-14 monoxide with a
catalyst sample and determining the amount of the unabsorbed gas by means of
an electrometer.
According to the correlation, fresh catalysts a well as catalysts which
have not been damaged in operation show a carbon monoxide- platinum ratio of
1, while damaged or poisoned catalysts may exhibit a ratio of less than unit.
Furthermore, this analysis has been found to correlate well with the stability of
reforming catalysts. Platinum availability is a function of start up conditions.
27
Contaminant level in feeds stocks and the type and number of regeneration that
have occurred during the processing period. Platinum availability has been held
very high in modern catalyst through the preparation and maintenance of
catalysts free from reactions that will cause platinum agglomeration. Once the
catalyst has been improperly treated or regenerated , a sever reconditioning is
required to redistribute platinum.
Since platinum actively participates in the removal of the precursors of
the carbonaceous deposits, it is reasonable to expect the higher platinum content
catalyst s will maintain a lower deactivation rate. This may be observed in Figs.
3.2 and 3.3 which compare “high” and “low” platinum content catalysts in an
accelerated aging pilot plant test.
4.4.3 REACTION RATE CONTROL

The activity of catalysts in bringing about the conversion of feedstocks
at a given set of conditions is primarily governed by the relationship of the two
principals catalyst functions. However, it can be controlled further during
processing through poisoning specific functions by adding certain materials to the
charge, thus accentuating the desired reactions. Typically, these has been water,
halogens and other components useful in adjusting the dual functionality balance
or the catalyst.
In the overall picture, the question arises as to how the actual balancing
of the competitive reactions takes place. To answer this, we can use a relative
simple example from the stand point of molecular size and yet complex form the
view point of numbers of possible competitive reactions. In this particular study
we wish to determine the concentration levels of each of the two controlling
catalyst functions. We employed the conversion of methylcyclopenatne to
benzene as shown below:
Two series of platinum –alumina –fluorine catalysts were prepared .In the first
series the platinum concentration was varied and the fluorine held at a constant
0.77%, while in the second the fluorine concentration was varied while platinum
28
concentration was varied while platinum concentration was held constant at
0.30% .The experiments were carried out at 260 psig, hydrogen to hydrocarbon
ratio of 3. a LHSV of 4 and reactor outlet temperature of 453 o C. The results
obtained in are shown in Fig. 3.4. It will be observed that at a constant fluorine
content of 0.77% a constant high conversion of methylcyclopentane to benzene
is reached at a platinum concentration of about 0.08%. The conversion to
benzene, when the fluorine content is increased at a constant platinum content,
rise steadily to 1%F, and then lines out since an equilibrium conversion is
attained. Thus , it is quite apparent that two rate controls are present, the
halogen concentration controlling an inherently slower reaction, and the platinum
controlling an inherently faster reaction.
It should be kept in mind that, in this example, we started with a
naphthene which had to be isomerized and then dehydrogenated. When, on the
other hand, we start with a paraffin which has to be cycled presumably to a
naphthenic prior to being converted to an aromatic, the platinum control appears
to involve a considerably lower reaction rate and higher platinum activities have
to be maintained. A valid procedure for maintaining individual functions has been
developed for steady-state reformers and is highly recommended over
processing which cause large variations in these contaminant levels, either by
lack of proper feed preparation or process operation.
4.5 CATALYST REGENERATION

Proper regeneration of catalyst allows many cycles of processing with
return of fresh catalyst activity and selectivity. It is during the regeneration that
the catalyst is the most susceptible to permanent damage through shifts in either
the platinum distribution or the base structure . Ideally, the only purpose in a
regeneration is to remove carbon without affecting the catalyst.
4.6 CATALYST POISONS
29
Platinum is easily poisoned, and it is therefore necessary to exercise
very careful control over contaminants in the feed to a catalytic reformer, the
most important being as follows:
4.6.1 SULPHUR
Under the high hydrogen partial pressure conditions used in catalytic
reforming, sulphur compounds re readily converted into hydrogen sulphide,
which, unless removed, will build up to a high concentration in the recycle gas.
Hydrogen sulphide is reversible poison for platinum, and cause a decrease in the
catalyst dehydrogenation and dehydrocyclization activities. In the first catalytic
reformers the hydrogen sulphide was removed from the gas recycle stream by
absorption in, for example, diethanolamine. Modern units usually remove the
sulphur from the feed by conventional desulphurization over cobalt-molybdenum
catalyst. An additional benefit of desulphurization of the feed to a level of<5 ppm
sulphur is the elimination of H2 S-corrosion problems in the heaters and
reactors.
4.6.2 NITROGEN
Organic nitrogen compounds are converted into ammonia under
reforming conditions, and this neutralizes acid sites on the catalyst and thus
represses the activity for isomerization, hydrocracking and dehydrocyclization
reactions. Very small quantities (1-2ppm) can have adverse effect. Normally,
straight- run materials do not present serious problems with regard to nitrogen,
but feeds such as coker naphtha may contain around 50 ppm nitrogen. Removal
of this quantity may require high pressure hydrogenation (800-10000psig) over
nickel-cobalt-molybdenum on alumina catalyst, reported to be more efficient for
nitrogen removal than cobalt-molybdenum.
4.6.3 METALS
30
Platinum is extremely sensitive to arsenic, lead and copper poisoning.
Arsenic can have an effect at a level of a few parts/10 9 and lead and copper at
20-30 parts/109 . Arsenic is present probably because of contamination in the oil
well with arsenic compounds used as inhibitors during acid treatment of the well
to increase production. Lead is the most common poison, entering the feed
through contamination with TEL or TML in storage, or the processing of leaded
slops through the crude distillation unit. These contaminants are normally
removed easily if the reformer feed is desuluphurized, and are deposited on the
desulphurizer catalyst, which is less sensitive than the platinum catalyst.
4.6.4 Poisoning components
1. Poisoning is equivalent to strong chemisorption which impedes
accessibility for the reactants.
2. The thermal stability determines the strength of a poison with the respect
to regenerability and sensitivity.
3. The electronegativity determines the effects upon the electronic
properties.
4. Strong poisons may affect metals more than by mere site blocking.
5. change of the chemical state and/or bond structure
6. structure sensitivity
7. The atmosphere determines the state in which the element is:
8. sulfur in reducing atmosphere (H2S) is poisonous
9. in oxidizing (SO2) is not.
31
Poisoning of catalysts
CHAPTER 5
PROCESS VARIABLES AND PROCESS FLOW
DESCRIPTION
5.1 Process Variables
The purpose of this section is to discuss the major Platforming
operating variables and their effect on unit performance. For practical refinery
and petrochemical applications, they are sufficient to define to define a
Platforming operation. There are interrelationships between the variables, but
these are generally of minor consequence.
5.1.1CATALYST TYPE
Catalyst selections are made to suit processing requirements so that
yields, activity, and stability can be optimized to meet the individual refiner’s
need. This is done by barying the basic catalyst formulation, chloride content,
and platinum content. In the case of bimetallic catalyst, the choice and quantity of
32
the second can be significant factors in selecting the best catalysts for a
particular application.
5.1.2REACTOR TEMPERATURE
The temperature at which catalyst beds are held is the primary variable
available to the refiner to control the product quality. Platforming catalysts are
capable of operation over a wide range of temperature with little adverse effect
on product yield and catalyst stability. Very high temperature above 538 0C can
cause thermal reaction that will decrease Platforming yields and increase catalyst
deactivation.
The Platforming temperature can be defined as either weighted-
average inlet temperature(WAIT), the fraction of catalyst in each reactor bed
multiplied by its inlet temperature, or weighted-bed average temperature(WBAT),
the fraction of catalyst in each bed multiplied by average of its inlet and outlet
temperatures. Both are of practical use even though neither exactly defines the
average catalyst temperature. WAIT is exclusively in this section.
5.1.3 SPACE VELOCITY

Space velocity is a measure of the amount of naphtha which is
processed over a given amount of catalyst over asset length of time. When the
hourly volume charge rate of naphtha and the volume of catalyst are used, the
term is “liquid hourly space velocity”(LHSV). When weights are used, the term is
“weight hourly space velocity”(WHSV). Either is applicable in following a
Platforming operation when set catalyst density and volume are involved. LHSV,
hour minus 1(hr-1), is commonly used since most refiners define their charge rate
on a volume basis and hourly rates yield conveniently sized numbers.
Space velocity will determine the limits of product quality (i.e.Octane
no.). The greater the space velocity, the lower the limit, or maximum octane
possible. Reactor temperatures are interchangeable with LHSV, and the two
together determine the product quality. Within normal Platforming-unit design
33
parameters, space velocity has little effect on the product yields and product
stability(on a barrel-per pound basis).
5.1.4 REACTOR PRESSURE

Reactor pressure is more accurately defined as the average catalyst
pressure. For practical purposes, a close approximation is the last reactor inlet
pressure. Separator pressure, as an operating parameter, is of limited value
since pressure drop from unit to unit is can be considerably different and even
with same unit the pressure drop will vary considerably with charge rate, recycle
gas-rate, recycle gas gravity, etc.
The reactor pressure effects the Platforming yields reactor temperature
requirement, and catalyst stability. Reactor pressure has no theoretical
limitations, although practical design limitations have an effect. Decreasing the
reactor pressure will increase the hydrogen and Platforming yield, decrease the
temperature requirement to make the product quality, and shorten the catalyst
cycle(increase the catalyst coking rate).
5.1.5 HYDROGEN / HYDROCARBON RATIO

The hydrogen / hydrocarbon (H 2/HC) ratio is defined as moles of the
recycle hydrogen per mole of the naphtha charged to the unit. Recycle hydrogen
is necessary in the Platforming operation for purpose of catalyst stability. It has
been the effect of sweeping the reaction product and condensable materials from
the catalyst and supplying the catalyst with readily available hydrogen.
An increase in the H2 /HC ratio will move the naphtha through the
reactor at a faster rate and supply a greater heat sink for endothermic heat of
reaction. It also increases the hydrogen partial pressure and therefore the
catalyst stability will little effect on the product quality and yield.
5.2 CHARGE – STOCK PROPERTIES
34
Hydrocarbon types by paraffin, naphthenes , and aromatics and
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) distillation are minimum
required to characterize a charge stock. While these analysis do not completely
describe the charge stock and its effects on yields, activity, and stability they
serve as a basis for selectivity and stability evaluation.
Feed stock such as Fluid Catalytic Cracking (FCC) process naphtha,
hydrocracked naphtha, and raffinates have higher ratio of C 5 and C6 naphthenes
than do most crude –derived naphthas. This makes them more difficult to reform.
Stocks such as coker naphthas tend carry with them more polycyclic material for
a given boiling range. For this reason, these synthetic naphthas should not be
compared directly with crude-derived naphthas.
5.3 CATALYST ACTIVITY

Catalyst activity can be defined as the catalyst temperature necessary
to meet a product quality requirement. Different catalyst activity can be obtained
by varying catalyst type or by varying the water-chloride balance on a given
catalyst.
5.3.1 CATALYST SELECTIVITY

Catalyst selectivity is the ability of the catalyst to make the desired
product such as C5+ Platformate and hydrogen at a given condition. In addition,
catalyst selectivity varies with catalyst type and will also changes as water-
chloride balance of the catalyst changes.
5.3.2 WATER CONTENT

Water entering the plant with feed will pass through the reactor, and will
be in equilibrium between the recycle gas and liquid in the high pressure
35
separator. The amount of water passing over the catalyst will therefore be the
sum of that in the feed and the recycle gas.
The immediate effect of an increase in water content of the reactor feed
is an increase in the hydrocracking activity of catalyst. If excessive, this will lead
to the loss of gasoline yield, and will also lead to the reduction of hydrogen
concentration in the recycle gas, partly because hydrogen is consumed in the
hydrocracking reaction, and amount produced by dehydrogenation is reduced,
and also because the hydrocracking reaction produces C1-C4 hydrocarbonds
which dilute the hydrogen in the recycle. Catalyst life also suffer because of
reduction in hydrogen partial pressure and increased production of coke
precursors. Some water is necessary however as high demethylation activity
has been reported with water content in the feed of less than 10 ppm.
With catalyst containing chlorine as the acid function promoter, the
presence of water tends to strip off chlorine from the catalyst, and thus the long
term effect of too much water is reduction in hydrocracking activity as opposed to
an increase in the short term. With this type of catalyst a balance between
chloride contents and water must be maintained and it is normally desirable to
maintain the water content in the 25-50 ppm range and to add small quantities of
organic chloride (propylene dichloride) to replenish the chlorine removed by the
water should not be sufficient chloride in the feed. With feed containing high
chloride the hydrocracking activity would tend to increase, but the balance can be
maintained by the injection of water into the feed to increase the amount of
chlorine stripped off the catalyst.
5.4 Process conditions

1. Medium pressure (34-50 bar) leads to high rate of hydrocracking and
restricted rate of formation of aromatics.
2. The reaction temperature has to be adjusted to achieve relatively high
activity with low rates of deactivation (T = 460 – 525 °C)
3. With low pressure processes or if the catalyst is already strongly
deactivated, high reaction temperatures are necessary.
36
4. LHSV (liquid hourly space velocity) lies typically between 2.3 and 3. A
balance between the individual reactions is not markedly influenced by the
LHSV.
5. The molar ratio of H2/HC is between 3 and 10. Higher H2 pressure leads
to higher rates of hydrocracking and to lower rates of deactivation.
6. If the olefin concentration in the feed (straight run naphtha) is high,
hydrotreating is required.
5.5 PROCESS FLOW DESCRIPTION

The hydrotreated heavy naphtha is pumped to the platformer unit under
automatic flow control unit. Recycle H 2 gas mixes with naphtha feed before the
preheat exchanger. The feed (naphtha and H 2 mixture) passes through the heat
exchangers to gain the preheat by exchanging the heat with reactor effluent. The
preheat temperature rises to about 720 0F. The final heat of reaction is supplied
by the gas fired reactor charge heater. The transfer line temperature of this
furnace is controlled under the automatic temperature control system at 903 0F.
The feed enters the first reactor at 903 0Ffrom the and comes out from the
bottom. The chemical reactions take place in the reactor. Due to endothermic
nature of the reactions, the temperature drops by 100 0F to 1100F. Therefore, the
effluent of the first reactor is reheated by the second furnace to 9030F. The
reheated feed enters the second reactor and again due the endothermic
reactions, the outlet temperature of the second furnace is dropped by 50 0F to
600F, consequently it is heated by the third furnace to 9030F before entering the
third reactor. The reactions in the third reactor are also endothermic. After the
third reactor, the reactions are considered complete. There will be a temperature
of 30 0F to 40 0F.
Now the reactor effluent has to be cooled down for condensation.
Therefore, the reactor effluent gives up its heat to different streams. It exchanges
its heat with incoming feed through the preheat exchangers and also by heat up
the platformer unit debutanizer column, bottom product through its reboiler.
Finally, it is cooled air and water coolers respectively. The condensed
37
platformate and non-condensible gases are collected in a vessel, called the
product separator.
5.5.1PRODUCT SEPARATOR
H2 rich gas form the top the product separator is recycled by a recycle
gas compressor. The recycle gas compressor takes the suction from the top of
the product separator and discharges the recycle gas to the feed line before it
enters the preheat exchanger and excess H2 gas from the platformer unit is
discharged to the naphtha hydrogen unit. If there is still surplus H2 rich gas
available after meeting the demands of the platformer Nahphtha Hydrogen unit,
then it is sent to the Refinery Fuel Gas System.
5.5.2 PLATFORMER STABILIZER

The unstabilized platformate from the product separator is pressured to
a 30 tray stabilizer column. The feed to the stabilizer gains preheat in the heat
exchanger by exchanging heat with stabilized platformate from the bottom of the
stabilizer. The preheated feed enters the stabilizer on tray no.14-15 with a
temperature of 3000F.
5.5.3 FUNCTION OF STABILIZER COLUMN

The stabilizer column is actually a Debutanizer column. It removes all
light hydrocarbon from the platformate up to Butane when the aim is to produce
platformate as HOBC. The column is operated as depentanizer when the product
is to be fed the BTX unit.
5.5.4 STABILIZER BOTTOM REBOILER

The stabilizer bottom reboiler provides the necessary heat of
vaporization by raising the temperature of the bottom material so that H2 and
38
light hydrocarbons up to Butane come out of the product and travel up the
column as vapour. The bottom reboiler temperature is controlled at 466 0F.
5.5.5 STABILIZER PRESSURE CONTROL

The platformate stabilizer column is operated at 270 psig, under
automatic pressure control system. The light end fractions come out of the
stabilizer column top outlet line and pass through air cooler for condensation
purpose. The condensed material is collected in an over head reflux drum. The
non-condensible gases, H2, Methane, and Ethane do not condense the gases
are sent to the Refinery Fuel Gas System under automatic pressure control
system of the stabilizer.
5.5.6 STABILIZER TOP TEMPERATURE CONTROL

The top temperature of the stabilizer is controlled by pumping a
controlled quantity of cold reflux from the over head drum to the top tray of the
stabilizer. The automatic temperature controller of the stabilizer senses the
temperature of the column from the top and sends a signal to the reflux flow
controller, according to a preset temperature. The flow of top reflux changes
automatically according to the signal from the temperature controller. The top
temperature is controlled at 1430F.
5.6 LPG
The excess liquid of the over head reflux drum of the stabilizer column,
after meeting the reflux requirement demand, is sent to the storage as LPG, the
composition of this liquid is predominantly propane and Butane, because
methane and ethane have already been drawn out of this liquid as no
condensable gases. The LPG is also fed to the Propane Recovery Unit (PRU)
when the production of propane is desired.
39
5.7 PLATFFORMATE
The bottom product of the stabilizer is called Platformate. It is sent to
the storage as HOBC when the stabilizer operates as Debutanizer but when the
platformate is to be fed to the BTX unit the stabilizer is operated as a
Depentanizer column.
As the stabilizer bottom temperature runs around 4460F the platformate
must be cooled down before being sent to the storage. The platformate therefore
gives its heat to the incoming feed to the stabilizer by exchanging heat in the
heat exchanger. Final cooling of the product is done by the air and water coolers
respectively.
5.8 PRODUCT CHARACTERISTICS

Products from catalytic reforming operations are excellent stocks for
blending into gasoline, usually without any further treatment. They are stable,
high octane, and low in sulfur and gum, and they responded well to the addition
of tetraethyl lead. Chemically, they consist principally of paraffins and aromatics.
In boiling range, a catalytic reformate is broader than the feed stock from which it
is made. Low-boiling fragments are produced by hydrocracking, high boiling
components by dehydrogenation; (an aromatic compound generally boils at
about 500F higher than the paraffinic and naphthenic compounds from which it is
made). Some condensation of aromatis or olefinic materials also may occur, to
produce a trace of very high boiling materials. Because high pressures favour
dehydrocyclization, products from higher pressure operations are low boiling.
Because hydrocracking lowers boiling points and dehydrogenation
raises them, aromatics concentrate in the high-boiling faction of catalytic
reformats. Consequently, the high-boiling fractions have higher octane rating.
40
CHAPTER 6
MATERIAL & ENERGY BALANCE
41
MATERIAL BALANCE
Feed compostion
MOLAR % MOL.WT WT %
Heptane = 35% 100 37.99
Hexane = 27.8% 86 25.95
Methyl cyclo pentane = 9% 84 8.2
Methyl cyclo hexane = 14% 98 14.89
Benzene = 8% 78 6.77
Toulene = 6.2% 92 6.191
100% =100%
AVERAGE MOLECULAR MASS% =92.132 LBS

BASIS:
=1000 TONS/DAY NAPHTHA
=1000*1000*2.2=2.2*106 lb/day Naphtha
Moles of Naphtha
=23878.8MOLES/DAY= 994.95 lbmol/hr
FEED: lb moles
42
HEXANE 276.6
HEPTANE 348.23
METHYLCYCLOHEXANE 193.3
METHYLCCLOPENTANE 89.54
BENZENE 79.59
TOULENE 61.68
REACTION OF PLATFORMNG PROCESS

HEXANE:
C6 H14 + 2H2 C3H8 + C2H6 + CH4
C6H14 ISOMERIZATION C6H14
C6H14 C6H6 + 4H2
HEPTANE REACTION:
10C7H16 + 8H 2 7C5H12 + 7C4H10 +C3H8+ C2H6 + CH4

C7H16 ISOMERIZATION C7H16
C7H16 C6H5-CH3 + 4H2

METHYLE CYCLO PENTANE:
C5H4-CH3 C6H6 3H2
METHYLE CYCLO HEXANE:
C6H5-CH3 C6H5-CH3 + 3H2
BALANCE ACROSS REACTOR

HEXANE BALANCE:
Hexane isomerization:
276.6*.278538=77 mol
Hexane to benzene formation:
43
276.6*.0278538=7.7 mol
Hexane cracking:
276.6*.083577=23.117 lb mol
HEPTANE BALANCE:
Heptane isomerization:
13/10*77=100.1 lb mol
Heptane to toluene formation:
4/1*7.7=30.8 lb mol
Heptane cracking:
4/3*23.117=30.82 lb mol
Methyl cyclo hexane to toulene:
139.3*.99=137.91 lb mol
Methyl cyclo pentane to benzene:
89.54*.87=77.9 lb mol
FEED TO HYDROGEN RATIO:
Optimum feed to hydrogen ratio is 5

MOLES OF HYDROGEN=994.95*5=4974.75 lb
mol Composition of hydrogen
COMPONENT % MOLES MOLES
H2 90 4477.275
CH4 4 198.99
C2H6 2.3 114.42
C3H8 1.5 74.62
C4H10 1.2 59.697
C5H12 1 49.7475
Mass of Naphtha =9.166*104 lb/hr

Mass of Gases =2.59*104 lb lb/hr
TOTAL WEIGHT=11.75*104 lb
EFFLUENT LEAVING REACTOR:

HYDROGEN FROM HEXANE:
Cracking =2*23.117=46.234 lb mol (Consumed)
44
Dehydrogenation =4*7.7=30.8 lb mol (Produced)
HYDROGEN FROM HEPTANE:
Cracking =8/10*30.82=24.656 lb mol (Consumed)
Dehydrogenation : =4*30.8=123.2 lb mol (Produced)
HYDROGEN FOR METHYL CYCLO HEXANE:
3*137.91=413.73 lb mol (Produced)
HYDROGEN FOR METHYL CYCLO PENTANE:
3*77.9=233.7 lb mol (produced)
Hydrogen consumed = 70.89 lb mol
Hydrogen produced = 801.43 lbmol
HYDROGEN LEAVING THE REACTOR = 5207.815 lb mol
CH4 PRODUCED IN THE REACTOR:

23.117+2/10*30.82 =29.281 lb mol
CH4 in recycle stream =198.99 mol
TOTAL LEAVING =29.281+198.99 =228.271 lb mol
C2H6 PRODUCED IN THE REACTOR:

23.117+1/10*30.82=26.197 lb mol
C2H6 in recycle stream =114.42 lb mol
Total leaving =26.199+114.42=140.619 lb mol
C3H8 produced in reactor:
23.117=1/10*30.82=26.199 lb mol
C4H10 PRODUCED IN THE REACTOR
=7/10*30.82=21.574 lb mol
C5H12 LEAVING THE REACTOR
=7/10*30.82=21.574 lb mol
45
=168.783 lb mol
=168.51 lb mol
BENZENE LEAVING THE REACTOR
=77+77.9=154. lb mol 9
TOULENE THE REACTOR
=30.8+137.91=168.71 lb mol
METHYLE CYCLO HEXANE LEAVING
=139.3-137.91=1.39 lb mol
METHYLE CYCLO PENTANE LEAVING
=89.54-77.9=11.64 lb mol
ISO HEXANE LEAVING REACTOR
=77 lb mol
ISO HEPTANE LEAVING THE REACTOR
=100.1 lb mol
Paraffins 623.83 lb mol

Naphthenes 282.82 lb mol
Aromatics 141.27 lb mol
Hydrogen 4974 lb mol
Paraffines 523 lb mol
46
E-1
Naphthene 13 lb mol
Aromatic 323 lb mol
Hydrogen
5207
EFFLUENTS LEAVING THE REACTOR
COMPONENT MOLES MOLES %
H2 5207.815 77.7
CH4 228.271 3.407
C2H6 140.619 2.099
C3H8 100.819 1.504
C4H10 21.271 1.213
C5H12 71.3215 1.06
n-C6H14 168.783 2.519
ISO-HEXANE 77 1.149
n-HEPTANE 186.51 2.784
ISO-HEPTANE 100.1 1.4942
BENZENE 154,9 2.31
TOULENE 168.71 2.518
METHYLE CYCLO 1.39 .0207
HEXANE
PENTANE
TOTAL = 6699.1495 100
H2 TO HYDRO TREATER 10%

.10*4974.75=497.475 LB MOLE
BALANCE ARROUND SEPARATOR:
TOTAL MOLES LEAVING AS GAS

4974.75+497.475 =5472.2 lb mol
47
MOLES AS LIQUID
6699.1495-5472.2 =1226.94 lb mol
6733 lb mol Gases leaving 5472 lb mol
Separator
Liquid product 1261 lb mol

COMPOSITION OF RECYCLE GAS
COMPONENT MOLE % MOLES
H2 90 4924.98
CH4 4 218.88
C2H6 2.3 125.86
C3H8 1.5 82.083
C4H10 1.2 65.66
C5H12 1 54.722
SEPARATOR LIQUID PRODUCT:

H2 5207.815- 22.42
4924.98=282.835
CH4 228.271-218.88=9.391 .7445
ETHANE 140.619-125.86=14.759 1.17
PROPANE 100.819-82.083=18.736 1.485
BUTANE 81.271-65.66=15.611 1.237
PENTANE 71.3215-54.722=16.5995 1.316
HEXANE 168.783 13.38
ISO-HEXANE 77 6.1
48
HEPTANE 186.51 14.78
BENZENE 154.9 12.28
TOULENE 168.71 13.37
HEXANE
PENTANE
TOTAL 1261.3115 100
Balance around distillation column

TOP PRODUCT
COMPONENT MOLE MOLE %
H2 282.835 80.21
CH4 9.391 2.39
C2H6 14.759 3.76
C3H8 18.736 4.77
C4H10 15.611 3.97
C5H12 16.5995 4.23
TOTAL 352.378 100
FUEL GAS
H2 282.835 92.133
CH4 9.391 3.059
C2H6 14.759 4.807
TOTAL 306.985 100
LPG
Component Moles Moles %
C3H8 18.736 54.54
C4H10 15.611 45.45
49
TOTAL 34.347
GOSOLENE BOTTOM PRODUCT:

HEXANE 168.783 19.05
ISO-HEXANE 77 8.69
HEPTANE 186.51 21.05
BENZENE 154.9 17.49
TOULENE 168.71 19.04
HEXANE
METHYLE CYCLO 11.64 1.314
PENTANE
TOTAL 885.6325 100
ENERGY BALANCE
BALANCE ACROSS REACTOR
HEAT OF REACTIONS
Naphthenes to aromatics conversion 16.9 Kcal/gm mol H2
Paraffins to naphthenes conversion 10.5 Kcal/gm mol H2
Hydrocracking -13.5 Kcal/gm mol H2
TOTAL HEAT OF REACTIONS

= (Paraffines*Hydrogen produced*Heat of reaction) +
(Naphthene*hydrogen produced*Heat of reaction) +
50
(Hydrocracking *Hydrogen *Heat of reaction)
Total heat of reaction = 5273432.727 Kcal

Specific heat of liquid naphtha =0.75 BTU/LB 0F
Specific heat of vapour naphtha =0.58 BTU/LB F
Specific heat of hydrogen =.84 BTU/LB F
Temperature of recycle hydrogen =90 F
Temperature after compression T2=(90+460)(27/19) 2/7=148 F
Naphtha entering temperature =140 F
AVG . CP. FEED LIQUID =(.75*.78)+
(.84*.22)=.7698
AVG. CP. FEEDVAPOURS =(.58*.78)+
(.84*.22)=.6372
Boiling point of Naphtha 300 PSI=780 C
BALANCE ACROSS EXCHANGER
Heat taken by Naphtha& Hydrogen

Q=MCP∆TL +mλ +mcp∆Tv
=640*(11.75*104)*(.76)+(11.75*95)+(11.75*.6372*40)
57.15*106 BTU
NOW TEMPRATURE OF EXIT PRODUCT FROM THIS EXCHANGER
(57.15*106)=(37*11.75*104)63+(11.75*104)(95)+(11.75*104)(.73)(780-T2)
T2=362.091 0F
OR
51
183.38 0C
BALANCE ACROSS AIR COLLER:

In air cooler product is cooled to 65 C OR 149 F.
Q (air cooler) = (11.75*104) (.73) (362.091-149)
=18.27*106 BTU
HEAT LOST IN WATER COOLER:

Q (water cooler) = (11.75*104) (0.73) (149-89.6)
= 5.095*106 BTU
HEAT TO BE SUPPLIED IN FURNACES:

FIRST FURNACE:
Total mass flow in furnaces = 11.75*10^4 LBS

Heat capacity of vapours =.6375BTU/LB-F
∆T= 115 0F
Heat gained in furnace= mCp∆T
= (11.75*104) (.6375) (115)
= 8.61*106 BTU
2ND FURNACE:
∆T = 126 0F
HEAT GAINED
= (11.75*104) (.6375) (126)
= 9.4381*106 BTU
3RD FURNACE:
∆T = 90 F
HEAT GAINED
= (11.75*104) (.6375) (90)
= 6.74*106 BTU
52
4TH FURNACE:
∆T = 45 F
HEAT GAINDE
= (11.75*104) (.6375) (45)
= 3.37*106 BTU
BALANCE ARROUND SEPARATOR:

ENTHALPIES OF COMPONENTS IN VAPOUR FORM AT 90 F
PENTANE = 325 BTU/LB
HEPTANE = 300 BTU/LB
TOULENE = 255 BTU/LB
METYHLE CYCLO HEXANE = 265 BTU/LB
ISO HEPTANE = 302 BTU/LB
ETHANE = 310 BTU/LB
HEXANE = 305 BTU/LB
BENZENE = 250 BTU/LB

METYHLE CYCLO PENTANE = 275 BTU/LB
ISO HEXANE = 303 BTU/LB
METHANE = 325 BTU/LB
PROPANE = 270 BTU/LB
ENTHALPIE OF LIQUID AT 90 F
ENTHALPY OF OVER ALL COMPONENTS MIXTURE IN LIQUID FROM
= 125 BTU/lb
METHANE = 160BTU/LB
PROPANE = 150BTU/LB
ETHANE = 155BTU/LB
BUTANE = 145BTU/LB
ENTHALPY BALANCE ARROUND SEPARATOR:

Enthalpy of hydrogen at 32 F = mCp∆T
53
=8954.55*.84*32 = 240698.304 BTU
Total enthalpy of feed:
H = Enthaply of all components+hydrogen
H (feed) = 14.44*106 BTU
H (recycled) = 5601848.43 = 5.6*106 BTU
H (bottom product) = 8.8455*106 BTU
ENTHALPY BALACE ACROSS DISTILLATION COLUMN:

ENTHALPY OF FEED TO DISTILLATION COLUMN:
H2 = mCpT = 282.835*.84*2*586
C2H6 = 220 BTU
C4H10 = 245 BTU
n- C6H14 = 245 BTU
n- C7H16 = 230 BTU
BENZENE = 180
METHYLE CYCLO HEXANE = 210
CH4 = 210 BTU
C3H8 = 225 BTU
C5H12 = 250 BTU
i- C6H14 = 235 BTU
i- C7H16 = 233 BTU
TOULENE = 185
METHYLE CYCLO PENTANE = 215
ENTHALPY OF BOTTOM PRODUCT:
i- C6H14 = 345 BTU

i- C7H16 = 335 BTU
TOULENE = 295 BTU
METHYLE CYCLO PENTANE = 315 BTU
54
n- C6H14 = 350 BTU
n- C7H16 = 340 BTU
BENZENE = 290 BTU
METHYLE CYCLO HEXANE = 310 BTU
ENTHALPY OF FUEL GAS:
H2 = 282.835*.84*2*432 = BTU
CH4 = 350 BTU
C2H6 = 320 BTU
ENTHALPY OF LPG:
C3H8 = 305 BTU
C4H10 = 298 BTU
C5H12 = 270 BTU
DUTY OF CONDENSER:
= (183*18.736**44) + (15.611*165*58) + (16.5995*154*72)
=4.8431*105 BTU
OVER ALL BALANCE ACROSS DISTILLATION COLUMN:
Feed enthalpy + Furnace duty – Condenser duty = Enthalpy of fuel gas
+LPG + Product
FEED ENTHALPY:
= (2.784 *105) + (9.391*210*16) + (220*14.759*30) + (225*18.736*44) +
55
(245*15,611*58) + (250*16.5995*72) + (168.783*245*86) + (77*86*235) +
(230*100*186.51) + (100.1*100*233) + (180*78*154.9) + (168.71*92*185) +
(210*1.39*98) + (11.64*84*21.5)
= 16.627*106 BTU
ENTHALPY OF FUEL GAS:
= (350*3.391*16) + (320*30*14.759) + (2.0522*10 5)

= 4*105 BTU
ENTHALPY OF LPG:
= (18.736*44*305) + (58*15.611*290) + (16.5995*270*72)
= 83.67*104 BTU
ENTHALPY OF LIQUID PRODUCT:
= (168.73*86*350) + (77*86*345) + (186.51*100*340) + (100.1*100*335) +
(154.9*78*290) + (295*92*168.71) + (1.39*98*310) + (315*84*11.69)

= 2.55*107 BTU
BALANCE ARROUND COLUMN:
16.627*106 + Reboiler – Condenser duty = 2.55*107 + 83.67*104 + 4*105

(Reboiler – Condenser) = 10.10*106 BTU
REBOILER DUTY
= 10.10*106 – 4.8431*106 BTU
= 9.616*106 BTU
56
57
CHAPTER 7
DESIGNING OF EQUIPMENTS
DESIGNING OF HEAT EXCHANGER

Calculate Heat Duty – ‘Q’:
Shell Side: (cold) Tube Side: (hot)
Naphtha + H2 Reactor effluents
Temp of naphtha + H2 inlet = t1 = 140 oF

Temp of naphtha + H2 outlet = t2 = 240 oF
Total Pressure = 308.7 psia = 20 atm
Temp of reactor effluents inlet = T1 = 398.52oF
58
Temp of reactor effluents outlet = T2 = 301.3 oF
Flow rate of naphtha stream shell side = 117500 lb / hr
Flow rate of naphtha stream tube side = 111000 lb / hr
For Exchanger E-1:

For naphtha = mCp ΔT
= 117500 x 0.71 (240-140)

= 8342500 Btu / hr
Assumed Overall Coefficient:
U = 67 Btu /hr ft2 oF
Log Mean Temperature Difference:

(398 – 240) - (301.3 – 140)
=
ln (398 – 240)
(301.3 – 140)
158.52- 161.3
=
ln (158.52)
(161.3)
= 159.31oF
For True Temperature Difference:

(T1 – t2)
R=
(T2 – t1)
59
398.52 – 301.3
= = 0.974
240– 140
(t2 – t1)
S or P =
(T1 – t1)
240 – 140
= = 0.386
398.52 – 140
(Using p-828 for 1-shell 2-tube pass)

Ft = 0.91
Δ Tm = Ft x Δ Tl m
= 0.91x 159.31
= 144.97oF
Area:
As Q = UAΔ Tm
A = Q/UΔ Tm
= (8.34*10^6) / (67.9 x 146)

= 848.76 ft2
=77.82 m2
Heat Exchanger Specifications:

Tubes
16BWG
Outside Dia OD = ¾ inch = 0.75 inch = 0.0625 ft = 0.0208
Inside Dia ID = 0.620 inch = 0.0516 ft (p-843 Kern)
60
Length of Tubes L = 16 ft = 4.87 m
Square pitch = 1 inch = 0.0833 ft
Baffles:
25% cut horizontal segmental baffles
Area of single tube = (0.1623 x 16 x .0929) = 0..2413 m 2
No. of tubes = 77.82/.2413 = 322.5

(From nearest count table 9)
No. of Tubes = 324
Bundle Dia:
Db = do (Nt / K1)1/n1
(From Table 12.4 Coulson)
For Square Pitch:
K1 = 0.156
N1 = 20291
Db = 0.0208 (324 / 0.156)1/2.291 = 0.49m
Shell:
shell-bundle clearance :
C = shell inside dia – bundle dia = 0.091 m
Shell dia inside = 0.091 + 0.3
(Ds) = 0.58 m
Baffle Spacing (B):

B = 0.4 x shell dia
= 0.4 x 0.58
= 0..229 m
No of Baffles:
61
No. of Baffles = 4.87 / 0.229-1 = 20 Baffles
Physical Properties:
Average Temp Shell Side =190 oF
Average Temp Tube Side = 349.91 oF
API Gravity = 55
k for H2 in feed stream = 0.1 Btu / lb ft2 oF

k H2 in leaving stream = 0.065 Btu / lb ft2 oF
k for naphtha in feed stream = 0.068 Btu / lb ft2 oF

k for naphtha in leaving stream = 0.058 Btu / lb ft2 oF
Heat capacity of naphtha in feed stream = 0.674 Btu / lb oF

Heat capacity of naphtha in leaving stream = 0..505 Btu / lb oF
Heat capacity of H2 in feed stream = 0.84 Btu / lb

o
F
Heat capacity of H2 in leaving stream = 0.84 Btu / lb oF
 for H2 in feed = 0.108 cP

 for H2 in product = 0.01 cP
 for naphtha in feed stream = 0.271cP

 for naphtha in leaving stream = 0..375 cP
Mean Properties: (Feed)

heat capacity = .17 Btu / lb oF
Density = 35.82 lb / ft3
Viscosity = 0.52 lb / ft hr.
62
Thermal conductivity = 0.075 Btu / lb ft2 oF
Mean Properties: (Product Stream)

Heat capacity =0.603 Btu / lb oF
Density = 29.9 lb / ft 3
Viscosity =0.65 lb / ft hr.
Thermal conductivity =.06 Btu / lb ft2 oF
Over All Heat Transfer Coefficient:

Shell Side Calculations:
1. ID x C x B
as =
PT
ID = 22.57/12 = 1.88 ft.
C = 1 – 0.75
= 0.25 inch.
B = 9.03 inch.
= 9.03/12
= 0.7525ft
Pt = 1 inch = 0.0833 ft.
1.88 x 0.25 x .7525
as =
1
= 0.3538 ft2
63
2. Equivalent Dia.
For square pitch:
1.27
De = (Pt2 – 0.785 do2 )
do
do = tube outside dia = 0.625 ft.
Pt = 0.083
De = 0.079
Gs = Ws / as
= 117500 / 0.3835
= 332078.716 lb/hr ft2
Re.s = De Gs / 
0.079 x 332078.716
=
0.52
= 50450.42
jH = 86 (p-838)
Pr = (c / k) 1/3
= 1.70
7. Outside Heat Transfer Coefficient
jH k (c / k) 1/3 ( /  )
w
0.14
ho = De
= 86 x (0.075/0.079) x 1.70 x 1
ho = 138.88
64
Tube Side Calculations:
1. Nt at
at =
n
n =2
Nt = 324
at  = 0.302 in2 (From P-843)
= 0.00209 ft2
324 x 0.00209
at =
2
= 0.339 ft2
ID of tube = 0.0516 ft.
Gt = Wt / a t
= 111000 / 0.339
= 327433.62 lb/hr ft2
Re.t = D Gt / 
0.0516 x 327433.62
=
0.65
= 25935.8125
jH = 96(p-834)
= (c / k)
1/3
Pr
= 1.86
7. inside Heat Transfer Coefficient
65
jH k (c / k) 1/3 ( /  )
w
0.14
hi =
D
= 96 x (0.06 / 0.0516) x 1.86
= 208.67
8. hio = hi x ID/OD
= 208.67x (0.0516 / 0.0625)
= 171.11
9. Clean Overall Coefficient:
hio x ho
Uc=
hio + ho
171.11x 138.88
=
171.11+ 138.88
23763.9
=
309.99
Uc = 76.66Btu/ hr. ft2 oF
10. Dirt Overall Coefficient:
66
Ud =
A x ΔTm
A = Nt a” L
= 324x 0.163 x 16 a”=0.163 (p-843)
= 848.016 ft2
8342500
Ud =
848.016 x 144.97
= 67.86 Btu / hr. ft2 0F
11. Dirt Factor:
1 - 1
Rd = Ud Uc
= (1/67.86) – (1/76.66)
= 0.0147 – 0.0130
= 0.0017
Pressure Drop:
Shell Side Pressure Drop: (Δ Ps)
For single phase flow:
f Gs 2 Ds (N + 1)
Δ Ps =
67
5.22 x 1010 De S s
Re.s = 50450.42
f = from p-839
= 0.0016
De = 0.079 ft.
s = 0.71 (p-809)
Gs = 332078.716 lb / hr ft2
0.0016 x (332078.716) 2 x 1.8 x 21

Δ Ps = = 2.27Psi
5.22 x 1010 x 0.71x 0.079
For two phase flow: (Δ PTP)
Δ PTP = lo2 x Δ Plo

Where
lo2 = 1 + (Y2 – 1)[B xog (1 - xog) + xog2]
` xg = flow quality of liq phase

Or
mass flow rate of liq phase
=
68
total mass flow rate
9.167*10^4
=
117500
= 0.78
2
B =
Y+1
B = 0.75
Y = 2/0.75 – 1
= 2.66-1 = 1.66
lo2 = 1 + (1.662 – 1) [0.75 x 0.78 (1 – 0.78) + 0.782]
= 1+1.75(.75*.78*.22 + .6)
= 1 + 1.27
= 2.27
Δ PTP = 2.27 x 2.27
= 5.15 Psi
Tube Side Pressure Drop: (Δ Pt)

f Gt 2 Ds Ln
Δ Pt =
5.22 x 1010 De s t
Re.t = 31122.97
f = from (p-836)
= 0.00016
69
L = 16ft.
n =2
De = 0.0516 ft.
s = 0.62
Gt = 392052.98 lb/hr ft2
0.00016 x 392052.982 x 16 x 2
Δ Pt =
5.22 x 1010 x 0.0516 x 0.55
= 0.62 Psi
4n v2
Δ Pr =
s 2g
V2 = 0.029 From (p-837)
2g
4 x 2 x .029
Δ Pr =
0.55
= .29
Δ PT = Δ Pt + Δ Pr
Δ PT = 0.62 + 0.29
= 0.91 psi
For two phase flow:
lo2 = 1 + (Y2 – 1)[B xog (1 - xog) + xog2]
lo2 = 1+ ( 1.662 – 1 )[ 0.75 x 0.78( 1- 0.78 ) + 0.782]

= 1+1.75(.75*.78*.22 + .6)
= 2.27
70
Δ PTP = lo2 x Δ PT
= 2.27 x 0.91
= 2.065 psi
FURNACE DESIGN
Inlet temperature of charge = 820 0F
Outlet temperature of charge = 935 0F
Absorption Duty = q = mCp∆T = 8.61×106
Efficiency = η = 75 %
Step-1
Calculated the net heat release using the specified absorption duty and efficiency.
Net heat release = qR = q /0.75
= 11.48×106 Btu/hr
71
Step-2
Selected an excess air percentage of 25 % and determine flue gas rate from figure
Flue gas rate = 1015 lb/ MM Btu net heat release

= 11652 lb/hr
Step-3
Find average fluid temperature and added 100 0F to the average fluid temperature to
get the average tube wall temperature.
Average fluid temperature = 878 0F
Average tube wall temperature = 978 0F
Step-4
Fix the tube length by consulting the graph of duty rate vs economical tube length
Tube length = 20 ft
Also fix the dia of tubes, i.e. O.D = 3.5 in.

Surface per tube( from table) = 0.917 ft2/ft
Choose center to center spacing for the radiant tubes,

Center to center distance = 6 in.
Step-5
Assuming a radiant heat flux , Calculated the total radiant section area ARt
Average radiant flux = 10,000 Btu/hr.ft2
Average radiant section area = ARt = qR/10,000
= 861 ft2
total exposed radiant area = ARt/0.917
= 938.9 ft2
Step-6
Calculated the surface area per tube,
Surface per tube = ∏× OD of tube × tube length
= 18.326 ft2
Calculated the No. of tubes,

NT = total exposed radiant length / surface per tube
= 51
Step-7
Calculated the furnace radius and also adjusted the height
72
Furnace radius = R = 4ft
Furnace height = h = 22 ft
Step-8
Evaluate ά (effectiveness factor) using ratio , c-c distance/OD and arrangement of
tube ( single row in our case)
Hence get ά from the graph, ά = 0.934
Step-9
Evaluate Acp ( equivalent cold plane surfaces)
Acp = (No. of tubes)(length of each tube)(c-c distance)
Acp = 510 ft2
ά Acp = 476.34 ft2
Step-10
Evaluate AT ( total area of furnace surfaces )
AT = 2×∏×R×h
= 552.992 ft2
Step-11
Evaluate AR (effective refractory surface)
AR = AT - άAcp
= 76.65 ft2
Step-12
Evaluate AR/ ά Acp (This factor is used in evaluating ₣)
Step-13
Evaluate Mean Beam length, L (ft) using appropriate formula depending upon the
dimension of furnace.
L = 1×Diameter of furnace
= 4 ft
[Mean beam length will be used in evaluation of gas emissivity (ξG)]
Step-14
Find out partial pressure of (CO2 + H2O), consulting the graph of %excess
air Vs partial pressure.
P = 0.23 atm
Also got the product of PL (This will be used in evaluation of gas emissivity)
PL = 0.92 atm-ft
Step-15
Assuming the heat losses from the walls of furnace are 2% of net heat release.
So
qL/qn = 0.02
73
NOW CHECKING THE PERFORMANCE OF THE FURNACE
TRIAL#1
Step-i
Assume a value for the average temperature of the flue gas in the radiant section, tg.
tg =1400 0F
Step-ii
At the above temperature, read the gas emissivity from the graph.
ξ = 0.29
Step-iii
Using gas emissivity and ratio AR/άAcp, find out the exchange factor from graph.
₣ = 0.31
Step-iv
Calculated the ratio qn/άAcp₣
qn/άAcp₣ = 77,743.33 Btu/hr.ft2
Step-v
Assuming
Exit gas temperature = Average fire box temperature
tg2 = tg = 1400 0F
Read the corresponding value of qg2/qn from the figure
qg2/qn= Heat contents of gas / Net heat release = 0.38
Step-vi
Calculated qR/άAcp₣ and plot it against average furnace temperature on figure
below
qR /άAcp₣ = [ 1 +qa /qn + qf /qn – qg2 /qn – qL /qn] qn /άAcp₣
qR/άAcp₣ = = 46,646 Btu/hr.ft2
Since the assumed value of t g is not correct, because computed point does not lie
on the absorption curve for the tube wall temperature. In that case, I have selected
another value of tg on the other side of absorption curve and repeat the above procedure.
74
TRIAL#2
Step-i
Assume a value for the average temperature of the flue gas in the radiant section, tg.
tg =1800 0F
Step-ii
At the above temperature, read the gas emissivity from the graph.
ξ = 0.26
Step-iii
Using gas emissivity and ratio AR/άAcp, find out the exchange factor from graph.
₣ = 0.275
Step-iv
Calculated the ratio qn/άAcp₣
qn/άAcp₣ = 87,638 Btu/hr.ft2
Step-v
Assuming
Exit gas temperature = Average fire box temperature
tg2 = tg =1800 0F
Read the corresponding value of qg2/qn from the figure
qg2/qn = Heat contents of gas / Net heat release = 0.51
Step-vi
Calculated qR/άAcp₣ and plot it against average furnace temperature on figure
below.
qR /άAcp₣ = [ 1 +qa /qn + qf /qn – qg2 /qn – qL /qn] qn /άAcp₣
qR/άAcp₣ = 41,190 Btu/hr.ft2
Now two points on the opposite sides of the curve have been obtained, join them by a
straight line. The point of intersection of this line with the absorption curve is the correct
fire box temperature.
75
And this correct fire box temperature is, 1780 0F
For this temperature read qg2/qn from the graph i.e.
qg2/qn = 0.48
Calculated qR,
qR = [ 1 +qa /qn + qf /qn – qg2 /qn – qL /qn] ×qn
= 8.15×106 Btu/hr
This is the heat actually absorbed in radiant section.
Now checked the computed radiant absorption to be sure it meets the design limitations,
so divide the heat absorption by the total exposed tube area to get average heat flux.
qR/ARt = 9526 Btu/hr.ft2
The heat flux is just below the allowable value of 10,000 Btu/hr.ft2
REACTOR DESIGN
FIXED BED CATALYTIC REACTORS

INTRODUCTION
Fixed-bed catalytic reactors have been characterized as the workhorses of
chemical process industries. For economical production of large amounts of
product, they are usually the first choice, particularly for gas-phase reactions.
Many catalyzed gaseous reactions are amenable to long catalyst life (1-10
years); and as the time between catalyst change outs increases, annualized
replacement costs decline dramatically, largely due to savings in shutdown
costs. It is not surprising, therefore, that fixed-bed reactors now dominate the
scene in large-scale chemical-product manufacture.
TYPES OF FIXED BED REACTOR
Fixed-bed reactors fall into one of two major categories:
 Adiabatic
 Non-adiabatic.
76
A number of reactor configurations have evolved to fit the unique
requirements of specific types of reactions and conditions. Some of the more
common ones used for gas-phase reactions are summarized in Table(4.1) and
the accompanying illustrations. The table can be used for initial selection of a
given reaction system, particularly by comparing it with the known systems
indicated.
Fixed-Bed Reactor Configurations for Gas-Phase

Reactions
Classification Use Typical Applications
Moderately exothermic or
Single adiabatic bed endothermic non- Mild hydrogenation

equilibrium
limited
Where low AP is
Radial flow essential and useful Styrene from
where change in moles ethylbenzene
is large
Adiabatic beds in series High conversion, SO2 oxidation
with intermediate cooling equilibrium Catalytic reforming
or heating limited reactions Ammonia synthesis
Hydrocracking Styrene
77
from ethylbenzene
Many hydrogenations
Highly endothermic or Ethylene oxidation to
exothermic reactions ethylene oxide,
Multi-tabular
requiring close formaldehyde
non-adiabatic
temperature control to by methanol oxidation,
ensure high selectivity phthalic anhydride
production
Highly endothermic,
Direct-fired Steam reforming
high temperature
non-adiabatic
reactions
SELECTION OF REACTOR TYPE

After analyzing different configuration of fixed bed reactors we have concluded
that for our system the most suitable reactor is Radial flow reactor with
intermediate reheating. Because most of reactions of platforming process are
endothermic therefore intermediate reheating is required but no need to use
isothermal reactor. It is because of the fact that then conversion of reforming
reactions does not vary greatly with drop in temperature.
So it is the pressure of reactor that has decided what type of reactor should be
used. Pressure has great effect of deactivation of catalyst. It provides the
sweeping action of products and condense able materials from surface of
catalyst and supplying the catalyst with readily available hydrogen.
CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION OF

Radial flow reactor
78
Because of necessity of inter heating it is not possible to se to use single reactor
of large diameter and we use radial flow reactor.
There is a distributor at top of reactor

which distributes the feed uniformly in
small pipes placed around the catalyst
bed. The purpose of these pipes is to distribute then feed uniformly into the
catalyst bed. In the catalyst bed reaction takes place and product leaves in from
inner pipe where there are small holes to collect product in exit pipe. We have
used radial flow reactor to minimize pressure drop. Now care should be taken in
selecting the length to diameter ration of reactor. Larger the length larger will be
the pressure drop. So the length of radial flow reactor should be minimum.
Design procedure for radial flow reactor

Estimation of reaction conversion in first reactor
Total mass flow rate of feed = 117500 lb/hr
Heat of reaction of different reaction
79
Naphthenes to aromatics conversion = 16.9 K cal/ gm mol
Paraffins to naphthenes conversion = 10.5 K cal/ gm mol
Hydrocracking = 13.5 K cal/gm mol
Total heat of reaction = 5273432.727 K cal
OR = 20893156.61 BTU
Total temperature drop in four reactors = 280.02 0F
OR = 155.56 0C
Allowable temperature drop in first reactor = 126 0F
Heat lost in first reactor = 9401175 BTU
Toulene fromed from Methyl cyclohexane = 43 Kg mol
Toulene fromed from heptane = 1.35 Kg mol
Benzene formed from Methyl cyclopentane = 3.3 Kg mol
Benzene formed from hexane = .32 Kg mol
Hexane hydrocracking = 1.08 Kg mol
Heptane hydrocracking = 1.45 Kg mol
Total heat evolved in first reactor = 9400673.53 BTU
As heat evolved is same as heat lost in first reactor therefore that will be
the heat of reaction.
LHSV = 2.7 hr -1
Vol. of catalyst required in first required = 15 % (From graph)
LHSV = Vol. flow rate of feed/Vol. of catalyst
Total wt. of Naphtha = 41666.67 Kg/hr
Avg. molecular wt. of feed. = 92.132 kg
Density of Naphtha = 733.53 Kg/m3
Vol Flow rate of Naphtha = 56.8 m3/hr
Vol. Of catalyst required = 21.04 m3
Vol. of catalyst required in first reactor = 111.36 ft3
80
Now recommended velocity for gases is 20-80 ft/sec
Density of gases in reactor = 0.43 lb/ft3
Taking velocity of gases = 47.232 ft/sec
Operating temp of reactor = 502 0C
Operating pressure of reactor = 314.7 psi
Total moles of gases = 1.658 lb mol
Vol flow rate of gases =78.94 ft3/sec
Compressibility factor = .96
Actual Vol. flow rate of gases = 75.78 ft3/sec
Area of exit Pipe = 1.6 ft2
Diameter of exit pipe = 1.43 ft
Thickness of internal pipe = P*D/(20f+P)
Thickness = 0.0016 m
OR = .0005 ft
So outer diameter of pipe =1.43 ft
Now recommended L/D ratio for reactors is (2-5)

Taking L/D ratio 2
3.14/4(D22-1.432)*2D2=111.357
111.43= 111.35
D2 = 4.305 ft
Length of reactor = 8.61 ft
Now recommended pipe diameter around catalyst bed (2-3) inches
Taking diameter as 2.5 inch
Overall diameter of reactor = 4.51 ft
Area of pipe =0.034 ft2
No. of pipes required around catalyst bed =94 pipes
PRESSURE DROP IN REACTOR

Radial distance of Bed rt =1.44 ft
81
P = -G/dgcDp(1-Q)/Q^3[150(1-Q)u/Dp+1.75G]L
Mass velocity G= Mf/(2*3.14*rt*L)
Superficial Mass velocity = 1516.36 lbm/hr-ft2
Average molecular Wt of All gases =24 lb
Density of gases =.4714 lb/ft3
Viscosity of Gases Centi Poise =.016
OR =0.0387 lb/ft-hr
Porosity of catalyst =0.4
Pressure drop in reactor =- 2.758 psi
Thickness of Reactor wall

Construction material =Nickel based alloy
Design stress of nickel based alloy f = 90000000 N/m2
Now thickness of Reactor required =PiDi/2f-Pi
=12.87 mm
Ellipsoidal head will be used above 15 atm

Thickness of ellipsoidal head = PiDi/(J2f-.02Pi)
=12.75 mm
Specification sheet
Temperature 502 0C
Pressure 300 psi
Heat lost in 1st reactor 9400673.53 BTU
Temperature drop 70 0C
Diameter of reactor 4.51 ft
82
Thickness of reactor 12.87 mm
Head used Ellepsoidal head
Thickness of head 12.75 mm
Length of reactor 8.61 ft
83
“AIR COOLER DESIGN”
Total mass flow rate = 11.75 x 104 lbm/hr

Process fluid Inlet temperature = 194 0F
Process fluid Outlet temperature = 149 0F
T a, i = air inlet temperature = 90 0F
Cp = 0.836 Btu / lb 0F

µ = 0.436 lb / ft hr
k = 0.062 Btu / hr ft2 0F/ft
Calculate heat load.

Q = m CP ∆T
= 11.75x104 x 0.836 x (194-149)
Q = 4.42x106 Btu / hr
Now:
Assuming
U = 65 Btu / hr ft2 0F = 317 k cal
m2 0C hr
Based on bare surface tube.
Fins selection :
Circular Fins of Aluminum
Height of fins = 5/8 ¨
Thickness = 0.017¨
8fins / inch
No. of tube Row = 4
A+ = ft2 bare tube area/ft2 face area = 5.04
Air velocity = 650 ft/ min
Calculate surface area required for the bundle.

Calculate factor and see the value on the graph
T2 – Tai
T1 – Tai
= 149 – 90 =0.567
194 – 90
UA+
kVf
= 65 x 5.04 = 0.466
1.08 x 650
Form graph,
k Vf Af =1.5
W Cp
AF = 11.75 x 104 x 0.86 x 1.5
84
1.08 x 650
Af = 215.9 ft2 = 216 ft2
So, a bundle of standard size 8 x 30 ft 2 face area could be selected.

Which has a safety factor of 10%.
To Check the surface area seen from graph is correct or not.
Air Outlet temperature for 216 ft2

__Q__
K A f V0
= 4.42 x 106 = 29.14 0F
1.08 x 216 x 650
So,
Air outlet temperature = 90+29.14 = 119.1 0F
∆Tlm = (194-119.1) - (149-90)

ln (194-119.1 / 149-90)
= 66.63 0F
Now correction factor FT for 2 pass flow.
P= t2 – t1 = 119.1 – 90 = 0.279.
T1 – t1 194 – 90
R= T1 – T2 = 194 – 149 = 1.5

t2 – t1 119.1 – 90
From graph FT = 0.95

So,
∆Tlm = 66.63 x 0.95 = 63.29 0F
For Calculating the Required Surface Area.
Q = UALMTDC
Required surface area = Q__
U (LMTDc)
= 4.42 x 106
65 x 63.29
= 1074.4 = 1075 ft2
Surface area from 216 ft2 face.

Area = 216 x 5.04 = 1080 ft2
85
Which is very Close Enough.
So our selected specification and surface area are right.
Now,
No. of tubes = _______A__________
No. of rows x length x tube area
ft of tube
No. of tubes = _____1088__
4 x 30 x 0.2261 /rows.
No. of tubes per rows = 41.5
Total no. of tubes = 41.5 × 4

= 166
Now,
To check overall heat transfer coefficient,
2 pass flow of tube side process stream.

Air velocity = 650 ft/min.
ρair = 0.063 lbm/ft3.
Calculation for h0
Gross Free Area = 12 (2.375-1)
= 16.5 in2
Fin Blockage = 12 x 8 x 2 x 0.17 x 0.625
= 2.041 in2
Net Free Area = 14.4 m2
Free Area = 14.4 = 0.508

Face Area 2.375 x12
Gm = 650 x 0.063 x 60
0.508
= 4836.61 lbm / ft2 hr.
From Fig. 40:
h = 9.8 Btu / lb 0F ft2
For Fin Efficiency for Aluminum Fin:
2h xL= 2x9.8x12 x 0.62

kt 120x0.017 12
= 0.56
Df0 = 2.25 = 2.25
86
Dt 1
From graph: η = 86 %
Area of Fin
Af = [π/4 (df2 – do2) 2 + π df t] nL
= [π/4 {(2.25)2 – (1)2} 2 + π x 2.25 x 0.017 x 12 x 8]
= 624m2 = 4.33ft2
Bare Tube Area /ft Tube = π d0 (1 – nt) L

= 3.14 x 1 (1 – 8 x 0.017) 12/144
= 0.2261 ft2
Ratio of Fin Area to Tube Area
= 4.33/0.2261
= 19.15
Area side Heat transfer coefficient based on outside diameter of tube.
= 9.8 (19.15 x 0.86 + 1)
ho = 171.19 Btu/hr ft2 oF
Now to calculate hi;-

2 passs cross – counter flow: 166/2 = 83
Cross sectional area of tube
= 83 x π/4 (0.0695)2
=0.3147 ft2
G = m/At
= 11.75 x 104 / 0.3147
= 373353.74 lbm/ft2
Re = GDi / µ
= 373353.74 x 0.0695
0.486
= 53391.12
Flow is Turbulent
hi = 0.023 (k/Di) (Re) 0.8 (Pr) 1/3

= 0.023 (0.062/0.0695) (53391.12)0.8 (0.836 x 0.486/ 0.062)1/3
hi = 232.4 Btu/hr ft2 0F
calculate overall heat transfer coefficient:
87
1 = 1 + Do ln Do + 1 Do + Re
U ho 2kw Di hi Di
1 = 1 + 0.0833 ln (0.0833) + 1 (0.0833) + Re

U 171.19 2 x 30 0.0695 232 0.0695
1 = 0.01125 + Re
U
= 0.01125 +0.0004
= 65 Btu/ hr ft2 0F
which is same as assumed.

So Our Calculation is Right.
Now to calculate pressure drop

Air side:
∆P = 18.93 (GmDr)-0.316 (Pt)-0.927 (Pt) 0.515 (Gm2n)

µ Dr Pl gc d
Gm = mass velocity at minimum cross section through a root of tube normal to the
flow lb/hr ft2
gc = Acceleration due to gravity = 4.18 x 108 ft/hr2
Pt = transverse pitch between adjacent tube in same row
Pl = longitudinal pitch between adjacent tube in different row measured in
diagonal.
Pt = 2.375 in; Pl = 2 in
∆P = 18.93 (4836 x 0.0729)-0.316 (0.1979)-0.927 (0.1979)0.515

0.018 x 2.42 0.075/12 2/12
× [(4836)2 x 4)]
4.18 x 108 x 0.063
∆P = 0.17 lb/ft2
∆P = 0.0047 psi
= 0.129 in H2O/Row
∆P static for 4 rows = 0.516 in H2O

∆P dynamic for 650 ft/min and 4 rows
From graph = 0.4 in H2O
88
Total ∆P = Static Pressure + Dynamic Pressure
= 0.516 + 0.4
= 0.916 in H2O
PRESSURE DROP FOR TUBE SIDE:

f Gt 2 Ds Ln
Δ Pt =
5.22 x 1010 D s t
Ret = 53391.12
f = from (p-836)
= 0.00019
L = 30ft
n =2
D = 0.0695 ft.
s = 0.7
Gt = 9.166×104 lb/hr ft2
0.00019 x (9.166×104)2 x 30 x 2
Δ Pt =
5.22 x 1010 x 0.0695 x 0.7
= 0.037 Psi
4n v2
Δ Pr =
s 2g
From (p-837)
V2 = 0.009
2g
4 x 2 x 0.009
Δ Pr =
0.7
= 0.1
89
Δ PT = 0.037 + 0.1
= 0.139 psi
For two phase flow:
lo2 = 1 + (Y2 – 1) [B xog (1 - xog) + xog2]
lo2 = 1+ (72 – 1) [0.25 x 0.78(1- 0.78) + 0.782]
= 32.31
Δ PTP = lo2 x Δ PT
= 32.31x 0.139
= 4.0 psi
CALCULATION FOR FAN POWER
As Fan Area is 40 to 50 % of Bundle Face Area

Fan must be 6 in apart from Bundle Width Size
For 8 x 30 Bundle
Fan Area:
= π/4 D2 x 3
= π/4 (7)2 x 3
Fan Area = 115.39ft2
No. of fan = 3;
Dia = 7ft;
Blade = 4
Motor HP = Actual ft3/min (at fan) – Total pressure drop

6356 – Fan (system efficiency) – speed reducer efficiency
As fan system efficiency (70 – 90 %)
And speed reducer efficiency = (90 – 95%)
= 650 x 115.39 – 0.916
6356 – 80 – 95
= 12 hp for 3 fans
= 4 hp for 1 fan.
90
Specification sheet
Tube side AIR SIDE
MASS FLOW RATE Kg/hr 53345 AIR VELOCITY m/min 198.12
INLET INLET
TEMPERATURE 0C 90 TEMPERATURE 0C 30
OUTLET OUTLET
TEMPERATURE 0C 65 TEMPERATURE 0C 48.3
PRESSURE atm 19 PRESSURE DROP atm 0.0306
HEAT CAPACITY KJ/Kg0C 0.0035
VISCOSITY Kg/m hr 0.72
HEAT LOAD KJ/hr 4.6×106
ALLOWABLE
PRESSURE DROP atm 0.4
DESIGN PRESSURE
DROP atm 0.27
CONSTRUCTION
TUBE FIN
MATERIAL STEEL MATERIAL ALUMINUM
OUTER DIA M 0.0254 TYPE CIRCULAR
INNER DIA M 0.017 HEIGHT m 0.0158
NO. OF TUBES 166 NO. OF FIN /m 315
∆ PITCH M 0.06 THICKNESS m 0.0004
NO. OF PASSES 2
NO. OF ROW 4
MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT
FAN
NO. OF UNIT 3
DIAMETER OF FAN 2.13 m
NO. OF BLADE 4
BLADE MATERIAL PLASTIC
FAN MATERIAL CAST IRON
POWER KW 3
91
Designing of separator
Moles of gas 5472.2 lb moles Gases Mol.Wt

Volume of gas 115500.65 ft3/hr
Q = Gas flow H2 2
3
Ft /sec 32.08351406 CH4 16
SG 0.3586 C2H6 30
Density of gas lb/ft3 0.492703689 C3H8 44
Density of air lb/ft3 1.373964555 C4H10 58
MW Lb 10.3994 C5H12 72
Pressure Psi 279.3 Air 29
Atm 19.0
o
Temperature F 89.6
o
K 305
Viscosity of gas Cp 0.016
OR lb/ft-s 0.000010752
Liquid SG 0.7
Density of liquid lb/ft3 43.61
Viscosity of liquid Cp 0.4
Lbm/ft-sec 0.0002688
Separator dia Ft ?
Separator length Ft ?
NRe Range Kcr Dp C'

100000-
200000-500 18.13 Newton,s Law 0.44
1000
Intermediate 18.5*Re^-
500-2 0.334 1000-100
Law 0.6
2-0.0001 0.025 Stoke,s Law 100-5 24*Re^-1
Assuming Kcr in the range of Reynold number (500-2)

Diameter of liquid particle = 0.000170492 ft
= 51.97936243 micron
Horizontal separator without Mist Extractor will be used as
particle size is more then 1 micron
The flow rate is given, if we find velocity we can find out dia.
Velocity formula is different for different drop size or reynold
number.
From droplet size chart, Intermediate law will be applied.
92
Vt = [(4gDp(Dl-Dg))/(3DgC')]^0.5
where C' is drag coefficient unitless

C' is fuction of Reynold number and partical shape
C'(Re)2 =0.95*10^8*Dg*Dp^3*(Dl-Dg)/u 2
So, C'Re^2 = 138425.7187
C' (fig 7.3) =.7
Nre =444.7
Vt =Terminal velocity =.956 ft/sec

Let Dv = dia of separator
Time(t1) require for partical to reach toliquid surface,0.5*Dv/Vt. During this time
sould be equal to or less than the time during which gas will travel from inlet to
outlet. This time will be volume/volumetric flow.
t2 = (0.785*Dv^2*L)/Q*0.5 where L is tangent length of vessel.

Because t1 = t2
0.5*Dv/Vt = 0.5*(0.785*Dv^2*L)/Q or 1/Vt = 0.785*Dv*L/Q or
L = Q/(0.785*Vt*Dv)
So, Dv and L are unknown.Normally inhorzontal separator, L/Dv = 3
Dv =3.75 ft
L = 11 ft
L/Dv = 3.04
t1 =2 sec
t2 =2 sec
Now the residence time for gas should be a little greater than liquid
93
So making length 13 ft
Residence time of gas =2.305 sec
Now residence time of liquid
Residence time =Vol of liquid/ Vol. flow rate of liquid

Vol. Of Separator = 147.9 ft3
Avg Mol. Wt of Liquid = 65.46 lb
Vol. Flow rate of liquid = 1893.3 ft3/hr
Residence time =4.69 min

Calculation of Reynold number of particle
Nre =444.65
So our assumption of taking Kcr is true
Now selection of material Carbon steel
Design stress of carbon steel =135000000 N/m2
Thickness of separator =PiDi/(2f-Pi)
= 14. 6 mm
Now we use Ellepsoidal head for high pressure of 19 atm
Thickness of head =PiDi/(2Jf-0.2Pi)
= 11.7 mm
Specification sheet
Particle size 52 micron
Drag coefficient .7
Terminal velocity .956 ft/sec
Length 13 ft
Diameter 3.75 ft
Settling time 1.96 sec
Flowing time 2.305 sec
94
Residence time 4.687 min
95
Distillation column design steps
 Designation of design basis
 Operating conditions
 Determination of equilibrium stages
 Size of the column
 Design of plate
Designation of design basis
Components Feed Top Product Bottom Product
Mol fraction Mol fraction Mol fraction
H2 0.1623 0.7078
CH4 0.0083 0.0364
C2H6 0.0129 0.0571
C3H8 0.0166 0.0725
C4H10 0.0139 0.0604
C5H12 0.0147 0.0610 L.K 0.00095
C6H14 0.2181 0.0048 H.K 0.2815
C7H14 0.2544 0.3300
C6H6 0.1375 0.1783
C6H5CH3 0.1497 0.1942
MCP 0.0103 0.0134
MCH 0.0012 0.0016
Operating conditions
Operating Pressure 15.2
Streams` Temperature
Feed 125 oC
Top Stream 48 oC
Bottom stream 250 oC
Reflux stream 40 oC
Determination of equilibrium stages

 Equlibrium data at operating conditons
96
 Determination of minimum reflux ratio
 Determination of minimum number of stages
 Determination of ideal stages
Equlibrium data at operating conditions
Components K-VALUES RELATIVE VOLATILITY

H2 __
CH4 16.400 51.250
C2H6 5.500 17.188
C3H8 3.200 10.000
C4H10 1.200 3.750
C5H12 0.560 1.750
C6H14 0.320 1.000
C7H14 0.130 0.406
C6H6 0.080 0.250
C6H5CH3 0.182 0.569
MCP 0.218 0.680
MCH 0.102 0.320
Minimum reflux ratio

By using Coulburn method ,
Rmin = 1 { XdA - aAB XdB }
(aAB – 1 XnA XnB
 Upper pinch Temperature

Tn = Tp + 1/3(TB – TP)
= 115.33 0C
 Lower pinch Temperature

Tm = TP + 2/3 (TB – TP )
= 182.67 0C
 Light Key composition in Upper pinch
rf
Xnl =
(1 + rf ) (1 + iXfhi)
where
rf = ratio of compositon of light key to heavy kay in the liquid part of feed.
I = relative volatility of components with respect to heavy key.
Xfhi = composition of heavier than heavy key components in the feed stream.
97
Now
For components Heavier than heavy key……
components (i’s Xfhi (iXfhi
C7H14 0.406 0.2543 0.1030
C6H6 0.569 0.1497 0.0779
C6H5CH3 0.250 0.13745 0.0373
MCP 0.680 0.01032 0.0070
MCH 0.320 0.0012334 0.0004
iXfhi = 0.2257
XfL
rf =
XfH
= 0.0147/0.2181 =0.0675
rf
Xnl =
(1 + rf ) (1 + iXfhi)
0.0675
=
(1.0675)*(1.2257)
= 0.0516
XnL
XnH =
rf
= 0.0516/0.0675
= 0.7643
so from equation,
Rmin = 1 { XdA - aAB XdB }
(aAB – 1 XnA XnB
= 1 { 0.061 - (1.75)*0.00475}
(1.75 – 1 ) 0.0516 0.7643
= 1.51
Optimum Reflux Ratio ranges from (1.1 – 1.5)*Rmin

I choose the optimum reflux ratio, By plotting the graph b/w total annual cost and
reflux ratio. (given in appendix)
 reflux ratio taken is 1.783
98
Minimum number of stages
By using Fenske’s Equation
Nmin = ln[(xLK/x HK)D(xHK/xLK)B

ln(αLK/HK )av
ln [(0.061/0.00475)*(0.2814/0.000955)
=
ln (1.75)avg
= 13
Now
Number of Ideal stages
Using Erbar-maddox graph (fig 11.11 C&R vol 6)
 N + partial condenser 31
 N 30
Actual number of stages and Feed location :
 Plate efficiency
using O’connell method(coulsen vol.6)
Eo =51 – 32.5log(μaαa)
Where
μa = average viscosity of liquid, mNs/ m2
αa = Realtive volatility of light key
μa = 0.1712 m Ns/ m2
so
Eo = 51 – 32.5 log(0.1712*1.75)
= 68.02 %
 Actual number of stages (Nactual)
N actual = Nideal/ Eo
= 30/0.68
= 44( excluding partial condenser)
 Feed location
By, using kirkbridge Equation
log ND = 0.206 log { (B/D)(xHK/xLK)F [(xLK)B/(xHK)D]2

Nb
log ND = 0.206 log{(868.634/258.33)*(0.2181/0.0147)
NB *( 0.000955/0.00475)2 }
99
ND = 1.155 NB
Ntotal = ND + NB
ND = N total/ 1.8658
= 24(excluding partial condenser)
NB = 20
so feed entering at 20th plate from bottom
Tray Design
Molar Flow rate of streams
 Feed, F 512.175 Kg mol/hr

 Top Product,D 117.423 Kg mol/hr
 Bottom product, W 394.834 Kg mol/hr
 Reflux, Ln 209.365 Kg mol/hr
 Vapour flow rate :
 in rectifying section, Vn 326.789Kg mol/hr
 in stripping section, Vm 232.704 Kg mol/hr
 Liquid flow rates:
 in rectifying section, Ln 209.365 Kg mol/hr
 in stripping section, Lm 627.538 Kg mol/hr
 Lm/W 1.589
Physical conditions Top Bottom
Vapour Density,lb/ft3 0.5474 2.1406
Liquid density, lb/ft3 31.43 49.6
Vapour flow rate ,ft3/sec 5.54 6.00

Liquid flow rate , ft3/ sec 0.235 0.69
Diameter of column
u = Kv (rL - rV)1/2 Top Bottom

rV
Kv = 0.09 (from parry 3rd edition )
rL = Liquid density, lb/ ft3 31.43 49.6
rV = vapour density, lb/ft3 0.235 0.69
D = [{ 4/(P *rV)}{V/(u*3600)}]1/2
1.05 m 1.26m
100
I based my Design on bottom diameter ,
so I Take diameter = 4ft
= 1.21 m
Tray design
 Tower application or service Product finishing

 Tower inside Diameter 1.21 m
 Tray type Cross flow
 Tray spacing 0.508 m
 No. of downcomers/tray 1
Caps data
4 .in standard cap size is selected for 4 ft column,so that
all data about cap becomes fixed .
 Cap OD 0.1016 m
 Cap ID 0.0984 m
Down flow area,Adf
It ranges from 10 – 20 % of tower area .

thus for 15% of tower area 0.1751m2
Liquid distribution area,Ala
It ranges 8 – 20 % of tower area.

And for 16 % of towre area 0.1956m 2
End wastage ,Aew
It ranges from 7 – 22 % of tower area
And for 15 % of tower area 0.1751m 2
No. of caps /tray

Nc=Ac-(Adf+ Ala+Aew)
ac
Nc = 1.168 – (0.1751 +0.1956 +0.1751)/ 0.008114
= 78
101
 Pitch 60 0▲
 Spacing 0.03175 m
 No.of cap rows 9
 Inside Height above tray 0.1000 m
 No. of slots/cap, Ns (selected from table) 51
 Height of slot,Hs, 0.0381 m
 Width of slot,ws 0.003175 m
 skirt Height,s 0.00635 m
 Shroud ring height,hsr 0.00635 m
 Riser OD, 0.06985 m
 ID, 0.06667 m
 Riser height above tray floor 0.08255m
Areas
Area = π/4 d2
Total area = Nc (π/4 d2)
 Cap inside cross-sectional area, ac 0.007606m2

 Total cap inside cross-sectional area/tray, Ac 0.5933m2
 Riser inside cross-sectional area/cap, ar 0.00349m2
 Total riser inside cross-sectional area/tray, Ar, 0.2722m2
 Riser outside cross-sectional area/cap,aro, 0.003822 m2
 Total riser outside cross-sectional area/tray, Aro, 0.3228 m2
 Annular area per cap.aa= π/4 (dci2– dro2) 0.003774m2
 Total annular area/tray,Aa 0.2945m2
 Reversal area / cap,ar’, 0.00399 m 2
 Total reversal area/tray 0.31122 m 2
 Slot area/ cap,as, (Ns*Hs*ws) 0.00514 m2
 Total slot area / tray , As, 0.4010 m2
Tray details
 Length of outlet weir Iw,
 Usually taken from 60 – 80 % of diameter of column
 I taken 75% of diameter of column 0.9146 m
 Height of weir above tray floor,hw (2.5 – 3.5 in.) 0.0762 m
 Height of top of cap slots (depends on Hs)
above tray floor 0.0508 m
 Static slot submergence or seal, hss,
For pressure 100 – 300 psig (1.5 in.) 0.0381 m
102
 Height of bottom of Down comer
above tray floor 0.06985 m
 Riser slot seal 0.0508 m
Performance of tray
Top
Bottom
Residence time in down comer
 down comer area, Ad (Using graph b/w
weir length and down comer area) 0.13076m 2 0.1307m2
 effective height of downcomer ,hde
hde = St +hw/12 0.5853 m 0.5853 m
 time= (Ad*hde) /Vl 4.0 sec 11.4 sec
Slot
 slot opening,hs 0.0175m 0.0223 m
 Maximum slot velocity(12.1/ρg)1/2 4.985 m/sec 2.53 m/sec
 Minimum slot velocity (3.4/ρg)1/2 1.418 m/sec 0.71 m/sec
 Super facial slot velocity,uo= V/As 0.392 m/sec 0.424 m/sec
Pressure drop
 Caps
Top
Bottom
 Riser pressure drop, hr
hr=0.111 dr/ρL[(ρv)1/2 (V/Ar)]2.02
where
dr = dia of riser= inches 2.625 2.625
ρL =density of liquid = lb/ ft3 31.43 49.6
ρv = density of vapour = lb/ft3 0.547 2.14
V = volumetric flow rate = ft3/sec 5.54 6.0
Ar = total riser area = ft2 2.93 2.93
By solving equation,
hr = Pressure drop (in inches of liquid) 0.0186 0.0582
103
 Reversal and annulus pressure drop, hra
hra= 0.68/ρL[ (2ar2/ax.ac)(ρv)1/2(V/Ar)]1.71

where
ar =inside riser area= inches2 5.41 5.41
ax= Reversal area = inches2 6.185 6.185
ac = inside area of cap = inches2 11.79 11.79
hra= Pressure drop (in inches of liquid) 0.026 0.0615
 Rectagular slot dry pressure drop,hs’
hs΄ = 0.163/ρL[(dc.ρv)1/2(V/As)]1.73
where
dc= diameter of cap=inches 4 4
As = total area of slot = ft2 4.316 4.316
hs΄ = Pressure drop
(in inches of liquid) 0.0157 0.03723
 Total dry pressure drop (inches of liquid)

hc΄ = hr+hra+hs΄ 0.0606 0.157
 Wet cap pressure drop,(inches of liquid)
V/As {ρv/ρL(as/aa)}1/2
Where
as= area of slot /cap = inches2 7.97 7.970

aa= annular area/ cap= inches2 5.85 5.85
V/As {ρv/ρL(as/aa)}1/2 0.197 0.337

From graph given in loudwing,
the value of Cw are….
Cw 0.043 0.16
hc= hc΄/Cw 1.44 0.983
h cmax = hr+hra+(Hs+s) 1.8 1.87
So the cap is Ok and not blowing under shroud .
Height of liquid over weir Top Bottom
104
First calculate,
Lg/ (lw)2.5 6.77 19.82
and
lw/D 0.75 0.75
where
Lg = flow rate of liquid in gallons/min
lw=length of weir = ft
using graph given in loudwing
Factor , Fw 1.04 1.08
how =0.092 * Fw ( Lg/lw) 26 mm 39.37 mm
Liquid gradient ∆/2
Mean tray width = (dc + lw)/2
= (4+3)/2 3.5 ft =1.07 m
Assumed liquid depth, h1

h1 = hw + how+ (∆/2)assum 4.127 in 4.65 in
Lg/mean tray width (gallon/min.ft) 30.14 85.7
Uncorrected ∆′/no.of rows (inches) 0.125 0.23

1/2
V0 (ρv) 0.326 0.702
From graph Cv 0.45 0.97
Where
∆ = liquid gradient in inches of liquid
Vo = Superficial velocity based on column area ft/sec
Cv = correction factor for uncorrected liquid gradient
No. of rows = 9
Corrected ∆/2 (inches of liquid) 0.253 0.96
Total pressure drop/tray (in inches of liquid)
ht =hc +hss +how +∆/2

hc (inches of liquid) 1.44 0.923
hss (inches of liquid) 1.5 1.5
how (inches of liquid) 1.027 1.55
∆/2 (inches of liquid) 0.253 0.96
105
ht =hc +hss +how +∆/2 4.22 4.93
Total pressure drop/tray (in inches of water)

2.86 3.35
Range for pressure drop is 2- 4 in of water /tray

So pressure drop is with in the range
 Pressure drop for trays (in in.of water)
For 24 plate above,and 20 plate below 68.64 67
(in mm of Hg) 130 127
Downcomer Pressure drop

downcomer friction loss plus underflow loss,hdu
hdu = 0.56[ Lg/449* Ad ] 0.0156 in 0.1304 in
in mm of Hg 0.021 0.168
where
Ad = downcomer area in ft2
Liquid height in downcomer
Hd = hw+how+hd+ht+∆ 0.232m 0.29m

Hd < ½ St which is in range.
Free height in down comer

F = St + hw - Hd 0.3609m 0.29m
Throw over weir
tw = 0.8 [ how* F]1/2 79.85mm 84.7mm
Dynamic slot seal

hds = hss +how+ ∆/2 78.56mm 98.23mm
Liquid Entrainment Top Bottom
 Vf = volumetric flow rate

{ Ac – 2(Ad) } 0.17m/sec 0.826 m/sec
where
Vf= Superficial velocity based on active area m/sec
Calculate
27.3 + (10.75)Vf(ρv/ρL – ρv)1/2
106
St 2.167 2.73
From graph ,
We/(how+hss+hs′) 0.035 0.46
and
We in Kg/min m2 0.00384 0.0194
 Entrainment in Kg/min 0.4036 2.0454

 Entrainment ratio 0.00457 0.00583
The value of entrainment is low , so spacing is quite good.
Height of column
 Height of column( 20 inches tray spacing)
Hc = (Nactual – 1)St + DH
= (44 – 1 ) 0.508 + 2.184
= 24 m
107
SPECIFICATION SHEET
Identification:
Item Distillation column
Item No. T-102
No. required 1
Tray type Bubble cap tray
Function: separation of light H.C from heavy H.C
Operation: Continuous
Material handled
Feed Top Bottom
Quantity 512.2 Kgmol/hr 209.0 Kgmol/hr 394.92 Kgmol/hr
Compositions
Light key 1.47 % 6.1% 0.095 %
Heavy key 21.81% 0.48% 28.15%
Temperature 125 oC 48o C 250 oC
Design Data
Pressure = 15.2 atm reflux ratio = 1.782:1
No.of trays = 44 Cap size = 0.1016m
Diameter of column= 1.21 m No. of Caps/tray = 78
Shell thickness = 11.887mm weir length = 0.915 m
Corrsion allowance=2.0mm weir height =76.2 mm
Tray spacing = 0.508 m Down comer area =0.1307m2
Height of column = 24 m Overall efficiency = 68%
Top Bottom
Pressure drop/tray = 2.86 3.36 in.of water
Entrainment ratio = 0.00457 0.00583
108
PARTIAL CONDENSER DESIGN
Tempratures of fluids:
118.4 oF 104 oF
104.0 oF 86 oF
Calculate Heat Duty – ‘Q’:
Flow of hot fluid = 15597 lb/hr = 7089.5 Kg/hr

Components No.of moles Weight Heat load Total heat
(lb moles) (lbs) Cp.T load(Btu)
(Btu/lb)
H2 182.83 365.67 49.68 18166.50

CH4 9.39 150.26 7.85 1179.21
C2H6 14.76 442.77 6.26 2773.51
Latent heat (btu/lb mole)
C3H8 92.32 4684.42 432489.07
C4H10 76.92 7706.88 592828.62
C5H12 77.69 10757.60 835826.18
C6H14 6.050 14274.73 86374.90
Total heat load = 1969638.0 Btu/hr =2.078*10^6 KJ/hr
Assumed Overall Coefficient:

U = 85 Btu /hr ft2 oF
= 482.62 W/m2 oK
By taking RD = 0.002 hr ft2 oF/Btu
Log Mean Temperature Difference:
Δ T 1 – Δ T2
Δ Tl m =
109
ln ΔT1
Δ T2
(T1 – t2) - (T2 – t2)

=
ln (T1 – t2)
(T2 – t1)
(118.4 – 104) - (104 – 86)

=
ln (118.4 – 104)
(104 – 86)
14.4- 18
=
ln (14.4)
(18)
o
= 16.133 F =
For True Temperature Difference:

(T1 – T2)
R=
(t2 – t1)
118.4 – 104
= = 0.8
104– 86
(t2 – t1)
P =
(T1 – t1)
104 – 86
= = 0.556
118.4 – 86
(Using p-828 for 1-shell 2-tube pass)
Ft = 0.82
110
Δ Tm = Ft x Δ Tl m
= 0.82x 16.113
= 13.23oF
Area:
As
Q = UAΔ Tm
A = Q/UΔ Tm
= (1.97*10^6) / (85 x 13.23)
= 1751 ft2
=162.75 m2
Heat Exchanger Specifications:
Tubes
13 BWG
Outside Dia OD = ¾ inch = 0.75 inch = 0.0625 ft = 0.0208m
Inside Dia ID = 0.560 inch = 0.0466 ft (p-843 Kern)
Length of Tubes L = 16 ft = 4.87 m
Square pitch = 1 inch = 0.0833 ft
Baffles:
25% cut horizontal segmental baffles
Area of single tube = (0.1963 x 16 x .0929) = 0..2917 m 2
No. of tubes = 162.75/(0.2917*2) = 279
(From nearest count table 9)

No. of Tubes = 270
For 2 pass
Now
For 270 no. of tubes Area = 1696 ft2
= 157.64 m2
and standard Inside Diameter of shell = 21.25 inches
=0.54 m
111
and Supposed Ud = 88 Btu /hr ft2 oF
= 499.69 W/m2 oK
Baffle Spacing (B):
B = 0.235 x shell dia

= 0.235 x 0.54
= 0. 127m
No of Baffles:
No. of Baffles = (4.878 / 0.127)-1 = 38 Baffles
Physical Properties:
Average Temp Shell Side =111.2 oF
Average Temp Tube Side = 95.0oF
Shell Side:
Components Total mass Heat capacity Thermal Viscosity
(lbs) (Btu/lb.oF) coductivity (cP)
(btu.ft/hr.ft2.0F)
H2 365.67 3.45 0.114 0.0095
CH4 150.256 0.545 0.0211 0.0125
C2H6 442.77 0.435 0.01681 0.011
C3H8 4062.3 0.675 0.04564 0.1
C4H10 4461.476 0.62 0.05564 0.14
C5H12 5594.1336 0.59 0.0766 0.18
C6H14 520.3774 0.545 0.079 0.26
Mean Properties (Shell side)
(i) Mean Heat Capacity
C = 0.681 Btu/lb.0F
112
(iii) Mean Viscosity
 = 0.14 cP
= 0.339 lb/ft.hr
(iv) Mean Thermal Conductivity

k = 0.0453 Btu / lb ft2 oF
Mean Properties: (water)
(i) Mean Heat Capacity
C = 1.0 Btu / lb oF
(ii) Mean Density

 = 61.86 lb / ft3
(iii) Mean Viscosity

 = 0.72 cP x 2.42
= 1.742 lb / ft hr.
Mass Flow rate of water:
Q = mCp ΔT
m = Q/(Cp.ΔT)
= 1969638/(1*18)
=109424 lb/hr
=49738.2 Kg/hr
Over All Heat Transfer Coefficient:
Shell Side Calculations:
1. ID x C x B
as =
PT
113
ID = 21.25/12 = 1.77 ft=0.54m
C = 1 – 0.75
= 0.25 inch.
B = 5 inch.
= 5 /12
= 0.4167ft
Pt = 1 inch = 0.0833 ft.
1.77 x 0.25 x 0.4167

as =
1
= 0.1844 ft = 0.0171m2
2
2. Equivalent Dia.
For square pitch:

1.27
De = (Pt2 – 0.785 do2 )
do
do = tube outside dia = 0.625 ft.
Pt = 0.083 ft
De = 0.0792 ft
3. Mass Velocity
Gs = Ws / as
= 15597 / 0.1844
= 84554 lb/hr.ft2 = 3572.43Kg/hr.m2
4. Reynolds No
Re.s = De Gs / 
0.0792 x 84554
=
0.339
= 19754.2
5. jH Factor
114
jH = 78 (p-838)
6. Prandtl No
Pr = (c / k) 1/3
= 1.72
7. Outside Heat Transfer Coefficient
jH k (c / k) ( /  )
1/3 0.14
w
ho = De
= 78 x (0.0453/0.0792) x 1.72 x 1
ho = 76.8 Btu /hr ft2 oF

=436 W/m2 oK
Tube Side Calculations:
1. Flow Area
Nt at
at =
144 n
n =2
Nt = 270
at  = 0.247 in2 (From P-843)
= 0.001715 ft2
270 x 0.247
at =
144 x 2
= 0.2315 ft2
2. D = ID of tube
= 0.56 inches
= 0.0467 ft.
3. Mass Velocity
115
Gt = Wt / a t
= 109424 / 0.2315
= 472546.28lb/hr ft2
4. Reynolds No
Re.t = D Gt / 
0.0467 x 472546.28
=
1.74
= 12682.7
5. Velocity
V = Gt/(3600 *)
472546.28
=
3600 x 61.86
= 2.12 ft/sec
6. inside Heat Transfer Coefficient (from fig 25 kern)
hi = 590 Btu/hr.ft2.0F
correction factor for hi = 1.015

7. hio = hi x1.015 x (ID/OD)
= 590x 1.015 x (0.0516 / 0.0625)
= 440.53 Btu/hr.ft2.0F
=2501.45 W/m2 oK
9. Clean Overall Coefficient:
Uct = ho(tg – tc)+ KgMv (pv – pc) = hio (tc – tw )
In Equation
t = (tg – tw )
Kg = h0( c /ka)2/3
c.Pgf Ma(/kd)2/3
116
kd = 0.0166 Tk3/2 (1/MA – 1/MB)1/2
Pt (VA1/3 - VB1/3)2
Where
kd = Diffusivity ,ft3/hr
pt = total pressure ,atm
VA ,VB = moleculer volume of diffusing and inert gases computed from the data
on
atomic volume
o
T = absolute Temprature K(0C abs)
MA, MB = molecular weights of the diffusing and inert gases respectively,
Kg = diffusion coefficient, lbmol/hr.ft2. atm
Mv = average molecular weight of vapour, dimensionless

Pc = partial pressure of vapour at the condensate film temprature, 0F
pv = partial pressure og vapour in gas body, atm
tc =temprature of condensate film,0F
tg = temprature of dry gas (inerts), 0F
tw = temprature of water, 0F
 =laqtent heat of vaporization, Btu/lb
pg = (P – pv)
P= inlet gas-vapour mixture absolute pressur, atm
And
Pgf = (pg - pg )
2.3log(pg/pg)
1. kd calculation
MA = 4.632
MB = 57.867
VA = 17.667
VB = 96.0
kd = 0.0166 Tk3/2 (1/MA – 1/MB)1/2

Pt (VA1/3 - VB1/3)2
= 0.0166 (317)3/2 ( 1/4.632 – 1/57.867)1/2

1/3 1/3 2
15.2( 17.667 - 96.0 )
117
= 0.0573 ft2/hr
Mm = 33.9
mix = 2.226 lb/ft3
(c /ka)2/3 = 2.977
(/kd)2/3 = 1.925
Kg calculated using above equation:
Kg = 5.147/pgf
tg = 118.4 0F
pv = 5.03 atm
pg = 15.2 – 5.02 = 10.17 atm
tw = 86 0F
t = 118.4 – 86 = 32.4 0F
assume tc = 94 0F
pc = 4.63 atm
pg = 15.2 – 4.63 =10.57 atm
Pgf = (pg - pg )
2.3log(pg/pg)
= 10.377 atm
 = 134.6 Btu/lb
Mv = 57.867
Now using equation
ho(tg – tc)+ KgMv (pv – pc) = hio (tc – tw )
76.8*(118.4 - 94 ) + (5.147/10.377)*57.867*134.6*(5.03 – 4.63) =

440.5*( 94 – 86)
3419.24 = 3524
Uct = (3419.24 +3524)/2
118
= 3482 Btu / hr. ft2
Uc = 3482/t
= 107.586 Btu / hr. ft2 0F
11. Dirt Factor:
1 - 1
Rd = Ud Uc
= (1/88) – (1/107.586)
= 0.01136 – 0.00929
= 0.00207 hr. ft2 0F/ Btu
so RD is close enough ,
thus our UD = 88 Btu / hr. ft2 0F
Step 8
Pressure Drop:
Shell Side Pressure Drop: (Δ Ps)
f Gs 2 Ds (N + 1)
Δ Ps =
5.22 x 1010 De S s
Re.s = 19754.2
f = from p-839
= 0.0018
Ds = 1.77 ft.
N+1 = 21
De = 0.0792 ft.
s = 0.68 (p-809)
Gs = 84554.1 lb / hr ft2
0.0018 x (84554.1) 2 x 1.77 x 38

Δ Ps = = 0.308 Psi
119
5.22 x 1010 x 0.68x 0.0792
For two phase flow: (Δ PTP)

Δ PTP = lo2 x Δ Plo
Where
lo2 = 1 + (Y2 – 1)[B xog (1 - xog) + xog2]
` xg = flow quality of liq phase

Or
mass flow rate of liq phase
=
total mass flow rate
14638.3
=
15597
= 0.9385
2
B =
Y+1
B = 0.75
Y = 2/0.75 – 1
= 2.66-1 = 1.66
lo2 = 1 + (1.66 – 1) [0.75 x 0.9285 (1 – 0.9385) + 0.9385 2]
2
= 1+1.756*(0.75*0.0577 + 0.88)
= 1 + 1.623
= 2.623
Δ PTP = 2.623 x 0.308

= 0.807 Psi
Tube Side Pressure Drop: (Δ Pt)
f Gt 2 L n
Δ Pt =
5.22 x 1010 Dt s t
120
Re.t = 12682
f = 0.00025from (p-836)
L = 16ft.
n =2
De = 0.0516 ft.
s = 0.62
Gt = 392052.98 lb/hr ft2
0.00025 x 472546.282 x 16 x 2
Δ Pt =
5.22 x 1010 x 0.0467 x 1.0
= 0.7328 Psi
4n v2
Δ Pr =
s 2g
From (p-837)
V2 = 0.029
2g
4 x 2 x0 .029
Δ Pr =
1.0
= 0.232
Δ PT = 0.7328 + 0.232
= 0.965 psi
121
122
Specification sheet
Unit EXCHANGER
Item No. E -102
Type Shell and tube
No. of Item 01
FunctionTo partially condense process stream

Operation Continuous
Heat duty 577.1 kW

Heat transfer area 157.64 m2
Overall heat transfer coefficient 499.687W/m2C
Dirt Factor 3.64*10-4 m2.oK/W
Shell side Tube side
Fluid circulated Process stream water
Flow rates 7089.5 Kg/hr 49738.2 Kg/hr
Temperature Inlet = 48oC Inlet = 30oC
Outlet = 40oC Out let = 40 oC
Pressure drop 0.807 psi 0.965 psi
Specifications Material of Material of construction:
construction: Cu/Ni of 70/30 seamless
Carbon steel I .D = 14.22
I.D = 0.54 m mm
Shell thickness=2.58mm O.D = 19.05
head type: mm
Ellipsoidal Tube thickness = 13
No of baffles = 37 BWG
Pitch = 25.4
mm
square arrangement,
Length of tubes = 4.88
m
No.of tubes = 270
123
HAPTER 8
Hazop study
MEDIUM ALIPHATIC SOLVENT NAPHTHA (PETROLEUM)
White spirit type 0, regular flash point

Straight run kerosine
Straight run white spirit
TYPES OF ACUTE HAZARDS / PREVENTION

HAZARD / FIRE FIGHTING
EXPOSURE SYMPTOMS
NO open flames, NO Water spray, alcohol-
FIRE Flammable. sparks, and NO resistant foam, powder,
smoking. carbon dioxide.
Above 38°C use a

closed system, In case of fire: keep
Above 38°C explosive vapour/air
EXPLOSION mixtures may be formed.
ventilation, and drums, etc., cool by
explosion-proof spraying with water.
electrical equipment.
Dizziness. Headache. Drowsiness. Ventilation, local

Fresh air, rest. Refer for
Inhalation Nausea. Cough. Unconsciousness. exhaust, or breathing
medical attention.
protection.
Remove contaminated
clothes. Rinse and then
Skin Dry skin. Protective gloves.
wash skin with water
and soap.
Safety goggles, or eye First rinse with plenty of

protection in water for several
combination with minutes (remove
Eyes Redness.
breathing protection. contact lenses if easily
possible), then take to a
doctor.
Cough. Diarrhoea. Sore throat. Do not eat, drink, or Do NOT induce

Vomiting. (Further see Inhalation). smoke during work. vomiting. Refer for
Ingestion medical attention. See
Notes.
SPILLAGE DISPOSAL
Ventilation. Collect leaking and spilled liquid in sealable containers as far as possible. Absorb remaining
liquid in sand or inert absorbent and remove to safe place. Do NOT wash away into sewer. (Extra personal
protection: filter respirator for organic vapours of low boiling compounds.)
EMERGENCY RESPONSE STORAGE
124
Transport Emergency Card: TEC (R)- Fireproof. Separated from strong oxidants. Well closed.
30G35
I
IMPORTANT DATA
Physical State; Appearance Routes of exposure
COLOURLESS LIQUID, WITH The substance can be absorbed into the body by inhalation of
CHARACTERISTIC ODOUR. its vapour and by ingestion.
Physical dangers Inhalation risk

The vapour is heavier than air and may A harmful contamination of the air will be reached rather slowly
travel along the ground; distant ignition on evaporation of this substance at 20°C; on spraying or
possible. dispersing, however, much faster.
Chemical dangers Effects of short-term exposure

Reacts with strong oxidants, causing fire The vapour is slightly irritating to the eyes and the respiratory
and explosion hazard. Attacks some forms tract. The substance may cause effects on the central nervous
of plastics and rubber. system. Exposure to high concentration of vapours may result
in unconsciousness. Swallowing the liquid may cause
Occupational exposure limits aspiration into the lungs with the risk of chemical pneumonitis.
TLV not established.
MAK not established. Effects of long-term or repeated exposure
The liquid defats the skin. The substance may have effects on
the central nervous system and liver, resulting in impaired
functions. See Notes.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
8.0 INTRODUCTION
In Pakistan, emission from motor vehicles is a significant source of air
pollution. Combustion of fossil fuels and other human activities are the primary
reason for the increased concentrations of green house gases, which mainly
includes carbon dioxide. In particular the use of Cleaner Fuel has a major impact
in improving air quality; especially in major urban centers.
The major fuel sector pollutants include: Sulphur dioxide, a precursor of acid rain,
is an irritant to the eyes, nose, and throat as well as to the lungs. It is also
phytotoxic, damaging plants.
Hydrocarbons, are an important source of particulate air pollution in Pakistan’s
major cities.These substances are the precursors of photochemical smog, in
conditions where exposure to sunlight changes the material into an eye and lung
irritant. Smog is also known to inhibit plant growth.
125
Lead, is the most dangerous of vehicle-related emissions, and has only been
measured sporadically in urban air in Pakistan.. Lead is added to gasoline to
increase the octane rating and to reduce engine knock. When young and growing
children ingest lead, it is deposited in the brain and has been shown to cause a
reduction in intelligence quotient (IQ).. It is for this reason that all industrial
nations have moved towards lead-free gasoline.
The innovative approaches to prevent the pollution at source are called Cleaner
Production Processes or Cleaner Production (CP). Pakistan presently lacks the
necessary operational expertise, research & development, engineering/industrial
potential & capacity to solve the problems associated with the development of
environmentally-friendly fuels, loss control, and their impact on the environment.
. A project has been designed by the UN Agencies UNDP/UNIDO in collaboration
with the Ministry of Petroleum, Ministry of Environment, private sector refineries,
and a wide range of local and potential international partners. This project
provides a proposal for the establishment of a National Cleaner Production
Center for Fuel Sector (NCPC) for the growing fuel producing sector in Pakistan;
it calls for the formulation and implementation of a coordinated and integrated
program for Cleaner Production, in order to combat the direct environmental
impacts in fuel production and indirect impacts from fuel consumption .
8.1 ENVIRONMENTAL STATUS IN REFINERIES

Wastewater
Wastewater from oil refineries is saline in nature, containing oil,
phenolic & sulphur compounds, and high BOD & COD. BOD is commonly used
to evaluate the pollution strength of wastewater and represents the quantity of
oxygen required by bacteria and other organisms during the biochemical
degradation and transformation of organic matter present in wastewater under
aerobic conditions. The presence of oil in water hinders light to enter the water-
body and restricts photosynthesis, causing damage to plants in water.
Parameters like BOD, COD, sulphates, sulphides, TDS, Oil & grease deviates in
126
refinery wastewater, depending upon the types of treatment being applied before
the discharge to the water bodies.
The parameters that are exceeded by at least one refinery include: pH, BOD5,
COD, TDS, TSS, Oil &Grease, Chlorides, Fluorides, Sulphides, Ammonia, and
phenolic compounds. Oil and grease results are a common problem at all the
refineries.
8.1.1 Air Emissions

Typical pollutant emissions from Petroleum Refinery are SO2, NOx,
hydrocarbons, CO, particulate matter, aldehydes, ammonia, mercaptans, and
smoke. ARL fuel quality is very good with respect to sulphur content and
ambient air SO2 concentration is not expected to be a problem. The reason for
this is that ARL uses local crude which naturally has low sulphur compared to the
high sulphur export crude used by the other refineries in the country.
8.1.2 Solid Waste
Solid wastes generated by the petroleum refineries are spent catalysts,
spent caustic, oily sludge, sludge containing lead, used drums, and metal scrap.
No proper solid waste management system is in practice, in any of the refineries.
Solid waste is typically disposed at on open land and in pits inside the boundary
of the refineries.
8.1.3 URBAN AREA ENVIRONMENT

Most of these industries were established in a regime of non-
environmental legislation in the urban areas. Major hazards are caused by the
disposal of untreated wastewater and uncontrolled emissions to the atmosphere.
Air pollution primarily affects urban area, where the density of buildings, industry
and vehicles prevent pollutants from being dispersed. Urban air pollutants
include particulate matter, sulphur dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide,
ozone, hydrocarbons, and heavy metals. Indiscriminate releases of carcinogens
such as asbestos and soot, particulate matter, and noxious gases into the air are
127
causing air quality to decline and increasing the incidence of respiratory diseases
in the urban areas.
8.2 HEALTH IMPACTS

Leaded Gasoline
Lead is a neurotoxin that impairs the brain development of children.
Additionally, the exposure of adults to atmospheric lead has been connected to
elevated blood pressure causing hypertension, heart attacks and premature
death. Highly significant relationships have been found between the use of lead
additives in gasoline and the blood levels of exposed populations. Significant
differences have been found, for example, between the blood lead levels of
children living in areas with traffic density, and the blood lead levels of those
living in less congested suburbs. As a result, children in downtown areas may
suffer a reduction of several IQ points.
. Although the value of the economic benefits of avoiding the health damage
caused by the exposure to lead are country-specific the magnitude of benefits
estimated in the U.S suggest that phasing out lead from gasoline is likely to
produce substantial benefits in all countries. Lead has long been recognized that
causes renal damage, neurological dysfunction, anemia, and at high doses,
death.
8.2.1 Exposure to Leaded Gasoline
The main source of human exposure to lead include the use of leaded
gasoline; industrial sources such as led mining, smelting and coal combustion;
use of lead-based paint; and lead containing pipes in water supply systems. As a
result, vehicular traffic, due to use of leaded gasoline, remains the single largest
source of environmental lead pollution in many urban areas, typically accounting
for over 90 percent of all lead emissions into the atmospheres. The amount of
lead additives uses in gasoline, and the volume and patterns of traffic have a
strong influence on airborne lead concentrations. Average ambient lead
concentrations in cities, therefore, are typically several times higher than in
128
suburbs. Vehicular traffic is the largest source of lead exposure in many urban
areas, often accounting for more than 90 percent of all atmospheric emissions..
Additionally, perennial exposure to lead has been demonstrated to produce toxic
effects on human fetus, resulting in reduced birth weight, disturbed mental
development, spontaneous abortion, or premature birth at relatively low blood
lead levels. In many countries, evidence suggests that the exposure to lead is
one of the most serious environmental problems.
8.2.2 Blood, Urine and Air
Some data was provided by NRL regarding lead in the blood and urine
of personnel of the refinery, and lead in air at three refinery locations. The values
indicate general elevated levels of lead in both blood and urine, likely relate to
exposure of lead from vehicles that use leaded gasoline. Studies done in
Pakistan indicate significantly elevated concentration of lead in blood of children
in and around the Karachi area. These elevated levels are of concern with
respect to normal intellectual development of these children.
8.2.3 The Cost of Health Impacts

The exposure to lead causes an economic loss to people and societies
in various ways. The cognitive damage caused by the exposure of children to
lead influences lifetime, productivity, and earning power. For adults, the costs
associated to exposure to lead include (i) medical expenditures (physicians,
drugs, and hospitalization) due to hypertension and strokes; (ii) lost workdays;
(iii) the discomfort, restriction of non-work activities and pain; and (iv) the risk of
premature death.
8.3 Options to get environment clean
8.3.1 Clean Fuels
Cleaner Fuels would help slow atmospheric buildup of carbon dioxide, a
“greenhouse gas” that contributes to the potential for global warming.
Combustion of any carbon-based fuel produces carbon dioxide. But the overall
impact of a given fuel on global warming depends on how the fuel is made. Clean
129
fuels have benefits that reach beyond their air quality advantages. Cleaner Fuels
are part of the solution to serious air pollution problems around the world. Air
pollution, particularly NOx emissions, causes life-threatening respiratory
problems, damages agricultural crops and is destroying the Earth’s protective
ozone layer. In the lower atmosphere, Worldwide, most refining capacity resides
in conversion refineries that tend to be larger than hydro-skimming refineries.
Modern, deep conversion refineries can substitute lead at a considerably lower
cost than less advanced skimming refineries, due to a wider choice of technical
alternatives – including alkylation, polymerization, and oxygenation – available in
modern refineries to increase gasoline octane without lead.
83.2 .Cleaner Alternate Fuels - Compressed Natural Gas (CNG)
It is the policy of the Government of Pakistan to encourage the
conversion of the use of gasoline and diesel motor fuels with alternate fuels like
CNG. The Petroleum Policy 1997 states that: "The use of CNG in vehicles is
being encouraged to reduce pressure on petroleum imports, to curb pollution and
to improve the environment. The existing price differential between the CNG tariff
and motor gasoline will be maintained as an incentive for CNG use".
8.2.3 Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)
LPG is a cheaper and cleaner fuel option compared to gasoline.
Although previously used as a motor fuel, its use in vehicles is being allowed.
LPG production has doubled with the commissioning of the new PARCO
Refinery.
8.2.4 Cleaner Fuels

The MPNR and the World Bank superceded the 1995 Action Plan for
Clean Fuels, in October 1997 through a workshop on the “Introduction of Clean
Fuel in Pakistan”. This workshop concluded and agreed on a specific phased
program to reduce pollutants in gasoline, diesel and fuel oil. The revised targets
were set to: Introduce 87 RON with 0.35 g/l leaded gasoline by end of 1998;
reduce the level to 0.15 g/l by 2003 and unleaded by 2005.lower the level of
sulphur in HSD to 0,5 wt% and fuel oil to 2.0 wt% by 2000 Up to the end of
130
September 2000, two grades of gasoline were being marketed in Pakistan, viz.
regular gasoline which is 80 RON, containing 0.42 g/l lead additive and premium
gasoline which is 87 RON with a lead contents of 0.35 g/l.
8.3 POLLUTION AND SAFETY

During the operation of any chemical process and specially the
petroleum refinery and it's associated units large amount of different materials
such as hydrocarbon, sulphur and nitrogen content compounds are released to
the atmosphere from the chimney of furnaces and boilers, vents and others also
during the operation of large equipment such as now it becomes necessary that
any process unit must contain some sections to measure the extend of the
pollution of air and water and to control it within the permitted limits. The following
are some pollution problems present in the naphtha platforming unit.
8.3.1 Air pollution
The most important air pollution compounds are sulphur oxides (SO X),
hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxide (NO X). Carbon monoxide and dioxide and hydrogen
sulphide and these can be measured with the help of gas chromatography or
orset apparatus. Most of these pollutant are released from tanks, vents, during
the start up and shut down, compressors and pumps, regeneration operation of
the catalyst and sampling.
8.3.2 Tanks
Some hydrocarbon vapors are leaked from the storage tanks and
this can be controlled or reduced by connecting the tank with vapors
collecting equipment, the use of tanks under pressure and painting the tanks
from outside by white color.
131
8.3.3 Pipe Lines Valves and Flanges
Oftenly some leakage occurs in the pipe line and it's fitting and this
can be reduced by continuous checking repairing and maintenance of the
pipes and valves.
8.3.4 Furnaces
By the combustion of the fuel in furnaces and boilers large amount
of the flue gas is produced which contains different gas constituents mainly
CO2, CO, N2 and Sulphur compounds. Almost all fuels, liquid, gaseous or
solid contain some amount of sulphur containing compounds which are very
harmful for both humans and the equipment Sulphur burns to sulphur dioxide
upon combustion of fuel and sulphur dioxide reacts with water vapor formed
to give sulphurs acid and corrosion of combustion equipment and exhaust
passage will result. Sulphur dioxide formation can be reduced using gaseous
fuel instead of liquid fuel or removal of sulphur compounds from the fuel
before using it.
8.3.5 Catalysts Regenerators
By improper control of the process conditions and specially in the
fixed bed catalytic reactor then coke formation takes place and deposits on
the surface of the catalyst and after sometime the catalyst becomes
deactivated and need to be regenerated. The rate of coke and carbon
formation increases when the reactors inlet temperatures are too high, reactor
pressure is too low and low hydrogen recycle gas ratio. By controlling these
factor the life of the catalyst will be elongated and the need for regeneration
would be minimized. The catalyst regeneration is made by oxidation of the
deposited material by hot air and during the regeneration process some
gases such as RCHO, SO2, CO and NOX are produced.
132
8.3.6 WATER POLLUTION
The most important water pollutant are oils, suspended solids and
biodegradable materials and it's quantity can be measured by measuring the
amount of Biological Oxygen Demand.(BOD) needed. By measuring the Total
Organic Carbon (TOG), the total quantity of the organic materials can be
measured. Most of the units use the Biological method for treating the
polluted water and reuse the water again.
8.3.7 NOISE POLLUTION
Excessive noise is a hazard to health and safety and large exposure
to high noise level can cause permanent damage to hearing, permanent
damage to hearing can be caused at sound level above 90 Decibel and as
common practice ear protection should be provided where the level is above
80 Decibel. The equipments that are likely to be excessively noisy are pumps,
compressors, burners, furnaces and vents.
8.4 SAFETY
All technology carries some degree of hazard which should be
minimized while at the same time making use of the technology. To consider the
safety of any process the following points must be decided first.
1. Identification of the hazards.
2. Control of the hazard.
3. Control of the process.
8.4.1 Flammability
Flammability of a material depends on many factors such as flash point
and flammability limits. The flash point is the measure of the ease of ignition of
the liquid and is the lowest temperature at which the material will ignite from an
open flame. The auto ignition temperature is the temperature at which it will ignite
spontaneously in air without any external source. The flammability limits are the
lowest and highest concentrations in air to normal temperature and pressure at
which flame will propagate through the mixture.
133
Flame arresters are fitted in the vent lines of equipment contain flammable
material to prevent the propagation of flame through the vent.
8.4.2 Pressure
One of the most serious problems and hazards. the unit occur when the
pressure exceed the design pressure of the system. Pressure vessel are fitted
with same relief device set at the design pressure so that
potential over pressure is relieved in a controlled manner. There are three
different types of relief device.
1. Directly actuated valves.
2. Indirectly actuated valves.
3. Bursting discs
While fitting a relief venting device it is important to ensure that flammable or
toxic gases are vented to safe place. If flammable material hag to be vented
at frequent intervals then flare stocks are used.
8.4.3 Temperature
High temperature above that required for which the equipment was
designed can cause a disaster. High temperature can arise from improper
control of reactors and furnaces. Protection against high temperatures is
provided by.
1. Fitting high temperatures alarms and interlocks to shut down reactor
feed or heating system if temperature exceeds the critical limit.
2. Provision of emergency cooling systems for reactors.
3. Design the equipment to withstand the worst possible temperature.
4. Fire protection equipments.
134
CHAPTER 9
Instrumentation and control
9.0 Instrumentation and process control
Measurement is a fundamental requisite to process control. Either the
control can be affected automatically, semi automatically or manually. The quality
of control obtainable also bears a relationship to accuracy, re product ability and
reliability of measurement methods, which are employed. There fore , selection
of the most affect means of measurements is an important first step in design
and formulation of any process control system.
9.1Temperature measurement and control

Temperature measurement is used to control the temperature of outlet
and inlet streams in heat exchangers, reactors, etc.
Most temperature measurements in the industry are made by means of
thermocouple to facilitate bringing the measurements to centralized location. For
local measurements at the equipment bimetallic or filled system thermometers
are used to a lesser extent. usually, for high measurement accuracy, resistance
thermometers are used.
all these measurements are installed with thermo wells when used locally. This
provides protection against atmosphere and other physical elements.
9.2 Pressure measurement and control

Like temperature pressure is a value able indication of material state
and composition.
In fact, these two measurements considered together are the primary evaluating
devices of industrial materials.
Pumps, compressors and other process equipment associated with pressure
changes in the process material are furnished with pressure measuring devices.
135
Thus pressure measurement becomes an indication of an energy decrease or
increase.
Most pressure in industry are elastic element devices, either directly connected
for local use or transmission type to centralized location. Most extensively used
industrial pressure is the Bourderi Tube or a Diaphram or Bellow gauges.
9.3 Flow measurement and control

Flow indicator are used to control the amount of liquid. Also all manually
set streams require some flow indication or some easy means for occasional
sample measurement.
For accounting purposes, feed and product streams or metered. In addition
utilities to individual and grouped equipment are also metered.
Most flow measures in the industry are/ by Variable Head devices. To a lesser
extent variable area is used as are many types available as special metering
situation arise.
9.4 Control scheme of distiallation column

9.4.1General consideration
9.4.2 Objectives
In distillation column any of following may be the goals to achieve.
1. Overhead composition
2. bottom composition
3. Constant over head product rate.
4. Constant bottom product rate.
9.4.3 Manipulated variables
Any one or any combination of following may be the manipulated
variables.
1. Steam flow rate to reboiler
2. reflux rate.
3. Overhead product with drawn rate.
136
4. Bottom product withdrawn rate.
5. Water flow rate to condenser.
9.4.4 Loads or disturbances

Following are typical disturbances.
1. Flow rate of feed.
2. Composition of feed.
3. Temperature of feed.
4. Pressure drop of steam across reboiler.
5. Inlet temperature of water for condenser.
9.4.5 Control scheme

Overall product rate is fixed and any change in feed must be absorbed
by changing bottom product rate. The change in product rate is accomplished by
direct level control of reboiler if the stream rate is fixed feed rate increases then
vapour rate is approximately is constant and the internal reflux flow must
increase.
9.4.6 Advantage
Since and increase in feed rate increases reflux rate with vapour rate
being approximately constant, then purity of top product increases.
9.4.7 Disadvantage
The overhead change depends on dynamics of level control system
that adjusts it.
137
138
CHAPTER 10
COST ESTIMATION
COST ESTIMATION
Before the plant to be operated , specified money must be supplied to
purchase and install the equipment. the capital needed to supply the necessary
plant facilities is called fixed capital investment while that for the operation of the
plant is called the working principal and sum of two capital is called total capital
investment.
COST INDEX
Is and index value for a given point in time showing the cost at that time
relative to certain base time. if the cost at any time in past is know , the
equivalent cost at the present time can be determined by multiplying the original
cost by the ratio of present of index value to the index value applicable when the
original cost was obtained. there are many types of cost indexes and the most
commune type are marshall and swift all industry and process industry
equipment indexes and engineering News Record construction index.
Present cost = Original cost *cost index value at present time/cost index value at
past.
cost index in 1979 =599

cost index in 1990 =905
if the cost index in 1997 =990
the cost index in 2001 =1265
139
COST OF HEAT EXCHANGERS
Area Cost in 1979 Cody in 2001

m2 $ $
Heat exchanger 1 77.82 17595 37200
Heat exchanger 2 60 255450 540,000
Heat exchanger 3 70.1 102,400 216,200
Total 1,350,400
Total coat of heat exchangers=1,350,400 $
COST OF FURNACES
The purchased cost can be calculated as
Ce=CSn
where ;
Ce = Purchased equipment cost
C = Cost constant (Table 6.2, Coul vol.6)
S = Characteristic size parometer
n = Indes for type of equipment
For stainless stell multiply by 2.5
Heat S C Ce Cost in
absorbed KW $ $ 2001
(Btu/hr) $
Furnace 1 36914700.24 10817 114 145600 307500
Furnace 2 17226860 5048 114 81000 171000
Furnace 3 3117241 913 114 21700 45900
Furnace 4 1968784 576 114 15220 32200
Total 556600
COST OF FURNACES = 556600

COST OF REACTOR
Pressure factor = 1.4 (Table 6.3 Coul 6)

Material factor = 1
140
Bare cost (1979) = 5800*1.5
12180 $
Cost in (2001) = 4*12180*1265/599
=$ 10300
Cost of catalyst(1979) = .32 $/lb
=0.32*77375
=24760 $
Cost of catalyst (2001) = 52300 $
Total cost of reactor = 10300 + 52300
COST OF SEPARATOR
Pressure factor = 1.1 (25.78 perry)
Material factor = 1
Diameter Length Cost in 1979 Cost in 2001
Separator 3.75 13 7300 15500
COST OF FRACTIONATOR
Height of tower = 45 ft
OR = 13.72 m
141
Diameter of tower =1.3 m
Material of construction is stainless steel
Pressure factor =3.7 (25.76 perry)
Material factor = 1.4

Bore cost = 3000*1.5
=$ 4500
Cost in 1970 = 4500*1.4*3.7
= 23310 $
Cost for bubble caps
Cost in 1990 =650 $ per tray
=30*650
=19500 $
Total cost of fractionator
=23310*1265/599+19500*1265/904
Cost of fractionator = 77,000 $
Reference:
1) Ludwig, E.E, ” Applied process design” , 3rd ed, vol. 2, Gulf Professional
Publishers, 2002.
142
2) Ludwig, E.E, “Applied Process Design, 3rd ed, vol . 3, Gulf Professional
Publishers, 2002.
3) McKetta, J.J., “Encyclopedia of chemical Processing and Design”,
Executive ed, vol. 1, Marcel Dekker Inc, New York, 1976.
4) Levenspiel, O., “Chemical Reaction Engineering:, 3 rd ed ,John Wily and
Sons Inc., 1999.
5) Peters, M.S. and Timmerhaus ,K.D., “Plant Design and Economics for
Chemical Engineering “, 5th ed, McGraw Hill, 1991.
6) Rase, H.F., “Fixed Bed Reactor Design and Diagnostics, Butterworth
Publishers, 1990.
7) peacock, D.G.,” Coulson & Richardson,s Chemical engineering”,
3rded,vol,Butterworth Heinenann, 1994.
8) Kern D.Q., “Process Heat Transfer”, McGraw Hill Inc.,2000.
9) Mcabe, W.L, “Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering “,5 th ed, McGraw
Hill, Inc,1993.
10)Perry, R.H and D.W. Green (eds): Perry’s Chemical Engineering Hand
Book, 7th ed. McGraw Hill New York, 1997.
11)Sinnot, R.K.,”Coulson & Richardson’s Chemical Engineering”, 2 nd ed,
vol.6, Butterword Heinenann, 1993.
12)Rohsenow,Hartnett,Ganic “Hand Book of Heat Transfer Application” 2 nd
edition.
13) www.Reforming.Pdf
14)http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0FVP
15)http://www.hudsonproducts.com/Default.htm
16)http://www.processassociates.com/process/heat/fouling1.htm#ptr
17)http://www.processassociates.com/process/heat/uvalues1.htm#ptr
18)http://www.processassociates.com/process/tools.htm
19)www.ISCR17.pdf
20)www.Radial-JM.pdf
143

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PLAT FORMING OF

Prof. Dr. Shahid Naveed

Abaidullah Sajjad 2001-CHEM-1139

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

UNIVERISITY OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

This report is submitted to department of Chemial

Internal Examiner: Sign:_______________

External Examiner Sign:_______________

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

We are highly thankful to our honourable project advisor Prof. Dr.

We are also thankful to our honourable teacher Prof. Dr.

We are very thankful to our parents who pay us special attentions

In preceding chapters introduction to different

Hazop study, Instrumentation & Control, Environmental

In general, the reforming process converts paraffins and naphthenes

Reforming is the process of rearranging of the molecular structure of the

Naphtha is widely used in fertilizer plants and petrochemical industries

Boiling point: 138-178°C

Melting point: -48 - -26°C

Density: 0.75-0.82 g/cm³

Solubility in water: none

Vapour pressure, kPa at 20°C: 0.2-0.6

Relative vapour density (air = 1): 4.0

Flash point: 38-60°C c.c.

Auto-ignition temperature: 229-260°C

Explosive limits, vol% in air: 0.6-6.5

1.1 KNOCKING PHENOMENAN:

1.2 Scope of Reforming Process

The process, first commercially demonstrated at the Old Dutch Refinery in

It is a naphtha reforming process the catalyst is a platinum-alumina

1.3.2 HYPEREORMING PROCESS:

1.3.4 THERMOFER CATALYTIC REFORMING:

Typically naphtha produces about 85% reformat , 10% hydrogen , 5% LPG.

2.1.1 DEHYDROGENATION OF NAPHTHENES:

This reaction is extremely rapid and essentially quantative. By this naphthenes

2.1.2 ISOMERIZATION OF PARAFFINS AND NAPHTHENES:

2.1.3 DEHYDROCYCLIZATION OF PARAFFINS:

Because of the wide range of paraffins and naphthenes present

REACTION H Kcal/gm mol H2

3.2 FEED STOCK PROPERTIES

Feed stocks such as Fluid Catalytic Cracking (FCC) process naphtha ,

3.3 COMPOSITION OF PLATFORMER FEED

3.4.1 FEED PREPARATION

4.1 PLATFORMING CATALYST AND ITS

4.2 Preparation of supported catalysts

Excessive firing temperatures

4.3 DUAL FUNCTION NATURE OF THE

Another example of dual functionality is the conversion of C 6 cyclo paraffin over

4.4 CATALYST COMPOSITION AND REACTION RATE

4.4.3 REACTION RATE CONTROL

4.5 CATALYST REGENERATION

4.6 CATALYST POISONS

5.1.3 SPACE VELOCITY

5.1.4 REACTOR PRESSURE

5.1.5 HYDROGEN / HYDROCARBON RATIO

5.2 CHARGE – STOCK PROPERTIES

5.3 CATALYST ACTIVITY

5.3.1 CATALYST SELECTIVITY

5.3.2 WATER CONTENT

5.4 Process conditions

5.5 PROCESS FLOW DESCRIPTION

5.5.2 PLATFORMER STABILIZER

= (183*18.736**44) + (15.61116558) + (16.599515472)

= (2.784 105) + (9.39121016) + (22014.75930) + (22518.736*44) +

(230100186.51) + (100.1100233) + (18078154.9) + (168.7192185) +

= (3503.39116) + (3203014.759) + (2.0522*10 5)

= (168.7386350) + (7786345) + (186.51100340) + (100.1100335) +

(154.978290) + (29592168.71) + (1.3998310) + (3158411.69)

16.627106 + Reboiler – Condenser duty = 2.55107 + 83.67104 + 4105