Pharmacognosy Gpat Notes

Introduction to
Pharmacognosy
Difference between Organized and Unorganized Crude drugs
No. Organized crude drugs Unorganized crude drugs

1. As the term indicates these are These are derived from parts of plant or
organs of plants or animals and are animal by some process of extraction
made up cells or definite structures. and followed by purification, if
These drugs are named as flowers, necessary. E.g. juices, extracts, resins,
seeds, fruits, insects, etc. etc.
2. These are solid in nature. These are solid, semisolid or liquids in
nature. E.g. oils, gums and balsams.
3. Botanical or zoological terminology Such terminology is inadequate to
can be used to describe these drugs. describe them, but has to look for their
physical characters, such as the
solubility in various solvents, density,
optical rotation, refractive index, etc.
whichever is applicable.
4. Microscopic characters are one of Chemical tests and physical standards
the important criteria for the are confirmatory tests.
identification of organized drugs. Example: aloe, agar, colophony, opium,
Example: digitalis, cinchona, clove, castor oil, pepsin, etc.
jalap, ephedra etc.
Factors affecting cultivation:
1. Altitude, temperature and humidity
2. Rainfall and irrigation
3. Soil and soil fertility
4. Fertilizers
1
5. Pests and pest control
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Introduction to
Pharmacognosy
MODE OF ACTION OF SOME PESTICIDES:
Chemical compound Biological effect

Effect on Animals
1. Organophosphorous compds inhibition of acetyl cholinesterase
And carbomates
2. Chlorinated hydrocarbons and Neurotoxication
Pyrethroids
3. Nicotinoids Inhibition of neuromuscular
Junction
Effect on plants
4. Carbamates, substituted ureas, Inhibition of photosynthesis
triazines
5. Carbamates Inhibition of oxidative
phosphorylation
6. 2,4-D; 2,4,5-T Hormone analogs
7. Metals, sulphur Unknown causes
8. 3-amino-1,2,4-triazole Inhibition of chlorophyll synthesis
9. Chlorinated aliphatic Inhibition of pantothenate
hydrocarbon synthesis
Culture medium:
1. Inorganic salts: ammonium, boric acid, zinc, manganese, molybdenum,

copper.
2. Vitamins: thiamine, pyridoxine, nicotinic acid.
3. Carbon sources: sucrose, glucose.
4. Growth regulators: naphthalene acetic acid, dichlorophenoxy acetic acid.
5. Organic supplements: yeast extract, malt extract, coconut milk. 2

Introduction to
Pharmacognosy
PLANT GROWTH REGULATORS:
Auxins:
 Auxins are generally used in plant cell culture at a concentration range of

0.01-10.0 mg/L.
 When added inappropriate concentrations they may regulate cell
elongation, tissue swelling, cell division, formation of adventitious roots,
and inhibition of adventitious and axillary shoot formation, callus initiation
and growth, and induction of embryogenesis.
Class Function
Auxin Indole-3-butyric Adventitious root formation( high conc)
acid
α-naphthhalene Adventitious shoot formation( low conc)
acetic acid
α-naphthalene acetic Introduction of somatic embryos
acid, k-salt
2,4-D(solutions) Cell division
p- Callus formation and growth
chlorophenoxyacetic
acid
Piclorma Inhibition of axillary buds
Dicamba Inhibition of root elongation
Cytokinins:
 Cytokinins are generally used in plant cell culture at a concentration range

of 0.1-10.0 mg/L.
 When added inappropriate concentrations they may regulate cell division,
stimulate auxiliary and adventitious shoot proliferation, regulate
3
differentiation, inhibit root formation, activate RNA synthesis, and
stimulate protein and enzyme activity.

Introduction to
Pharmacognosy
Class Function
Cytokinins 6-benzylamino Adventitious shoot formation
purine
6-(γ,γ- Inhibition of root formation
dimethylallylamino)
purine
2iP-2HCl Promotes cell division
Kinetin Modulates callus initiation and growth
Thidiazuron(TDZ) Stimulates of axillary bud breaking and
growth
Zeatin Inhibition of shoot elongation
Zeatin Riboside Inhibition of leaf senescence
Gibberellins:
 Gibberellins are generally used to promote stem elongation, flowering, and

breaking dormancy of seeds, buds, corms, and bulbs.
 There are over 90 forms of gibberellins, but GA3 is the most commonly
used form. Compounds like paclobutrazol and ancymidol inhibit the
synthesis of Gibberellins.
Class Product name Function

Gibberellins Gibberellic Stimulates shoot elongation
acid(GA3)
Release seeds, embryos, and apical
buds from dormancy
GA4/7 Inhibits a adventitious root formation

Introduction to
Pharmacognosy
Abscisic Acid:
 Abscisic Acid (ABA) plays a role in dormancy development in embryos, buds

and bulbs, and in leaf abscission.
 When used in tissue culture, ABA inhibits the growth of shoots and the
germination of embryos.
 Fluridone may inhibit ABA synthesis.

Abscisic acid Abscisic acid Stimulates bulb and tuber formation
Stimulates the maturation of embryos
Promotes the start of dormancy, leaf
abscision
Polyamines:
 Polyamines are compounds that occur in high levels within plants and are
used in tissue culture media at concentrations of 10-1000 mM.
 Polyamines may enhance regeneration of roots, shoots and embryos, delay
or prevent senescence, and regulate flowering.

Polyamines Putrescine Promotes adventitious root formation
Spermidine Promotes somatic embryogenesis
Promotes shoot formation

Introduction to
Pharmacognosy
DRUG EVALUATION:
1. MORPHOLOGICAL OR ORGANOLEPTIC EVALUATION:
 It refers to evaluation of drugs by colour, odour, taste, size, shape and
special features like touch. Texture etc.
 These studies resulted due to impressions on organs of senses.
 Example: wavy shape of Rauwolfia
Pungent taste of Capsicum
Brown colour of Cinnamon
2. MICROSCOPIC EVALUATION:
(A) Leaf constants:
Palisade ratio: is defined as average number of palisade cells beneath
each epidermal cell.
Vein-islet number: is defined as the number of vein-islets per sq.mm of
the leaf surface midway between the midrib and the margin.
Vein-termination number: is defined as the number of veinlet
terminations per sq.mm of the leaf surface midway between midrib and
margin.
Stomatal index: is the percentage which the number of stomata form to
the total number of epidermal cells.
S.I= S/E+S*100
Where, S= no. of stomata per unit area
E= no. of epidermal cells in the same unit area
(B) Trichomes:
6
1). Covering trichomes:
(a) Unicellular:

Introduction to
Pharmacognosy
1. Lignified trichomes Nux-vomica

2. Short, sharply pointed, curved Cannabis
3. Large, conical, unicellular Lobelia
4. Short, conical, unicellular Tea, Buchu
5. Strongly waved, thick walled Yerba santa
(b) Multicellular – unbranched trichomes:
(i) Uniseriate:
1. Bi –cellular, conical Datura
2. Three celled- long Stramonium
3. Three to four celled long Digitalis
4. Four to five celled long Belladonna
(ii) Biseriate: Calendula officinalis

(iii) Multiseriate: Male fern
(c) Multicellular- branched trichomes:

1. Stellate Hammamelis, Helicteris-isora
2. Peltate Humulus
3. Candelabra Verbascum Thapsus
4. T shaped Artemisia, Pyrenthrum
trichomes
2. Glandular trichomes:
(a) Unicellular glandular trichomes:
Example: Piper, Betel, Vasaka
(b) Multicellular glandular trichomes:
1. Trichomes with unicellular head Digitalis purpurea
and unicellular stalk 7
2. Unicellular head and uniseriate Digitalis thapsi,
multicellular stalk Belladonna

Introduction to
Pharmacognosy
3. Multicellular head, multicellular, Santonica and

biseriate stalk plants of
Compositae
4. Unicellular stalk and biseriate Digitalis purpurea
head
5. Short stalk with secreting head Menthe species
formed of rosette or clud shaped
cells
6. Trichomes with multicellular, Cannabis sativa
multiseriate and a rosette of
secretory cells
7. Multicellular multiseriate head Indian hemp and
and multicellular uniseriate stalk tobacco
(c) Hydathode (special type of trichome):

 These are organs of absorption or secretion of water
developed in certain plants.
 Example: Piper betal, London pride, etc.
(C) Stomata :
Definition:
Function: primary function is gaseous exchange and the secondary function

is transpiration.
Types:
1. Paracytic /Rubiaceous/Parallel- celled stomata: this type of stomata
comprises two guard cells covered by two subsidiary cells, the long axes
of which are parallel to that of stoma.
8
Example: Coca and Senna leaves

Introduction to
Pharmacognosy
2. Diacytic/caryophyllaceous/cross-celled stomata: the guard cells are

covered by two subsidiary cells, but the arrangement of subsidiary cells
on the guard cell is at angle to that of stoma.
Example: Peppermint, Spearmint, Vasaka
3. Anisocytic/Cruciferous/Unequal-celled stomata: two guard cells are
covered by three subsidiary cells, but one is markedly smaller than the
other two.
Example: Belladonna, Datura
4. Anomocytic/Ranunculaceous/Irregular-celled stomata: stoma is
surrounded by varying number of subsidiary cells resembling other
epidermal cells.
Example: Bachu, Digitalis, Lobelia.
5. Actinocytic/radiate-celled stomata: the two guard cells are surrounded
by a circle of radiating subsidiary cells.
(D) QUANTITATIVE MICROSCOPY:
LYCOPODIUM SPORE METHOD:

 This analytical technique is used when chemical and other
methods of evaluation of crude drugs fail as accurate measures of
quantity.
 It is inexpensive.
 A powder drug is evaluated by this technique , if it contains
i) Well defined particles which may be counted
ii) Single layered cells or tissues, the area of which may be traced 9
under suitable magnification and actual area calculated

Introduction to
Pharmacognosy
iii) The objects of uniform thickness, the length of which can be

measured under suitable magnification and actual area
calculated.
 The percentage purity of an powdered ginger is calculated by using
following equation,
NxWx94,000x100/SxMxP=% PURITY OF DRUG

WHERE,
N= No. of starch grains in 26 fields
W=weight of lycopodium taken
S= No. of lycopodium spores in the same 25 fields
M= weight in mg of sample, at 105˚c
P= 2,86,000 in case of ginger grains powder
3. CHEMICAL EVALUATION:
A) Phytochemical investigations: of plant material for its
phytochemical behavior involve four different stages:
1. The procurement of raw material and quality control.
2. Extraction, purification and characterization of the pharmaceutical
interest and in process quality control.
3. Investigation of biosynthetic pathways to particular compounds and
4. Quantitative evaluation.
B) Preliminary Phytochemical Screening:

Successive solvent extraction:
Sublimation:
10

Introduction to
Pharmacognosy
C) Quantitative chemical Examination:

1. Detection of Alkaloids
2. Detection of Carbohydrate and glycosides
3. Detection of Phytosterols
4. Detection of fixed oils and fats
5. Detection of Saponins
6. Detection of Phenolic compounds and tannins
7. Detection of Proteins and free amino acids
8. Detection of Gums and mucilage
9. Detection of Volatile oils
4. PHYSICAL EVALUATION:
1) Moisture content
2) Viscosity
3) Melting point
4) Solubility
5) Optical rotation
6) Refractive index
7) Ash values and extractive:
a) Ash content
b) Extractives
1. Water soluble extractives
2. Alcohol soluble extractives
3. Ether soluble extractives
4. Volatile oil content
5. Foreign organic matter
11

Introduction to
Pharmacognosy
5. BIOLOGICAL EVALUATION:
 When the estimation of potency of crude drug or its preparation is done by
means of its effect on living organisms like bacteria, fungal growth or animal
tissue or entire animal, is known as bioassay.
 Biological testing of herbal drugs:
a) Hepatoprotective activity
b) Hypoglycemic activity
c) Anti fertility testing
i) Protocols for anti-fertility activity in female rats
ii) Antispermatogenic activity in male rats
iii) Spermicidal activity
d) Anti-inflammatory activity
e) Neuro pharmacological activity
f) Anti-insect activity
12

Introduction to
Pharmacognosy
GENETICS:
MUTATION: is a random, undirected inheritable variation in genotype
caused by an alteration in the nucleotide sequence at some point of
DNA resulting from error in chromosomal replication or exposure to
certain chemical, physical or physiological agent.
Types of mutation:
1. Chromosomal mutation:
 Also called as chromosomal aberration.
 There are changes in the number and arrangement of genes in
the chromosomes.
2. Spontaneous mutation:
 Mutation which occurs due to some unknown reason from
nature.
 This has been observed in some plants, bacteria, viruses etc.
3. Induced mutation:
 Also called as artificial mutation.
 Mutation can also be induced by artificial means with certain
reagents called mutagens and are called induced mutations.
 The chemical mutagens are nitrogen mustard, formaldehyde,
nitrous acid, 5-bromo uracil, manganese chloride etc.
4. Point mutation:
13
 The changes with a gene of DNA molecule cause point
mutation.

Introduction to
Pharmacognosy
 It is permanent and heritable.
Polyploidy: when the organism contains more than two genomes, it is

called polyploidy.
 It is of two types:
1. Autoploids: those polyploids, which are derived by multiplication
of chromosomes of a single species.
2. Alloploids: those polyploids, which are derived by hybridization
between two species-followed by multiplication of chromosomes.
 Polyploidy can be induced by various means. They are,

1) Cell regeneration
2) Physical agents: x-rays, centrifugation, temperature and shock.
3) Chemical agents: colchicines, veratrine, mercuric chloride etc.
Chemodemes:
 It is also known as chemical races.

 Chemodemes are regarded as a group of plants of a species
which have identical morphological charecters, but differ in their
chemical nature.
 The chemical characters of chemodemes are hereditary.
 Eg; chemodemes have been reported in digitalis purpurea and D. 14
lanta. In former, the races or strains identified are streptoside,
digitoxin and digipurpurin. These chemical races in D.purpurea
Introduction to
Pharmacognosy
yield different proportions of glycosides obtain from digitoxin and

gitoxin. Depending on content of Lanatoside A & C, the chemical
races in D .lanata are D. lanta Ehrb, Chemovarieties A & C.
 Surface sterilizing agents:
- Sodium hypochlorite (1-2%)
- Bromine water (1-2%)
- Hydrogen peroxide (10-12%)
- Mercuric chloride (0.1-1%)
- Silver nitrate (1%)
15

Introduction to
Pharmacognosy
16


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Introduction to

Difference between Organized and Unorganized Crude drugs

No. Organized crude drugs Unorganized crude drugs

Factors affecting cultivation:

1. Altitude, temperature and humidity

2. Rainfall and irrigation

3. Soil and soil fertility

Pharmagpat.com | Contact no: +91-8128156200, +91-8401457975

MODE OF ACTION OF SOME PESTICIDES:

Chemical compound Biological effect

1. Inorganic salts: ammonium, boric acid, zinc, manganese, molybdenum,

2. Vitamins: thiamine, pyridoxine, nicotinic acid.

3. Carbon sources: sucrose, glucose.

4. Growth regulators: naphthalene acetic acid, dichlorophenoxy acetic acid.

5. Organic supplements: yeast extract, malt extract, coconut milk. 2

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PLANT GROWTH REGULATORS:

 Auxins are generally used in plant cell culture at a concentration range of

 Cytokinins are generally used in plant cell culture at a concentration range

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 Gibberellins are generally used to promote stem elongation, flowering, and

Class Product name Function

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 Abscisic Acid (ABA) plays a role in dormancy development in embryos, buds

Class Product name Function

Class Product name Function

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1. Lignified trichomes Nux-vomica

(b) Multicellular – unbranched trichomes:

(ii) Biseriate: Calendula officinalis

(c) Multicellular- branched trichomes:

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3. Multicellular head, multicellular, Santonica and

(c) Hydathode (special type of trichome):

Function: primary function is gaseous exchange and the secondary function

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2. Diacytic/caryophyllaceous/cross-celled stomata: the guard cells are

(D) QUANTITATIVE MICROSCOPY:

LYCOPODIUM SPORE METHOD:

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iii) The objects of uniform thickness, the length of which can be

NxWx94,000x100/SxMxP=% PURITY OF DRUG

B) Preliminary Phytochemical Screening:

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C) Quantitative chemical Examination:

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 It is permanent and heritable.

Polyploidy: when the organism contains more than two genomes, it is

 Polyploidy can be induced by various means. They are,

 It is also known as chemical races.

yield different proportions of glycosides obtain from digitoxin and

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