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Control & Inst - v-II
Control & Inst - v-II
The measuring detector of this system consists of one active and one passive
magnetically separate reluctance type transducers both mounted inside the turbine casing
to prevent any error due to environmental changes. The two elements are connected in an
initially unbalanced bridge configuration which is excited by 10 V r.m.s. 1853 HZ
supply.
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The measuring unit comprises of a demodulator, low pass active filter, amplifier and
amplitude detector cum D.C. suppressor.
In case of an eccentricity, the bridge output is modulated by a percentage proportional to
the amount of eccentricity with a modulating frequency proportional to rotor speed. The
bridge output is demodulated and then filtered in a fourth order active filter to obtain the
modulating signal. This is further amplified and fed to the special amplitude detector
with built in electronic gate and gate timers which avoids any change in indication due to
sudden change in absolute rotor position or its speed. The design envisages the detection
of positive and negative peaks of the modulating signal and its differnce. This processed
signal is then fed to the digital analogue panel meter. The parameter is also confinuosuly
recorded in a single channel recorder. A separate analogue current output of 4-20 mm is
sometimes provided for datalogger or Data Acquisition system if required.
The probe is driven by a radio frequency voltage generated by a driver unit called
proximitor. The probe coil radiates this signal into the surrounding area as electro
magnetic field. If there is no conductive material to intercept the magnetic field there is
no loss of R.F, signal. When a conductive material approaches the probe tip, eddy
currents are generated on the surface of the material and power is absorbed. This loss of
power is proportional to the gap between the conductive material probe tip. The nearer
the conductive material the tip,
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The measuring unit comprises of preamplifier, integrater, special amplifier, rectifier. Fig.
1.4(b), gives the scheme of the measuring system.
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Limiting values
The range of measurement of
HPT is -2 to +5 mm -1.2 mm - +4mm
The range of measurement of IPT is (-3. 5) to (+4) mm -2.5 mm +3mm
which is energised from a constant d.c. current so that a signal proportional to the
position of the slider is obtainable. As the position of the potentiometer slider is itself
dependant on the degre eof overall expansion of the turbine the required electrical output
is realised and the value indicated in indicator/recorder and datalogger. The range of
measurement is 0 to 50 mm.
FIG.1.7(b)
1.2.6.3. A third method is now being widely used by the advanced countries and may find its
place in our country also shortly for speed measurement. This method employs an eddy
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Oxygen Measuring Cell
The design of the sensor is based on a galvanic cell consisting of a silver cathode, a lead
anode, and a gas permeable membrane which allows oxygen to pass, but is impermeable
to water as well as any potentially interfering. The cell reactions are:
Anode: Anodic oxidation of lead
2Pb·.+40H 2Pbo + 2H20 + 4e
Cathode: Cathodic reduction of oxygen
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02+ 2H20 + 4e 40H
The silver cathode is separate 'd from the sample solution by a gas permeable membrane
through which the oxygen diffuses prior to being cathodically reduced. The cell current
thus generated is linearly proportional to the oxygen concentration.
A Faraday cell serves to calibrate the system internaly. If supplied with a constant
current (supply built into the electronic unit) a known concentration of oxygen will be
generated, which is used to calibrate the analyzer. The calibration requires approx. 5
minutes to complete.
Alternately, water saturated with oxygen may serve to calibrate the system since the
measuring cell response is linear within zero to saturation (8400 ppb 02/250C.. at sea
level).
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Operating Principle
The analytical module samples the water and introduces a controlled flow into a polaro-
graphic measuring cell consisting of a platinum anode and a silver cathode. The cell
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MEASURING ELECTRODE
FIG. 2.14
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Most analysers today are relatively fragile instruments. Therefore, they are being
mounted on a panel located in a central location. All samples are brought to this location.
Since many of these sampling points will be far frontal central analyser panel proper
velocity of sample flow is being ensured by right selection of sample pipe size and the lag
time is limited within 60 secs.
The sample flow is indicated by panel mounted rotameter and controlled by regulating
valve. Also the samole pressure is brought down to less than 1 0 kg cm' by means of
pressure regulators. All samples are cooled before analysis. The samples are cooled in
two stages, first by roughing cooler to below 550C located conventionally near the
sample point and then by precision coolers in selected cases. The roughing coolers use
clarified !circulating water for cooling purposes and no temperature control devices are
used. These coolers are designed on basis flow rate, temperature and heat transfer data.
The precision coolers use chilled water and the sample temperature is, closely monitored
and controlled through contact thermometers/thermostats which cause to operate solenoid
valves and safety plugs for controlling the cooling water flow and to cut off the sample
from the analyser in case of excessive temperature respecti vely. Further the change in
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For coal combustion with 40% excess air produces about 15% C02
For oil combustion with excess air <40% produces about 16% C02
For gas combustion with excess air <40% produces about 12% CO2
iii) The measurement of CO2 suffers a7 great deal in accuracy with the presence of
hydrogen and S021 since the thermal conductivity of both these gases vary in
amount and direction.
These shortcomings make the C02% quite inadequate for the determination.
However the most efficient percentage of CO2will vary
The hydrogen carbon ratio
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- The physical condition of the fuel
- The volume of combustion chamber / grate area relation
- The method of firing
- The available draft
2.3.2.2.1 METHOD OF MEASUREMENTS
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Orsart apparatus is the chemists instrument for determining the CO2 % along with other
flue gas components like Co and O2. In this apparatus a sample gas is drawn by means of
a hand bulb. The apparatus as shown in Fig. 2.17 consists of a water cooled measuring
cylinder and three absorption bottles containing chemicals namely.
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Bottle A containing potassium hydroxide solution to absorb C02
Bottle B containing an alkaline pyrogallol solution to absorb 0 2
Bottle C containing acid cuprous chloride solution to absorb CO.
After passing the sample through the individual bottles, the sample is brought to the
measuring for which shows the amount of the gas component absorbed by the chemical
and thus determining the percentage volume of C02' CO and O2'
2.3.2.2.2. ON-LINE ANALYSER
The'on-line analyser works on the principle of thermal conductivity. The measuresof
how well a substance conductsheat is called it’s the rmalconductivity. If the thermal
conductivity of a mixture of two gases is know it is possible to calculate the ratio of
each gas. Flue gas consists of nitrogen, oxygen, carbon monoxide (all having thermal
conductivities of the same order) together with carbon-di-oxide having different thermal
conductivity. The mixture behaves as if it were a mixture of two gases and if the
thermal conductivity is measured, the fraction, of carbon-di-oxide present can be
determinist. @e measuring system is a wheat stone bridge with two of its arms made of
platinum wires fixed on metal blocks. One wire is surrounded by the gas being
measured. The other wire is sealed in a 'reference gas. Both the wires are heated by the
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bridge supply.'ffie temperature of the wires and in turn their resistances will depend
upon the cooling effect of the gases. Thus the unbalance created is measured by a
galvanometer calibrated in temperature scale.
The presence of an unknown amount of water vapour will cause errors in the reading.
The sample and reference gas should therefore be either both dry or both saturated with
wafer.
2.3.2.3 OXYGEN IN FLUE GAS
As has been discussed under section 2.3.2 for complete combustion of a fuel certain
amount of theoritcal oxygen is required & to assure the complete combustion time
required is infinite. In a practical furnace, however combustion must take.place in the
shortest possible time for maximum burning efficiency. So extra oxygen must be
supplied in the form of excess air to accelerate the combustion process. As all the
oxygen is not required some is discharged in the flue gases and a measure of this excess
oxygen concentration is a measure of the efficiency of combustion in the furnace.
However, in the interest of fuel economy there is a limit. to the amount of excess air
which should be supplied as the stack losses then become excessive. Hence,the lower the
reading of the 01, meter, the less heat is being wasted by excess air.
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The O2 % is found tobe a favourable component for combustion guide as it doe.@, not
dei"nd upon th fuel composition. It has a q ' iiite linear characteristic with the excess
air. It has a very consistent relation with th@ excess air, almost for all composition of
fuel as evidenced corresponding curves in Fig. 2.11.
Yet, as the trend towards greater efficiencies continued, another parameter was required
as a complementary tothe excess oxygen measurement. This was so due to the following
limitations of oxygen analysis.
- Various burners different conditions and loads burning oil, gasor solid fuel require
different levels of excess air to give complete comt)ustion. Thus the important
question is "what level of oxygen is required"?
- Since boilers operate with negative combustion chamber pressure a certain amount
of air ingress is inevitable. This air ingress causes direct and serious errors in
oxygen measurement.
- At low excess air levels, small changes in oxygen level is undetectable and thus
the control becomes less sensitive.
2.3.2.3.1 METHOD. OF MEA9UREMENT
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The flue gas sample flows round the annular chamber, across which is mounted a thin
glass tube carrying a platinum winding through which a current is passed to heat the
tube. The winding is centre tapped, each half forming one arm of a wheat stone
bridge. The left half winding is subjected to a strong magnetic field produced by a
permanent magnet. The gas sample containing oxygen is attracted into the field at the
left hand and of the cross tube; the velocity being proportional to the oxygen
concentration in the gas sample. This wind cools the left hand arm of the winding
more than the right hand arm causing the resistance of the left hand arm to be less than
the right hand arm. The resulting bridge unbalance is picked up by a self-balancing
potentiometric recorder indicator and the result appears as percentage oxygen.
The conventional oxygen analyser described above had the following drawbacks:
i) A costly and unreliable sampling and sample conditioning system involving lot of
maintenance.
ii) Long time delay before the results are known.
iii) Analysis was on the basis of'DRY'sample rather thanWET'or'TOTAL' sample.
A ne 'In-site' type instrument based on Zirconium oxide cell has come into practice
overcoming the drawbacks listed. This cell when inserted into the flue gas path develops a
RT Pl (O2)
i.e. e.m.f. = LogN + C
4F P2,(O2)
where e.m.f. = cell output voltage
R = gas constant
F = Faradays constant
Pl (O2) = Reference air partial pressure
P2 (O2) = Sample gas partial pressure
c = Cell constant
T = Absolute temperature
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In practice , the temperature is maintained constant by a heater element and air (20.95%
oxygen) is used either through a pump or from instrument air supply as reference air;
then the output becomes inverse logarithm of the partial pressure of oxygen in the
measured gas, Fig. 2.19 shows the working of the system.
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The collected dust is cleared by a blast of compressed. air after a set periodusually 15
minutes and the window is automatically wiped mechanically every 24 hrs. For older
units where the dust arresting equipments are poor, the collecting time could be reduced
to one quarter.
2.4.4.2INTERPRETATION OF RECORDING
PROTECTIONS
3. PROTECTION AND INTERLOCKS
3.1 SCOPE:
The discussion under this section pertains briefly to the different types of protections and
interlocks normally required to take care of the unit against any abnormal and dangerous
operating conditions on the thermal side. The discussion is generally based on particular
210 M.W. (Badarpur) unit but may as well suit to other units also with little improvement
or modification. Also protections exist to take care of the electrical accessories such
as1)rea rs etc..schemes and valve / damper numbers please refer to the scheme Book
brought out by PETS.
Pum A of ID fan B lube oil system i) Start and stop buttons on LCB@
ii) Two indicating lamps (red and green)
on LCB.
Pump B of ID fan B lube oil system i) Start and stop push buttons on LCB.
ii) Two indicating lamps (red and green).
Common auto-manual switch for motors of
pump A and pump B on LCB.
Heater for lube oil tank Auto manual switch. local annunciations.
3.13.2.9.1 Interlocks for ID fan A motor lube oil system:
a) i) Pumps A will start automatically if pump B trips provided A/M switch is in
auto position.
ii) Pump A will start automatically with a time delay of 3 secs if lube oil pressure
falls below 10 kg/cm2 and the pump B is working provided auto-manual switch
is in auto-position.
i) Pump B will start automatically with a time delay of 1 see if pump A trips
provided A/M switch in in auto position.
ii) pump B will start automatically with a time delay of 3 secs if lube oil
pressurefallsbelow 10kg/cm2and the pump Ais workingprovided A/ M switch is
in auto position.
c) Pum" A or pump B can be started/tripped by pressing the respective push buttons
provided on LCB, only when A/M switch is in manual position.
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d) i) Whenever the lube oil pressure at entry to ID fan A motor bearing falls
belowO.9 kg/cm2 impulse shall be given aftera time delayof 60 secs to trip the
ID fan A.
ii) ID fan A shall be prohibited from starting until the lube oil pressure at entry to
ID fan A motor bearing is adequate.
iii) If the level in LPH-2 should fall to 200 mm (1 st low set value) or both the
regulating valves HD-2 and HD-3 got closed, the 'working' pump shall trip with a
time delay of 20 secs. but the standby pump, if in o eration, shall trip without any
time delay.
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iv) The 'standby' pump shall start if the 'working 'pump motor is tripped for reasons
other than those mentioned at clause 3.14.7.3 (iii) above or the discharge pressure
of working pump ahead of its non-return valve is below 15kg/cm2 value for 10
seconds after starting of the 'working' pump.
3.14.8 H.P. HEATER DRAIN DIVERSION:
3.14.8.1 When selected for operation under interlocks by keeping the de-interlock switch in the
'Interlock' position, the drain diversions shall be accordance with the conditions
stipulated below:
i) If the steam pressure in the extraction line to HPH-5 falls below 10.8 ATA the
drain from HPH-5 shall cascade to LPH-A by giving simultaneous impulses to
open the valves HD-21 and to close the valve HD-31.
ii) If the steam pressure in the extraction line to HPH-6 remains above the
11.3 ATA when the drain from HPH-5 is cascading to LPH-4 i.e. valve HD-21 is fully
open and valve HD-31 is fully closed, the drain from HPH6shall cascade to the