Chapter 3

Research Process II

Research Methods
Dr. Asif Mahmood
Institute of Business & Management,
UET Lahore
 Research Design

• Research Design
– A master plan specifying the methods and procedures for collecting
and analyzing the data
• Elements of Research Design
– Population/Target Population
– Purpose of the Study (descriptive, explanatory, exploratory, etc .)
– Study setting:
• Non-contrived: Natural environment where work proceeds normally, e.g., co-
relational studies (field studies)
• Contrived: Artificial environment, e.g., most rigorous causal studies are done
in contrived lab settings
– Unit of Analysis (individual, group, or organization level)
– Time Dimension
– Research Type(quantitative, qualitative, etc.)
– Sampling Design
– Observation Tools (Questionnaire, etc.)
– Data Processing and Data Analysis
 Data Collection Methods/Techniques

• Experiment
• Research in which the researcher manipulates conditions for some
research participants but not others, and then compares group
responses to see whether doing so made a difference
• Survey
• Quantitative research in which the researcher systematically asks a
large number of people the same questions and then records their
answers
• Nonreactive
• Research methods in which people are not aware of being studied
• Content Analysis: Research in which the content of a
communication medium is systematically recorded and analyzed
(e.g., photographs, movies, song lyrics, advertisements)
• Secondary Analysis: statistical analysis of quantitative data that
were previously collected and stored
 Research Execution
(Later Chapters…)

• Pilot testing
– It helps detect potential problems in research design and/or
instrumentation (e.g., whether the questions asked is intelligible to the
targeted sample), and to ensure that the measurement instruments used
in the study are reliable and valid measures of the constructs of interest.
• Data collection
– The data collected may be quantitative or qualitative
• Data analysis
– Data is analyzed and interpreted for the purpose of drawing conclusions
regarding the research questions of interest
 Sampling and Sample Design

• Sample
– A sample is a finite part of a statistical population whose properties are
studied to gain information about the whole (Webster, 1985)
– Purpose: time factor, very large populations, partly accessible
populations
– Sampling Techniques
 Some Definitions

Probability Sampling Technique

The chance, or probability, of each case being selected from the
population is known and is usually equal for all cases.
• Sampling frame
– For any probability sample is a complete list of all the cases in the
population from which your sample will be drawn
• Law of large numbers
– As a sample size grows, its mean will get closer and closer to the
average of the whole population
• Confidence Level
– The level of certainty that the characteristics of the data collected
will represent the characteristics of the total population
• Margin of Error
– The accuracy required for any estimates made from sample
 Some Definitions

• Sample Size Calculation (from excel sheet, table)…

• Response Rate: High response rate ensures that the sample is
representative

Where,
na is the actual sample size required,
n is the minimum (or adjusted minimum) sample size (from table)
re% is the estimated response rate expressed as a percentage
 Probability (Representative) Sampling
Techniques
Simple Random Sampling (Random Sampling)
• Method
– Develop an accurate sampling frame
– Locate the exact element/s to be selected i.e. decide the sample
size
– Number all the elements in the sampling frame
– Use the table of random numbers, a computer or an online
random number generator
– Take a random starting point
• Characteristics of most random samples are close to the
characteristics of population
• Assumption – homogeneous population
 Probability (Representative) Sampling
Techniques
Systematic Random Sample
• Method
– Number each element in the sampling frame
– In some instances it is not necessary to construct a list for
sampling frame
– Instead of using the table of random numbers, researcher
develops a system for the selection of elements
– Calculate the sampling interval (N=1/Sampling Fraction)
Sampling Fraction = (Sample size/Population size ) x 100
– Begin with a random start
– Draw sample by choosing every Nth case
• Short cut for simple random sampling (if no periodicity in the data)
 Probability (Representative) Sampling
Techniques
Stratified Random Sampling
• Method
– In case population is heterogeneous, then stratify. Each stratum in
itself becomes homogeneous.
– Researcher’s decision about homogeneity of the population
– Draw the sample from each stratum by using simple random
(systematic) sampling procedure
– E.g., Public and Private sectors
Proportionate vs. Disproportionate
– Proportionate: If the number of sampling units drawn from each
stratum is in proportion to the relative population size of the
stratum.
– Disproportionate: to ensure an adequate No. of sampling units in
every stratum. Dictated by analytical considerations
 Probability (Representative) Sampling
Techniques
• Cluster Sampling
– Reaching each sampled element is costly
– Heterogeneity within clusters but homogeneity between clusters
(geographical, type of manufacturing, etc.)
– Random selection of clusters
– Entire cluster has to be studied
– Maximizes the amount of data you can collect using face to face
methods
– Represents the total population less accurately than stratified random
sampling
• Multi-stage Cluster Sampling
– Sampling plans where the sampling is carried out in stages using
smaller and smaller sampling units at each stage
– Divisions Districts Tehsils Town Committees Blocks, etc…
 Non-Probability (Non-random) Sampling
Techniques
• The probability of each case being selected from the total population is not
known
• It is impossible to make statistical inferences about the characteristics of
the population
• Sample Size (will be discussed in regression analysis)
• No precise rules, generalizations being made to theory rather than about a
population
• Convenience Sampling
– Also called haphazard or accidental or grab sampling
– Obtaining units who are most conveniently available
– Person-on-the street interviewed by TV people. Personal judgment.
– May not be representative. Least reliable.
– Used during exploratory phase
 Non-Probability (Non-random) Sampling
Techniques

• Quota Sampling
– Fix the quota. Use convenience sampling. Fieldworker bias in selection
– Can be considered as proportionate stratified sampling – but on
convenience basis
– Procedure that ensures certain characteristics of a population sample will
be represented.
– Speed of data collection, lower cost, and convenience.
– Ensures the inclusion of a subset when it is under-represented
• Snowball Sampling
– Also called: network, chain referral, or reputational sampling
– Analogy of snowball
– Begins with one/few, spreads out on the basis of links
– Useful where respondents are difficult to identify
 Non-Probability (Non-random) Sampling
Techniques

• Purposive Sampling
– Researcher lays down the criteria for the subjects
– Also called as judgmental or expert opinion sample. Selection depends
upon the judgment of selector
• Self-selection Sampling
– Occurs when you allow each case, usually individuals, to identify their
desire to take part in the research
– These include postings on appropriate Internet newsgroups and
discussion groups, hyperlinks from other websites as well as letters or
emails of invitation to colleagues and friends
Choice of Non- probability Techniques
(Kervin (1999); Patton (2002).)
 Ranking the academic journals

• As an example, journals in the Journal Citation

Reports (JCR) database are ranked by impact
factor
• Impact Factor = IF

Number of times articles from a

journal are cited within 2 years
Total number of articles published in the
same journal during the 2 year period
 What is APA Style?

The American Psychological Association (APA) citation style

is the most commonly used format for manuscripts in the
social sciences.

APA regulates:
• Stylistics
• In-text citations
• References
 Getting Started
General Document Formatting

• Setting up a Word document

– Select Font/Font Size
• Times New Roman
• Font Size 12
– 1” margins all around
• Left justified with right ragged edge
– Double spaced
• All paper elements should be double spaced except in-
text table/figure notation
• Remove Space After Paragraph
• Indent the first line of all paragraphs
 Headings

• In APA Style, the Introduction section never gets a heading and

headings are not indicated by letters or numbers

APA uses a system of five heading levels

APA Headings
Level Format
1 Centered, Boldfaced, Upper & Lowercase Headings
2 Left-aligned, Boldface, Upper & Lowercase Headings
3 Indented, boldface, lowercase heading with a period.
4 Indented, boldface, italicized, lowercase heading with period.
5 Indented, italicized, lowercase heading with a period.
Here is an example of the five-level heading system:
 Tables and Figures

Figure: ABC

• Exercise: Convert a table into APA format (File: Tabe.docx)

 American Psychological Association(APA)
Format for Referencing
(A bibliography is the listing of the works that are relevant to the topic of
research interest arranged in alphabetical order of the last names of
authors.)
• Irrespective of style, a reference has two components: An in-text citation; A
reference listing
1. An in-text citation
Cite all references in the body of the paper using the author–year method of
citation (surname of the author(s) and the year of publication);
Examples:
– Todd (1998) has shown . . .
– In recent studies of dual-career families (Hunt, 1999; Osborn, 1998) it
has been . . .
– In 1997, Kyle compared dual-career and dual-earner families and found
that . . .
– More than two authors... Sekaran et al. (1980) found . . .
 Some More Examples: In-text Citation
Quotes

When quoting:
•Include the author’s name, year of publication, and page number
 Use of “and” and “&”

When citing a work with two authors, use

In the signal phrase, use “and” in between the
authors’ names

In parenthesis, use “&” between names

 More Than Three Authors

 When citing a work with three to five authors, identify all authors in the
signal phrase or in parenthesis.
(Harklau, Siegal, & Losey, 1999)
In subsequent citations, only use the first author's last name followed by "et al."
in the signal phrase or in parentheses.
(Harklau et al., 1993)
 When citing a work with six and more authors, identify the first author’s
name followed by “et al.”
Smith et al. (2006) maintained that….
(Smith et al., 2006)
When citing authors with the same last names, use first initials
with the last names.

(B. Kachru, 2005; Y. Kachru, 2008)

When citing two or more works by the same author and

published in the same year, use lower-case letters (a, b, c) after
the year of publication to order the references.

Smith’s (1998a) study of adolescent immigrants…

 American Psychological Association(APA)
Format for Referencing
2. A reference listing
A reference list is a subset of the bibliography, which includes details of
all the citations used in the literature survey and elsewhere in the
report, arranged again, in the alphabetical order of the last names of
authors.

• Center the title (References) at

the top of the page. Do not bold
it.
• Double-space reference entries
• Flush left the first line of the
entry and indent subsequent
lines
• Order entries alphabetically by
the surname of the first author of
each work
 APA format for referencing

Book by a single author

• Leshin, C. B. (1997). Management on the World Wide Web. Englewood Cliffs,
NJ: Prentice Hall.
Book by more than one author
• Cornett, M., Wiley, B.J., & Sankar, S. (1998). The pleasures of nurturing.
London: McMunster Publishing.
More than one book by the same author in the same year
• Roy, A. (1998a) Chaos theory. New York: Macmillan Publishing Enterprises.
• Roy, A. (1998b). Classic chaos. San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bamar.
Edited book
• Pennathur, A., Leong, F.T., & Schuster, K. (Eds). (1998). Style and substance
of thinking. New York: Publishers Paradise.
Chapter in an edited book
• Riley, T., & Brecht, M.L. (1998). The success of the mentoring process. In R.
Williams (Ed.) Mentoring and career success, pp. 129–150. New York: Wilson
Press.
 APA format for referencing
Name of Journal Italic,
capitalized each major word
Journal article
• Jeanquart, S., & Peluchette, J. (1997). Diversity in the workforce and
management models. Journal of Social Work Studies, 43 (3), 72–85.
• Deffenbacher, J. L., Oetting, E. R., Lynch, R. S. & Morris, C. D. (1996). The
Expression of Anger and its Consequences. Behaviour Research and Therapy,
34, 575–590.
Journal article in press
• Van Herpen, E., Pieters, R. & Zeelenberg, M. (2009), When Demand
Accelerates Demand: Trailing the Bandwagon. Journal of Consumer
Psychology, in press.
Conference proceedings publication
• Yeshwant, M. (1998). Revised thinking on Indian philosophy and religion. In S.
Pennathur (Ed.), Proceedings of the Ninth International Conference on
Religion, (pp. 100–107). Bihar, India: Bihar University.
Doctoral dissertation
• Kiren, R.S. (1997). Medical advances and quality of life. Unpublished doctoral
dissertation, Omaha State University.
 APA format for referencing

Paper presentation at conference

• Bajaj, L.S. (1996, March 13). Practical tips for efficient work management.
Paper presented at the annual meeting of Entrepreneurs, San Jose, CA.
Unpublished manuscript
• Pringle, P.S. (1991). Training and development in the '90s. Unpublished
manuscript, Southern Illinois University, Diamondale, IL.
Newspaper article, no author
• The new GM pact. (1998, July 28). Concord Tribune, p.1.