CHAPTER – 4

FISH AND WHALE

4.1 Fish

Introduction-

The whole of the universe is covered by about ¾ of its

surface by sea. Besides there are many extensive backwaters, rivers,
canals, estuaries of fresh waters, natural lakes, tanks, ponds, pools,
etc. all these waters are the abundant of aquatic animals and plants.
Fishes are the most important part of these aquatic environments. The
ancient Greek naturalists, especially Aristotle, were highly
knowledgeable about many aspects of fish biology.1 In the mid-20th
century a great increase in interest in oceanography, together with
new techniques and equipment for underwater observations
(especially the self-contained underwater breathing apparatus, or
SCUBA), opened many new avenues for the study of fish behavior
and ecology under natural conditions. The development of improved
methods of keeping fishes in tanks led to an increase in their use as
laboratory animals in the fields of behavior, ecology, functional
anatomy.

The particular branch of zoology which treats of the

structure of the fishes, both external and internal, their mode of life,
their distribution in space and time, etc., is known as Ichthyology. The
term fish is applied to a variety of vertebrates of several evolutionary

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lines. It describes a life form rather than a taxonomic group. Fish
share certain features with other vertebrates. These are gill slits, a
notochord, a dorsal hollow nerve cord and a tail.

What is a fish?

A fish may be defined as a vertebrate adapted for a

purely aquatic life, propelling and balancing itself by means of fins
and obtaining oxygen from the water for breathing purposes by means
of gills.2 Certainly in number of individuals, and probably also in
number of species, fishes are at the present time superior to mammals,
birds, reptiles, or amphibians. There are 20,000 different species of
fishes. Aristotle seems to have been familiar with only 115 species.3

Fish form the largest group of vertebrates, Pisces. This

is bigger than all the other groups of vertebrates added together. The
various kinds of fish differ so greatly in shape, color and size that it is
hard to believe they all belong to the same group of animals. Nearly
all fish are cold – blooded animals- mainly in fresh and marine water
of seas, lakes, streams, ponds and rivers.

4.1.1 Evolution of fish

For as long as there have been people on the Earth, there
have been questions about how and why life exists as it does.
Scientists have shown that the idea known as evolution is the best
explanation. They proved this idea by looking at fossils and by
studying the way in which animals and plants adapt themselves to

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change in their environments. Groups of plants and animals that share
similar features are a kind of family, known as species.4
Young J. Z. states the simple definition of the evolution,
5
“ Evolution is the change in the genetic make-up of populations.”
While Author explains it as the evolution is an established theory and
not a mere hypothesis, the series of fossils excavated by the
paleontologists should provide some evidence of this process.
Fish is considered as the ancestors of all other
vertebrates. Before 500 million years ago, strange armored animals
[Ostracoderms] swam in the world’s sea which did not have jaws and
fins but they did have backbones. So the fishes are known first
vertebrates on the earth during the Devonian periods.
By the study of fossils, scientist show the changes in
that occurred in the anatomy of fish down through the ages. The
jawless fish [AGNATHA] were the dominant vertebrates during the
Silurian and part of Devonian periods. 6 They flourished for about 80-
100 million years. By the end of the Devonian period, nearly all
jawless fish had become extinct.7 These fish have round mouth parts
that could be used for sucking or filter feeding. These rasping, sucking
mouths are currently found on modern lampreys and hagfishes. These
fish were often extremely armored in order to help them protect
themselves. Most of these types of fish are currently extinct with the
exceptions of the lampreys and the hagfish.
Fossilized imprints of the lobe-finned coelacanth (family
Latimeriidae), some dated to 350 million years ago, are common.
Because none are less than about 70 million years old, scientists
previously considered the fish long extinct. In 1938, however, a
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fishing trawler brought up a live specimen. Since then more than 100
living coelacanths, remarkably unchanged since the Cretaceous
period, have been caught off the coast of South Africa.8
The early jawed fishes [GNATHOSTOMATAS] arose
from the Agnathans in which the small terminal mouth was extended
posterior. Placoderms are the earliest Gnathostomes and appeared
during the Devonian and became extinct by the end of this period
about 400 million years ago. But they dominated both salt and fresh
water.
The cartilaginous fishes [Chondrichthyes] are very
likely the descendants of some Placoderm ancestor and include
sharks, rays. This class is commonly referred to as the cartilaginous
fish because they lack true bones, instead they have cartilage and
calcified cartilage for internal support. They are marine fishes and
possess a cartilaginous skeleton which is probably a secondary
feature. [vide table 4.1.1]
The bony fish, while being varied, all share an extremely
important characteristic, a swim bladder. This probably evolved from
lungs which had appeared in some freshwater species. The swim
bladder is an internal structure which allows bony fish to float easily
at any water level. In the middle Devonian, the bony fishes
[Teleostomi] appeared with bony endoskeletons. They are divided
into two main groups- modern and primitive bony fishes.9

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Table 4.1.1 Evolution: chordate timeline10

This evolution of fishes, from Silurian to Devonian

period, shows the development of features according to surrounding
environment. These lung-fishes, with primitive paired limbs and
lungs, probably developed into the early amphibians.

4.1.2 Habitat
Scientists have discovered more than 24000 species of
the living fish. A fish can live anywhere where there is water.
Generally they live in warm waters, icy waters of polar oceansountain
streams, the deepest part of the ocean. Many fishes adapted to live in
such unusual places as dark pools, streams of underground caves,

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descent water holes and swamps. Even some species can live for
months in moist mud.
Mainly the aquatic environment of fishes is classified
into two major groups- salt water and fresh water environment. They
cannot live in very salty water. Because of the high levels of the salt,
the Dead Sea does not have any fish.11 Some fishes can live only in
salt water in the sea, for ex. Sharks, Parrot fish. Water temperature is
one of the chief factors for the habitat of a fish. And as a matter of
fact, the temperature of the blood in fishes investigated has always
been at least half a degree above that of the surrounding water.12
Some fish live only in the fresh water [natural origins]
i.e. in lakes, rivers and streams and in brooks, creeks, ponds, springs
and swamps. Some live in streams which flow deep underground for
ex. Catfish, minnows, carp. Still others [some sp. of fish] can live in
either salty water or fresh water.13 In India, basically the fish live in
tropics. They have always economical and ecological significance.
These fish are colorful, small in size.
The cold waters of the Arctic and Antarctic oceans have
many kinds of fish than the tropical and temperate waters. The largest
and fastest-swimming fish like swordfish, tuna, and variety of sharks,
live near the surface of the open sea and are often found great
distances from the shore.14

The upper 200 m (650 ft) of the ocean holds 78 percent

of marine fish species. The warm, well-lit waters near coral reefs also
promote a rich diversity of fish species. In freshwaters, the greatest
diversity of fish species occurs in the warm tropics of South America,

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Africa, and South East Asia. There are many species of tropical
minnows, characins, and cichlids.

4.1.3 Adaptations
Adaptation of all organisms to the environment may be
of great importance for the survival in the struggle of existence. Pr.
Arthur Thomson defines the adaptation as “An adaptation is a special
adjustment of structure or function to meet particular conditions of
life,”15 while Khanna S. S. says that it is the capability of animals to
change themselves according to the changing environment.16 An
adaptation is furnished by the coloration of fishes. In the coastal
region or in fresh water, we find many diverse forms living under the
same conditions, with quite different shapes and structures.
A] Shape
The body is elongate in many forms and greatly
shortened in others; the body is flattened in some (principally in
bottom-dwelling fishes) and laterally compressed in many others; the
fins may be elaborately extended, forming intricate shapes, or they
may be reduced or even lost; and the positions of the mouth, eyes,
nostrils, and gill openings vary widely.
Most fishes have a streamlined body. Fishes have no
neck and so the head blends smoothly into the trunk which narrows
into the tail. Fish have variety of shapes according to species for ex.
Trout are shaped like a boat, Eels are like a snake. Sea-horses look
like a horse standing on its tail. Rays are flattened from top to bottom.
Anglerfish and Stonefish resemble rocks and the Pipefish look like
long slender weeds.

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B] Size
A size of fish varies according to species. The smallest
fish known as goby, is smallest vertebrate in the world. It is only 12-
14 mm. long, about half inch and has a name longer than itself,
Mistichthys luzonensis.17
Many of the brilliantly colored fishes that live among
the coral reefs are only 3 to 4 inches long. The largest fishes are found
among the Sharks and Rays. The largest fish is the whale shark which
may grow more than 40 to 50 feet [12 meters] long and weigh up to
15 metric tons. But the Eagle-Rays are the most extraordinary
monsters.
C] Fins
Fins are the main organs of locomotion in fishes for
swimming and keeping its balance. These may be all round the body,
from the back of the head, along the back [dorsal fin] to the tail
[caudal fin], then along the lower edge [anal fin]. Fins are of two
kinds- median or unpaired fins and paired fins. The median [unpaired]
fins include a dorsal fin, anal fin and a caudal fin, while paired fins are
the pectorals and pelvic corresponding to the fore limbs and hind
limbs of the terrestrial vertebrates.
The modern bony fish have rayed fins. Some primitive
bony fish have lobed fins which are less flexible than the rayed fins.
Fins help to maintain the vertical balance when fish is resting or not
swimming rapidly. The Sting-Ray uses its fins to fly rather than swim
in the water. The pectorals are employed not only in flying or
parachuting, but for padding, feeling the ground, holding on to

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stones, keeping the water in motion over the eggs and even to go
backwards.19
D] Locomotion
Swimming is the outstanding characteristic of a fish.
Fishes are adapted for locomotion in water. Fish locomotion is closely
correlated with the habitat and ecological environment. The body is
spindle shaped, thicker in front then behind. The body is perfectly
streamlined for movement through water. The slenderness of the body
at the root of the tail is a sure sign of a good swimmer.
Young J. Z. explains about the faster moving types of
fishes which have large caudal fins, a much smaller length of body
relative to its depth and less flexibility. Mackerel sharks swim fastest
with caudal fin which move side to side.20
Fishes swim in water mainly by three methods –
I. By body movements brought about by alternate expansion and
contraction of the myomeres.
II. By movements of the fins.
III. Movements of caused by the action of jets of water expelled
from the gill openings during the respiration.
Locomotion, only by means of fin movements, takes
place when slow progress is desired, but for rapid swimming, body
movement is most important. During such active swimming, the
paired fins serve for balancing the body so that the fish remains in
position, and does not float with belly upwards. The tail and caudal fin
are the chief organs of locomotion in fishes. During swimming, the
tail is lashed from side to side by alternate contraction and relaxation

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of the muscles. By the rapid backstrokes and forward strokes
alternately, the fish forces its way through the water.21
Many fishes swim as a series of wave like movements of
the fin itself, for ex. Eel. Water expelled from the gill apertures during
respiration, also helps in forward movement of the body. When fish is
resting on the bottom, the pectoral fins are in constant motion to
counteract the forward thrust produced by the respiratory current.
Other methods of locomotion, besides swimming, are
jumping, burrowing, skipping, flying.22 Thus, Salmon, Mugil,
Cyprinus, sail-fish are able to take a leap out of water. Some species
burrow into the mud, using their swimming movements. The mud-
skipper uses its pectoral fins which are bent at an angle like an elbow
joint, for jumping over the land. [IMAGE]. The climbing perch
[Anabas] can even climb up the trees with the help of its pectorals and
operculum.
E] Skin
The skin of a fish serves many functions. It aids in
maintaining the osmotic [slow change in concentration] balance. It
provides physical protection for the body. The skin is the sight of
coloration, contains sensory receptors and in some fishes it functions
in respiration. Skin has several other functions in fishes. It is well
supplied with nerve endings and most probably receives tactile,
thermal, and pain stimuli. Fish skin is well supplied with blood
vessels. Some fishes breathe in part through the skin.
The inherent slipperiness of a fish’s body is due to the
presence of slimy mucus which is constantly being poured out in large
quantities by special glands situated in the epidermis. It is thought that
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the dermal [skin] bone first evolved in skin and only later invaded the
cartilaginous areas of the fish’s body, to provide additional support
and protection.23 That means the dermal bone has played an important
part in fish evolution and has different characteristics in different
groups of fishes.
F] Scales
Scales have played an important part in the evolution of
fishes. Primitive fishes usually had thick bony scales in several layers
of bone while modern fishes have scales of bone which allow much
more freedom of motion in the body. [vide fig. 17]
Placoid - In Sharks and Rays, the skin is blown out into minute
papillae or cones. The epidermis of the cone becomes hard like
enamel by the deposition of chalk. These give rise to rough denticles
or placoid scales, which represent the most primitive type of scale.
Because of these spiny denticles the surface of the Shark’s body is
generally prickly to touch. These are modified into spines in Sting-
Rays.
Ganoid or Cycloid - Bony fishes have similar denticles but as
a rule, scales are formed as simple plates, known as ganoid in the
inner layer of the skin, so denticle is not formed. As the plate grows it
may form roughly four- sided scale [ganoid] fitting into each other,
but in most of the bony fishes it is circular or oval [cycloid scale].24
The author tells the interesting information about the
growth of the fish, “The scale is a definite, small portion of the total
length of the fish ; if the fish in any one year grows, say, half its
former length, the scale will show an annulus about half as broad as

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the total of the earlier annuli. In some cases the scales are never
developed or they may remain hidden in the skin, as in the Eels.”25
Since the scales grow with the fish, and the fish grows unequally at
different seasons of the year, the markings on the scale have been
used to determine the age of the fish. [vide pict 4.1.4] When the fish is
growing rapidly, as in the spring and the summer, a large number of
rings or annuli are laid down in the scale, but as the growth shows
down in the winter, the annuli become fewer in number and closer
together. These rings only represent the physiological condition of the
fish.
G] Mouth and Jaws
The natural position of the mouth is in front but in many the
jaws have pulled down and backwards and a snout has grown out
above. Thus, in Sharks and Rays, mouth is ventral and drawn out
sideways in a crescent.26 The cyclostomes differ from all other fishes
in having a rounded, funnel like mouth placed at the end of the head.
Here the mouth acts as a sucker. It attaches itself to other fishes. A
mouth, which is semicircular in outline and placed on the underside of
the head, is characteristic of a large number of fishes habitually living
in mountain streams or torrents.27
In the class of bony fishes, the primary and upper and
lower jaws have become so much modified in the adult fish. In a
typical bony fish, the mouth is placed at the end of the head, the
upper and lower jaws are equal in length. In some, the mouth lies on
the under side of the head as in Sharks.
In case of Sail-fish and Sword-fish, mouth is modified
into a long snout. Sword-fish attacks on Herrings, Cuttle-fishes, and
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Mackerel Shark with its sharp swings. It has often driven its sword
into small boats and in large ships.28 The Pipe-fish have no teeth, they
manage to suck the small Crustaceans29 in the water and even a large
shrimp occasionally.
H] Coloration
Fishes exhibit an almost limitless range of colors. The
color of most fish matches that of their surroundings. For example,
most fish that live near the surface of the open sea have a blue black
color, which matches the color of the surface.30 Many fishes use
bright colors for territorial advertisement or as recognition marks for
other members of their own species. The coloration helps the fishes to
hide from the enemies. Many fishes can change their color, by
expansion and contraction of the pigment cells known as
chromatophores. [ Fig. 20]
The chromatophores lie beneath the epidermis in two
layers. Among the chromatophores, there are a number of small grey
plates. These are very opaque, and have a strong reflecting power;
hence they are called as iridocytes. As the coloring matter may be red,
yellow, or black, and perhaps blue; each cell is keeping to a particular
color.
According to the way, the light is reflected from them
they appear white or bright silver. They are composed of guanine, a
waste product, which escapes from the body. Thus, in the Cod, the
darker color of the back is due to the great abundance of
chromatophores, which come under the influence of the rays of the
light.31

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 Where the rays are more vivid, the coloration occurs
more brilliant. This type of coloration is found in tropical and shallow
water. In flat fishes and Rays, there is dead whiteness of the
argenteum [homeopathic remedy] as there is no operation of rays. The
blind-caves fishes like Amblyopsis and Lucifuga live in the dark , are
colorless.32
I] Respiration
Respiration is produced by a current passing in a single
direction. The area of respiratory surface is thus an important limiting
factor in the movement and growth of fishes. If the water is at all
deficient in oxygen the rate of breathing is naturally accelerated and
the fish appears to respire hurriedly. Other factors which lead to an
increased rate are the stress of some emotion such as greed or fear.
In many fishes, gill-chambers are the special
modifications for respiration, where as in some fishes, air-bladders
and lungs are the breathing organs. The principles of respiration are
essentially the same in all fishes, but a marked difference in the type
of gills is found in the three main classes. All breathing organs are
closely associated with the upper part of the food channel or
alimentary canal.33
The author explained the mechanism of respiration of
fishes in detail. He described the phases of respiration. When a fish
breaths, its initial movements consists of an expansion of the hoop
like gill arches with a consequent enlargement of the cavity of the
pharynx. At the same time the mouth is opened a little, and a stream
of water is drawn into the pharynx, the external gill openings being
kept tightly closed. This is known as the inspiratory phase. The
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expiratory phase follows immediately and consists in closing the
mouth tight, and at the same time contracting the pharynx, thus
driving the water outwards over the gills and through the external
34
openings. The actual exchange of gases takes place as the water
passes over the gills. It will be noticed that fish does not use the
nostrils for breathing purposes.
Many fishes breathe air, especially those living in
shallow, stagnant water in hot climates. Some that feed near the
surface may also take gulps of air, but others can come onto the land
when pools dry up. Some can burrow in the mud such as Catfishes.

J] Sensory organs

Like all vertebrates, fish have sense organs that tell them
what is happening in their environment. The organs enable them to
see, hear, smell, taste, and touch. In addition, all fish have a special
sense organ called the lateral line system, which enables them to
‘touch’ objects at a distance.

1] Sight - The fish’s eyes differ from those of land vertebrates in

several ways. Most fish can see to the right and to the left at the same
time. Because a fish has no neck and so cannot turn its head. Fishes
living in brightly lighted shallow water will have relatively small but
efficient eyes.36 A few kinds of fish are born blind. They include
certain species of Catfish that live in total darkness in the waters of
caves and the Whale-fish, which lives in the ocean depth.37

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2] Hearing - All fish can probably hear sounds produced in the water.
Catfish have a keen sense of hearing. Fish have an inner ear enclosed
in a chamber on each side of the head. Fish have no outer ears. In the
fishes those hear well, there is a connection between the swim bladder
and the ear. This may be either direct, by means of fine canals
extending forwards or indirectly by a chain of vertebrae.38

3] Smell - The sense of smell is important in almost fish. It is highly

developed in Catfish, Salmon and Sharks. The sense of smell is used
to find out food and the sex members of the same species. The nasal
organ of fish is located on the dorsal surface of the snout. The lining
of the nasal organ has special sensory cells that perceive chemicals
dissolved in the water. Odour also serves as an alarm system. Various
species of freshwater Minnows react with alarm to the body fluids
produced by an injured member of their own species.39

4] Taste - Most fish have taste buds in various parts of the mouth.
Some species have them on other parts of the body. Catfish, Sturgeon
and other fish have barbels near the mouth. They use the barbels both
to see and to touch.40

5] Touch - Touch and the lateral line system are closely related. Many
fish have a well-developed sense of touch. The lateral line system
senses changes in the movement of the water.41 It consists of mainly a
series of tiny canals under the skin. A fish senses the flow of water
around it as a series of vibrations. The vibrations enter the lateral line
through pores and activate certain sensitive areas in the line. Changes
in the pattern of vibrations may warn a fish of approaching danger.

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 Fish can also sense any changes in the pressure, salt
content, or temperature of the water and so avoid swimming very far
into unfavorable waters.

K] Special organs

Swim Bladder -

Most bony fish have a swim bladder below the back-bone. This
swim bladder provides buoyancy [tendency to float], which enables
the fish to remain at a particular depth in the water. In lungfish and a
few other fish, the swim bladder serves as an air-breathing lung.
Sharks and rays do not have a swim bladder. To keep buoyant, these
fish must swim constantly.42

Electric Organs –

The deep sea fish have light-producing organs developed from parts
of their skin or digestive tract. Some species use these organs to
attract the prey or to communicate with others of their species. Some
use these organs to kill their enemies or prey. [vide fig. 18]

In the Electric Cat-fish, the organ is situated

between the skin and muscles. In the Electric Ray, two organs are
present, lying on either side of the disc-like body, between the head
and the greatly enlarged pectoral fins. 43

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Sound Production -

A large number of fish can produce sounds audible to

our selves, and these noises are used for shoaling, to bring sexes
together, or to warn off enemies. The Drum-fish [Pogonias] of the
Eastern Atlantic produces loudest sounds. The ‘whistling’ and other
noises of the Maigre [Sciaena] can easily be heard above the water
and are supposed to be the origin of the song of Sirens.44 The sound is
often produced only by males but a large sac of the inner ear is found
in both sexes.

4.1.4 Behaviour
Fish behavior is a complicated and varied subject. The
nature of a response of an individual fish to stimuli from its
environment depends upon the inherited characteristics of its nervous
system and on the nature of the stimuli. As compared with the variety
of human responses, however, that of a fish is stereotyped, not subject
to much modification by “thought” or learning.
Fishes perceive the world around them by the usual
senses of sight, smell, hearing, touch, and taste and by special lateral-
line water-current detectors. In the few fishes that generate electric
fields, a process that might be called electro location aids in
perception. One or another of these senses often is emphasized at the
expense of others depending upon the fish's other adaptations. In
fishes with large eyes the sense of smell may be reduced; others, with
small eyes, hunt and feed primarily by smell ex. some eels.

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 Specialized behavior is primarily concerned with the
three most important activities in the fish's life: feeding, reproduction,
and escape from enemies. Predatory fishes are most often solitary,
lying in wait to dart suddenly after their prey.
Sleep in fishes, all of which lack true eyelids, consists
of a seemingly listless state in which the fish maintains its balance but
moves slowly. If attacked or disturbed, most can dart away. A few
kinds of fishes lie on the bottom to sleep. Most catfishes, some
loaches, and some eels and electric fishes are strictly nocturnal and
retiring during the day to holes, thick vegetation, or other protective
parts of the environment.
Communication between members of a species or
between members of two or more species often is extremely
important, especially in breeding behavior. Soundract at production is
also one of the ways of communication. The sounds are used to attract
the male or to make frightened the enemies.35 The mode of
communication may be visual, as between the small so-called cleaner
fish and a large fish of a very different species. The larger fish often
allows the cleaner to enter its mouth to remove gill parasites. The
cleaner is recognized by its distinctive colour and actions and
therefore is not eaten, even if the larger fish is normally a predator.

4.1.5 Feeding Habits

Plankton is collective term for a variety of marine and
freshwater organisms that drift on or near the surface of the water.
Their movement depends largely on tides, currents, and winds,
because they are too small or weak to swim against the currents.
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 Most fishes are smaller than themselves. The smallest
fishes eat these planktons. These planktons have very small life, such
as one-celled protozoans. Plankton drifts with the currents in large
numbers, flowing like a thick rich soup. Plankton is essential in
supporting fish life since it is the main food of all small fishes who are
the food of the bigger fish.
The largest sharks, such as whale sharks and basking
sharks, feed on plankton by straining these tiny marine plants and
animals from the water. 45 The zoo-plankton, comprises protozoa and
small crustaceans, jellyfish, worms, and mollusks, together with the
eggs and larvae of the many animal species inhabiting marine and
fresh waters.

4.1.6 Economic importance of fish

Fish is found abundantly in all natural waters. It is a
valuable source of food and has been used by man from ancient times.
Fish cultivation on a large scale is gaining major significance in many
lands. Tapping the wealth of the oceans and inland waters and its
efficient utilization has become urgent for the survival of the human
race.
India has a coast line of about 5,600 km and the
continental shelf bordering the Indian coast has an area of about 2.6
million sq. km. in which infinite varieties of fish are found. In
addition, the rivers, reservoirs, lakes, and canals in the country have
an area of about 1.13

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A] Fish as human food
Millions of human beings suffer due to hunger and
malnutrition, and fishes form a rich source of food and provide a
means to tide over the nutritional difficulties of man. Fishes have
formed on important item of human diet from the time man appeared
on earth and mainly caught for this purpose. A very large number of
fresh water, brackish and marine fishes are caught by thousands of
fishermen, all over the world and consumed [vide fig 19]
About 250 different species of fishes are used for edible
purposes. Edible fishes are classified into two major categories based
on their anatomical differences. They are finfish and shellfish. Edible
shellfish are mainly salt water fish. Those fishes whose flesh is more
watery and tasteless is on account of carnivorous habit and having
enough small bones are not utilized as food.46 In general, herbivorous
fishes are more tasteful, that is why carps are preferred much as food.
Although fresh water fishes are given preference over marine fishes
for food, but marine fishes form the large supply of food of the world
population.
The principal fresh water fishes consumed as food in
India, are Major carps, Catfishes, Herrings, Feather backs, Live fishes,
Mullets, Miscellaneous while the marine water fishes all types of
shark, salmon, mackerel, Bombay duck, ribbon fish, pomfret, sole,
tuna.47
B] Nutritive value of fish
Fish flesh is mainly composed of protein, fat, mineral
and vitamins, with a high percentage of water. Fish is a very valuable
source of protein which is easily digestible due to low percentage of
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connective tissue. All the essential amino acids are present in fish
flesh in sufficient quantities. It is also a rich source of iodine,
phosphorus and vitamins B, A, D and B12 which is almost absent in
plant food.48 Fish therefore, a valuable diet.
Depending upon the fat content, the fish may be classified as :

1] Oily – Fat content more than 8%

2] Average fat – Fat content between 1-8%
3] Lean – Fat content less than 1%
Liver in fish is often the main site with the large
deposition of fat. However the brain shows the highest concentration
of fat and heart the lowest. Fish is a good source of minerals. Fish
meat is a good source of copper, sulphur and phosphorous.49 The
principal minerals in fish are Ca, Mg, P, K, Na, Fe, Br, I and Cu. In
general, salt water fishes contain more iron than freshwater fishes.
Fish oils are the richest known sources of vitamins A and D.
C] Fish bye-products
A] Fish oil – The most important fishery by-product industry is that
of the fish oil, which is of two kinds-liver oil and body oil. Fish liver
oil acts as a vehicle for its soluble in vitamins A, D, E and K as well
as a source of essential fatty acids. Cod liver oil is rich in fat but poor
in vitamin A while Tuna is rich in vitamin A but poor in fat. The
livers of Sharks generally have the highest contents of vitamin A and
fat.50 Fish body oil is obtained from entire body parts except liver. It
is produced from non-edible fishes or the wastes, discarded during the
processing. It is used in painting, varnishing, soap, candle, leather and
steel industries. It is also used in oiling boat bottoms to protect the
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decaying and rot.51 Body oil is obtained from fishes, such as Sardine,
Herring and Salmon.
B] Fish meal – It is prepared from the parts of fish not used for
human food, as well as entire fishes that are not relished by man. The
scrap is dried and ground in mill. This is called ‘fish meal’ and is used
as artificial food for poultry, pig and cattle. The chief fishes that are
used to prepare fish meal include Sardines, Mackerels, Sharks, Rays,
Ribbon fish and Silver bellies. It is composed of proteins, 55-70; fat,
2-5; minerals, 10-12; and moisture, 6-12 per cent. Low grade fish
meal is used as manure in plantation of tea, coffee and tobacco.52
] Fish manure – Fish that are unfit for human consumption are used
to prepare fish manure for the fields. The dried fish is ground and
converted to manure, which contains a high percentage of nitrogen
and phosphate. When fish manure is mixed with soil, forms a rich
fertilizer for plants.53
D] Fish glue and Isinglass – Fish glue is a sticky substance and is
prepared from different wastes (bones, scales and fins) discarded
during processing. It is used as an adhesive for papers, wood, leather
and glass. The air bladder of fishes is used for preparing isinglass,
which is a shining powder and is used for clearing wine, beer, making
edible jelly and in the preparation of adhesive material.54
E] Fish leather — The skin of several fishes like the Sharks and Rays
are used for making polishing and smoothing material. The dried and
treated skin is also used for preparing ladies shoes, money bags,
suitcases, belts.

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D] Fishery and fishing

Fishery is harvesting of fish, shellfish, and sea

mammals as a commercial enterprise, or season of commercial
fishing. Fisheries range from small family operations relying on
traditional fishing methods to large corporations using large fleets and
the most advanced technology. Small-scale fishery is ordinarily
conducted in waters relatively close to a home port, but factory ships
that are equipped to process the catch on board often go thousands of
miles from home.

Fish constitutes less than 1 percent of the world's

diet, and the various hazards of the industry have effect on growth.
Weather, environmental problems such as pollution, the
unpredictability and high perish ability of the harvest, and the high
costs of gear and equipment all discourage the expansion of the
industry. Of the world's total sea harvest, about one-fourth is provided
by the herring family (sardine, anchovy, menhaden). The cod family
(haddock, hake, pollock, cusk, ocean perch) accounts for about one-
sixth. Another one-tenth is made up of tuna, bonita, and mackerel; and
the rest of the harvest includes salmon, flounder, halibut, sole, the
shellfish, and trout and other freshwater fish, including carp and
catfish.55 Among the nations with the largest harvests are Peru, the
United States, Russia, China, Japan, India, and South Korea.

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E] Fishing

Fishing is one of the oldest employments of

humankind. Ancient heaps of discarded mollusk shells, some from
prehistoric times, have been found in coastal areas throughout the
world [vide graph 4.1.6B]. Archaeological evidence shows that
humans next learned to catch fishes in traps and nets. These ventures
were limited at first to the lakes and rivers, but as boats and fishing
devices were improved, humans ventured into sheltered coastal areas
and river mouths and eventually farther out onto the continental
shelves.

Fishing technology continued to develop throughout

history, employing improved and larger ships, more sophisticated
fishing equipment, and various food preservation methods.
Commercial fishing is now carried on in all types of waters, in all
parts of the world. Commercial fishing can be done in a simple
manner with small vessels, little technical equipment, as in small local
or traditional fisheries. It can also be done on a large scale with
powerful deep. sea vessels and sophisticated mechanical equipment
similar to that of modern industrial enterprises.

F] Aquarium

Aquarium is a water-filled tank, usually with glass

slides, in which aquatic plants and animals, particularly fish, are kept.
These are used for decorative effects, exhibitions, and scientific study
of the aquatic life.

96
 Home aquariums are often made to stimulate a natural
environment. Aquatic plants supply the oxygen needed by the fish, but
an aerating device is used for additional oxygen. The best water for
fish is water in which they have already lived. The best minerals for
use in aquariums are quartz, sandstone and granite.56 Generally
ornamental fishes such as goldfish, minnows, catfishes, carps,
angelfish, suckers, cichlid, angelfish, gourami, killifish, guppy,
paradise, betta, etc. are mostly selected by the people.
Large aquariums often called as oceanariums or
seaquariums, such as the Atlantis Aquarium on Paradise Island and
Miami seaquarium, provide an opportunity for scientists and the
general public to observe marine and aquatic animals. Like modern
zoos, modern aquariums strive to provide naturalistic enclosures that
simulate the wild habitats of the animals in their care. They also
undertake public education campaigns to publicize the effects of
pollution on marine and aquatic organisms, and they garner support
for conservation efforts worldwide.57
Fishes are helpful for keeping the number of
organisms on the earth in balance. Fish food on some aquatic
organisms and themselves become food for others. This process is
known as ‘food chain’. Fish are part of many food chains. Certain fish
eat planktons and are in turn eaten by other fish. These fish may then
be eaten by people or by birds or other animals. 58 The decayed matter
of died fishes provides nourishment for water plants and animals. In
this way, fish plays important role to balance the aquatic ecosystem as
well as environment. [ vide fig.20]

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 People may upset the balance by catching too many fish
of a particular kind. The pollution of water effect so badly that certain
kinds of plants and animals can live in it. This water pollution causes
the depletion of fish population by adverse changes in the physical,
chemical and biological properties of fresh water.

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4.2 Whale

The term Whale can be used for reference to any of

aquatic mammals that belong to the order Cetacea. The name
‘Cetaceans’ comes from a Latin word meaning large sea animal. Any
member of entire aquatic group is commonly known as Whales,
Dolphins and Porpoise. The ancient Greeks recognized that
Cetaceans breathe air, give birth to young, produce milk and have hair
– all features of mammals.59 They belong to the group of animals
called marine animals and live their entire life in the water. Scientists
have identified 79 species of Cetaceans.
Whales are mammals as are humans, dogs, cats,
elephants. This means that they are not fish. They breathe air and so
must return to the surface at regular intervals to get a breath. They
give birth to live young that stay with the mother for over a year and
feed on milk produced by the mother. Whale is a large sea-animal that
looks like a fish but in fact not a fish. Whales are the heaviest known
animals reaching a maximum size in the Blue Whale which is perhaps
more than 30 meters in length 200 metric tons in weight.
Whales have a fishlike streamline body; their tail fins
called flukes are horizontal rather than vertical. Whales are warm-
blooded and have a skeleton similar to our own. They have paddle
like fore limbs, called flippers and have similar bones in them to our
arms and hands. The hind limbs are generally not present at all. Their
skin is smooth and glossy and, depending upon the species may be
black, white, or a variety of colours. Whales resemble fish in many

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ways, but they are not fish. They differ from fish in many
aspects.[vide table 4.2.1] By the end of 20th century, Cetacean’s
economic importance was due to whale watching, a tourist activity
and major source of income for certain regions of many countries.

. WHALES FISH
breathe air through breathe water
Breathing
blowholes through gills
flukes (tail) move up tail moves left and
Swimming
and down right
hair (not very much,
Skin scales
though)

Young live-born young most fish lay eggs

nurse, protect, and
none, usually
teach their young
Thermal
warm-blooded cold-blooded
regulation

Table 4.2.1 Difference in between Fish and Whales 60

4.2.1 Origin of whales

No one knows exactly when the first whale swam the
oceans of world how those whales looked like. Although the history
of the very first whale ancestor is still unknown, that creature
definitely came from the land. Scientists know that the first mammals
developed on land and whales still show signs of their relationship to

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land mammals. However, the fossil remains of some early whales that
are 50 million years old have been found.61 Scientists called these
whales Archaeocete or ancient whales. Aechaeocetes lived for 25
million years [Oligocene Epoch] and then disappeared—no one
knows why. They left no descendants.62
Whale Fossils- From the fossil record Archaeocete is
ancestral to living whales [Cetaceans]. Recent work with whale fossils
indicates that the anklebones of whale ancestors resembled those of
archaeocetes. Some archaeocetes measured 20 meters long, and they
were clearly sea creatures. In skull and teeth structure, however, they
were like early land mammals. In appearance they were not different
from the toothed and baleen whales.
In 1976, a whale fossil found, which was the remains of a
baleen whale entombed vertically in a diatomaceous earth theory and
only the head and a small part of the body were visible. This fossil
whale may be close to 80 feet long indicating the modern baleen
whale having a head of similar size. Two skeletons of whales are
found in bogs covering glacial deposits in Michigan and bones,
skeleton of another whale were discovered in Vermont, more than 500
feet above sea level.63a A fossil whale known as Basilosaurus found
before 42 million years and represents the stage of whale evolution in
which hind limbs are very small but still visible.63b Modern whales,
which first appeared in the fossil record 5 to 10 million years ago,
have no visible hind limbs, but some whale species have tiny pelvic
and leg bones embedded in muscles.
The Miocene was the epoch during which modern ocean
circulation began and regional areas increased and developed. This
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resulted in setting the stage of evolution of large whales with seasonal
migrations. At the same time, the modern toothed whales began to
emerge, and developed into 9 families. Four of these have since
become extinct. The first baleen whale had wide, flat skulls bordered
by a reduced number of teeth. By the middle Miocene Epoch, there
were several families of baleen whales including the right whales and
rorquals.
4.2.2 Types of whales
The most common way of classifying whale is
according to how they feed. The Odontoceti, or toothed whales, use
teeth and Mysticeti or baleen whales, use horny, fringed plates called
as baleen. Scientists classify whales into two groups- toothed whales
and baleen whales.
A] Toothed whales
They have jaws lined with pointed teeth [vide fig. 21].
Some have teeth in the front of lower jaw or in both jaws. Some have
teeth that are embedded in the jaw’s gums. These teeth are not
exposed and do not help the whale feed on prey. Toothed whales use
their pointed teeth in hunting fish, squid, and other prey.
There are about 65 kinds of toothed whales.64 They differ
in size, in shape and in the number of teeth they have. Scientist
divided these kinds of whales into 5 groups – 1] Sperm whales, 2]
Beaked whales, 3] Narwhales, 4] Belugas, 5] Dolphins and Porpoises.

1] Sperm whales -- They have a very large head and large teeth. They
are deep divers and eat squid, fish, octopus, eels.
Sperm whales have a huge, square-shaped head [vide fig. 24] The
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lower jaw is narrow and has from 16 to 30 teeth on each side. Mature
males may grow to about 18 m (about 59 ft) in length and weigh up to
55 metric tons, while females are smaller, growing to 12 m (39 ft). All
Sperm Whales live only in tropical and temperate waters. Some
whales have been observed to stay underwater for close to two hours.
Sperm whales can dive to depths of 1,000 to 2,000 m (3,300 to 6,600
ft).65 Water at these depths is in complete darkness, and these whales
probably locate their prey using echolocation. Sperm whales
specialize in feeding on large deep sea squid. A pigmy Sperm Whale
grows only about 3.7 meters long. The Sperm Whale is an endangered
species.
2] Beaked whales -- Beaked whales are small to medium-sized
whales with long, pointed snouts and, in males, two to four protruding
teeth on the lower jaw. Some of them grow only about 5 meters long,
and others reach 12 meters. Beaked whales are deep divers and may
remain below water for 30 minutes or longer. They have been sighted
in polar, temperate, and tropical oceans and feed mainly on squid and
fish. [vide fig. 25]
3] Narwhals -- The narwhal is typically about 4.7 m (15 ft) long and
weighs about 1 metric ton. Narwhals have only two teeth. In females
the teeth usually remain embedded in the gums. In males the right
tooth remains embedded, but the left tooth commonly grows out into a
spiraling ivory tusk that grows up to 3 m (10 ft) long, straight forward
from its head [vide fig. 26]. Scientists believe that males use this tusk
in fights against rival males. They are native to the cool waters of the
Arctic and North Atlantic oceans where they live year-round. When

103
narwhals surface after a dive, escaping air from the blowhole makes a
shrill whistle.
4] Belugas -- Also called “canaries of the sea” because of their loud,
shrill squeaks and chirps. Beluga whales live in the upper parts of the
northern hemisphere, in coastal marine estuaries and near pack ice.
Belugas are popular attractions in public aquariums and oceanariums
because of their playful and “talkative” behavior [vide fig 23].
Belugas are black or brown in color at birth, and
then lighten with age until about age five, when they become milky
white. Belugas grow to a length of 7 m (23 ft) and weigh from 700 to
1,600 kg (1,500 to 3,500 lb). The upper jaw contains 20 teeth and the
lower jaw contains 16 teeth. The beluga lives year-round in Arctic
waters, traveling in groups ranging from five to ten individuals up to a
thousand or more. They communicate with a series of whistles,
squeaks, bell-like sounds, and clicking noises. They eat mostly squid
and fish.
5] Dolphins and poropoises -- Dolphins live in all oceans and grow
about 2 to 9 meters long. Porpoises grow 1.2 to 1.8 meters long. They
have a streamlined body that is well adapted for life underwater. Their
paddle-shaped flippers steer and provide balance. Their broad
horizontal tail flukes propel them through the water. Dolphins lack
structures such as hind limbs, hair, or external ears. River Dolphins do
not live in the sea. They live in the muddy waters of the Amazon in
South America and Ganges in India. They grow about 2.5 meters long
and have a long beak [vide fig. 27]

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B] Baleen Whales --
Baleen whales are named for the long, horny plates of
baleen, also known as ‘Whalebone’, that are attached to the roof of the
mouth instead of teeth. Baleen consists of the same material as human
finger nails. Baleen hangs from the whale’s upper jaw. A whale uses
these plates to sieve out the food from the water [vide fig. 21]. They
feed mainly on Plankton. There are 10 species of Baleen Whales that
range in size from 2 to 30 meters.

1] Right whales -- Scientists recognize three types of right whales:

northern, southern, and bowhead, also known as the Greenland right
whale [vide fig. 28]. Right whales were so named by early whalers,
who considered them the “right” whale to hunt because they swam
slowly at 5 to 10 km/h, floated in the water when dead, and were
excellent sources of valuable oil and baleen. Right whales are thick
solid bodies and lack a dorsal fin. They may reach 18 m (59 ft) in
length and weigh up to 70 metric tons. Right whales have long, thin
streamers of baleen for catching small prey. They swim slowly
forward with open mouths continuously. Water flows through the
baleen, and the plankton becomes entangled.

2] Gray whales -- Gray whales are slate-colored and measure up to

15 m (49 ft) in length. Gray whales are slow swimmers that stay near
shallow waters where they can feed. They feed primarily on plankton,
small fish and amphipods. Gray whales live along the coast of North
America from the Arctic Ocean to Baja California, Mexico [vide fig.
29]. They migrate annually between summer feeding grounds in the

105
Bering Sea and winter calving and breeding lagoons on the Pacific
Coast of Baja, a round trip of some 19,000 km (12,000 mi).

3] Rorquals - Rorquals comprise the blue, fin, humpback, Bryde’s,

sei, and minke whales. These whales are characterized by pleated
throat grooves, while eating these throat grooves expand, enabling the
whale to swallow up to 70 metric tons of water. Rorquals typically
have narrow, streamlined bodies and they are the fastest swimming
baleen whales—the Sei whale, for instance, can swim more than 40
km/h (25 mph) over short distances [vide fig. 30].
The Blue whale is the largest living animal on Earth,
some reaching a length of nearly 24 m (80 ft) and a weight of 150
metric tons. As its name suggests, the blue whale is blue-gray in color.
The blue whale makes the loudest sound of any animal—over 150
decibels [10 to 19Hz].66 This sound, which is louder than the noise of
a jet aircraft taking off, can travel over thousands of kilometers
underwater. Blue whales have been protected from commercial
hunting since 1966, but they remain rare. They are most commonly
observed in the northeast Pacific and northwest Atlantic oceans.

The Fin whale is the second largest animal after the

blue whale. It can grow to 24 m (78 ft) in length and weigh up to 70
metric tons. The fin whale has a gray back and white undersides. It
swims at speeds of 48 km/hr.67 Fin whales are most common in the
Southern Hemisphere, while smaller populations inhabit the North
Atlantic and North Pacific. Some eat krill, and some eat anchovies,
herring, and other small fish.

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 The Humpback whale averages about 12 m (40 ft) in
length and 30 metric tons in weight. It is black with varying amounts
of white on the sides and belly. The humpback’s long flippers may be
one-third the length of its stocky body [vide fig. 32]. Groups of
several humpback whales have been observed cooperating to trap
schools of small fish. They live in all oceans and often swim in coastal
waters. They communicate by means of complex songs which can be
detected at a range of over 170 kilometers. The songs are made up of
a series of sounds.

Bryde’s whales are the only baleen whales that

spend their entire lives in warm or tropical waters. They can be found
in both inshore and offshore waters of South Africa, Japan, Sri Lanka,
Fiji, and Western Australia. Bryde’s whales have a pale gray, slender
body that grows up to 14 m (46 ft) in length and weighs up to 24
metric tons.

Sei whales are usually about 14 m (46 ft) long and

weigh less than 20 metric tons. They are dark blue-gray or black with
some white on the undersides. Sei whales are the only baleen whales
that feed on krill both by skimming and gulping. They live throughout
oceans of the world most common around Antartica.

The Minke whale is one of the smallest of the

rorqual whales, growing up to 10 m (33 ft) in length and 10 metric
tons in weight. Minke whales are gray-blue, with white bands across
the flippers. They have a pointed head that appears V-shaped when

107
viewed from above. They found in waters around the world, and seem
to prefer inshore waters.

4.2.3 Habitat
Cetaceans are found throughout the world’s
oceans, from the Equator to the Polar ice. The largest populations of
whales existed in the oceans around Antarctica. The abundance of
cetaceans is this hard to estimate accurately, but whale population is
varied over the years, depending upon the human activities. Some
whales like the blue, fin, humpback and gray, undertake the longest
migrations in the animal kingdom. They travel thousands of
kilometers between the tropics in water and sub polar waters in
summer. Indian Ocean whales. From the unusual pygmy blue whales
off the West coast of Sri Lanka, to the humpback whales off the South
Coast of Oman, the Indian Ocean is an important area for cetaceans,
large and small.

Cetaceans are distributed in all the world's oceans

from the far polar reaches to the Equator. They concentrate in areas
where there is an abundant supply of food. Some species are coastal
and some are found in open sea, dwelling farther offshore. Some river
dolphins are found in the Amazon, Orinoco, La Plata, Yangtze,
Ganges, and Indus rivers and surrounding drainage waters.68

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4.2.4 General features

A] Body surface, shape and size

Whales have a smooth highly streamlined body shape,
which enables them with a minimum of resistance. A whale propels
itself by moving its flukes [tail fins] up and down. The absence of
hind legs distinguishes the whale from most other animals. The
compressed neck vertebrae joined together into one bone which keeps
the head from moving about as a whale swims.69
A common chordate of mammals that is the hair
covering is reduced in cetaceans, because hair is a poor insulator
which is not helpful during swimming. A few bristles on the head are
all the hair that whales have. Various organisms live on or in the skin
of whales which affects the appearance of them, for example yellow
algae live on the lower body surface of Blue Whale and the variety of
whitish organisms live on bodies of Gray Whales and Right Whales.70
Whales are enormous in size compared to all other
animals. Living in water enables them to reach enormous sizes. The
buoyancy of water helps to support a whale’s body and makes it
possible for whales to grow far larger than any land animal. The
scientist of Maltese Islands, Vella Adriana comments about the
variety in shape and size. It is wide, ranging from tiny Dolphins just
over 1meter in length to the Blue Whale, which is typically 25 meters
long and 100 tons in weight.71
B] Sense Organs
The eyes of most whales are well adapted for life
underwater. Strong muscles surrounding each eye change the shape of

109
the eye’s lens. This enables whales to focus their vision both
underwater and above water. When the animal dives to great depths,
the tear ducts shed oily tears that enhance underwater vision and
protect the eyes from the effects of salt water. Toothed Whales have
no sense of smell but Baleen Whales have a poor sense of smell.
Some kinds of Toothed whales may have a limited sense of taste, but
most whales cannot taste. Dolphins can differentiate between sweet,
sour, bitter and salty.
All whales have well-developed senses of touch and
hearing. They can hear an extremely wide range of sounds, including
low and high pitched sounds far beyond the range of human hearing.
Unlike people, whales can tell from what direction a sound is coming
underwater. From the echoes, whales determine the distance to an
object and the direction in which it lies.

C] Skin and blubber

Whales have smooth, rubbery skin that slips easily
through the water. It feels much like wet rubber to the touch. The skin
has no sweat glands or oil glands. Beneath the skin, Whales have a
layer of fat known as blubber, sometimes as thick as 50 centimeters
[Right Whale] which keeps them warm [vide fig. 22]. If food is
scarce, whales can live off their blubber for a long time. Blubber is
lighter than water and so it also increases the buoyancy [tendency to
float] of whales. It helps to preserve body heat and permits whales to
stay warm even in near-freezing waters.72 Whales have been heavily
hunted for their blubber, which, when processed into oil, can be

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burned in lamps and used in paints, soaps, cosmetics, and other
products.

4.2.5 Respiration
As all mammals, including humans, they breathe air,
Whales have lungs for respiration; they must come to surface
regularly to breathe. When a whale comes up to breath, it rolls
forward as it breaks the surface. This movement gives the whale only
two seconds to blow out and breathe in up to 2000 liters of air.
Whales breathe through the nostrils, called blowholes, located on the
top of the head.73
When whale exhales, it produces a cloud called a blow or
spout. The blow is visible because of water condensation and mucus
particles. Blows of blue whales are more frequently more than 6
meters [20 feet] high [vide fig. 31] Baleen whales usually breathe
every 5 to 15 minutes but they can go as long as 40 minutes without
breathing. A sperm whale can hold it’s breathe for up to 2 hours.74
Whale lungs exchange 90% of their contents with each breathe while
human lungs exchange about 15 to 20% with each breathe. This
means whales can take up oxygen and dispose of carbon dioxide
much faster than humans and so they can hold their breath underwater
for long periods. When a Cetacean loses consciousness, it does not
breathe and quickly dies because breathing is not in reflex in
Cetaceans as it is in terrestrial mammal.75

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4.2.6 Locomotion - swimming and diving
As the whales evolved from four legged terrestrials
animals, forelimbs are developed into finlike flippers which are the
main locomotive adaptations in the water. Whales swim by making
powerful up and down movements of the tail flukes, which provide
thrust. Flippers help to steer, while the back muscles, which are very
large, drive the tail to propel the animal. Like fish, almost all whales
possess a dorsal fin that serves as a keel. Whales use vertical strokes
when they swim, instead of horizontal strokes like a fish. Most whales
remain near the surface of the ocean, [vide fig. 25 and 28] but some
dive to great depths and remain underwater for long periods [50-80
minutes].
Whales possess interesting adaptation for diving. During
a dive, the whale’s heart rate slows to as low as 3 to 5 beats per
minute. This conserves oxygen and maintains blood pressure in the
brain and heart. The longest recorded dive is that of a harpooned
Bottlenose Whale that dived for two hours, surfaced, and dived again.
The swimming speed of a whale is about 2 meters per second [near
about 7 km or 4 miles per hour].76 According to species speeds vary
greatly. Fin and Blue Whales can swim as fast as a boat must travel in
excess of 30km/hr to catch up them. Sonar* records indicate that Fin
Whales can sprint at 48km/hr. Right, Humpback, and Gray Whales
can swim faster than 9km/hr. Sperm Whales can swim up to 36km/hr.
The fastest Cetacean appears to be the Sei Whale, recorded moving at
speeds up to 65km/hr along the ocean surface.

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4.2.7 Reproduction
Whale breeding is seasonal usually in the winter. Most
large species migrate to the tropics to mate and give birth. During the
courting, the whales may stroke each other with their flippers.
Humpbacks sometimes hold each other with their long, curved
flippers. Generally male Humpbacks produce sounds or songs during
mating. The pregnancy period in mast whales lasts 10 to 12 months
but Sperm Whale carries her baby 16 months.77
Whales give birth to a single baby, called a calf. They
give birth tail first, opposite of other mammals. Baby whales are
already giant animals at birth, they are long as much as a third of the
length of the mother at birth [vide fig. 32].17 For ex. Newborn Blue
Whale is average about 3 tons in weight and 7 meters in length. It
grows an average of 0.3 meter per week and gains weight at a rate of
90 kg per day. The mother produces milk richer in fat, proteins and
minerals than the milk of land mammals. This reach food helps the
calves grow amazingly fast. The largest whales can produce an
estimated 600 liters [160 gallons] of milk per day.78 Newborn whales
nursed by mothers up to a year before beginning to feed in their own.
Whales may live from 20 to 60 years. Larger species live longest.
Whales live in groups called herbs, pods, or schools.
Pilot Whales and many species of Dolphins swim in herds of 100 to
1000. Most adult Killer Whales live in pods with their offspring.
Toothed Whales appear to be more socially organized than Baleen
Whales. Modern techniques have determined some Fin Whales to be
100 years old, some Humpbacks 96 years old and some Blue Whales

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90 years old. But the largest lived whale is a Right Whale that can
survives for more than 200 years.79

4.2.8 Migration
Migration is regular occurrence in many whale
species. As a rule, large whales have north and south seasonal
migrations, spending summers in high latitudes near the poles, where
there is an abundant food supply, and moving toward the Equator in
the winter for breeding. The warm waters provide a comfortable
environment for babies. Most kinds of Baleen Whales migrate
between polar and tropical regions. One of the greatest migrations is
undertaken by the California population of the Gray Whale which
travels in summer in the seas of the Arctic and in winter in lagoons off
the coast of Baja California—a journey of 5,000 km (about 3,000
miles) each way.80
Migratory whales usually do not cross the Equator,
and that has led to the development of genetically separate
populations in the north and South ocean basins. Depending upon the
species, sex, age, and season, whales may travel alone, in pairs, or in
small or large groups. However, one humpback whale was
photographically identified near the Antarctic Peninsula and was later
sighted on the coast of Colombia, having covered at least 8,334 km in
both the South Atlantic and North Atlantic ocean basins. Two kinds of
Baleen Whales and most species of Toothed Whales do not migrate
while Bowhead Whales never leave the Arctic. Belugas and
Narwhales stay in Arctic waters.81

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4.2.9 Behaviour
Studies of whales in captivity have taught scientists
much about the complex social behavior of whales. Since the late
1980s, the advance uses of satellite tracking systems have broadened
opportunities for scientists to observe how whales behave in the wild.
Here some special behaviors are discussed from the researches of
scientists.
A] Intelligence
Scientists believe that whales are intelligent animals.
Some scientists equate brain size with intelligence, reasoning that
whales should have the capacity for intelligence because they have
relatively large brains. The human brains averages about 1.2 kg, the
bottlenose dolphin brain about 1.8 kg. The largest brain of a sperm
whale is recorded about 9.2 kg.82
Some whales in captivity exhibit extensive learning and
problem-solving skills. Dolphin curiosity and their often eager
interactions with humans also suggest a high level of intelligence. The
most interesting indication of whale intelligence came with the
discovery in the 1970s of whale singing, most especially in
Humpbacks. Humpback songs may last more than 20 minutes. All the
singing whales of a particular migrating group sing the same song.
Singing most occurs in winter mating grounds. Scientists have also
observed killer whales teaching their young cultural practices and
adults in the pods teaching the young how to attack these sea lions.
Studies that presented individual Dolphins with mirrors and video
images found that the Dolphins could recognize themselves and also
distinguish themselves from other Dolphins.83
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 The scientist, Vella Adriana has a detail study of
Cetaceans found in Maltese Islands. He stated that Cetaceans rapidly
learn tasks. They are playful and appear to have a sense of humour.
They show to be able to learn

B] Sound Production and Communication

Because of the restricted utility of vision underwater,
whales use sound to perceive and interpret their environment and to
communicate, sometimes over vast distances. All Cetaceans produce
sounds and use the larynx* for this purpose. Whales may use sound to
attract mates, repel rivals, communicate within a social group or
between groups, navigate, or find food. Their sounds can be divided
into communication signals and echolocation# signals. Echolocation
has been recognized in Toothed Whales but not in Baleen Whales.
Toothed Whales use extremely high frequencies, on order of 150
kilohertz, for refining spatial resolution from their echoes. Baleen
Whales generate their sounds at frequencies that are audible to
humans or below that range. Biologists have computed that the 10-
hertz sounds of Fin Whales, for can travel over 1,800 km (1,100
miles).84
The songs of Humpback Whales, which can go on for as
long as 25 to 35 minutes and repeat for up to 24 hours.85 The scientists
from BRP studied the distribution and behavior of whales and
recorded the sounds of different species of whales. They said,
“Beginning in 1993, using acoustic data from IUSS, we have studied
the seasonal and geographic patterns of vocal activity for blue, fin,
humpback, and minke whales from large portions of the western
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North Atlantic (east of the Canadian maritime provinces and the US
eastern seaboard) and eastern North Atlantic (west of Britain and
Ireland).” 86
c] Breaching
Although the exact reason for whale breaching is
unknown, this activity is believed to provide one mode of
communication among whales. Adult whales are often observed
breaching together, especially when different whale pods, or groups,
encounter one another. Scientists are unsure why whales breach.
Some theorize that this behavior may be a display of dominance used
in courtship or may enable the whales to view their surrounding area.
The loud sound that breaching makes as the whale lands in the water
suggests to some scientists that it is used as a form of long-distance
communication [vide fig. 33].

4.3 Comparisons of Fish and Whale

Fishes are the first vertebrates on the earth which are
having backbones. Jawless fishes, which are developed from
prokaryotes, single celled organisms. In MP Vaiwaswat Manu, first
time saw the tiny fish – śapharī [carp] in his hands. As Manu changed
the habitat [place] of the tiny fish, it grew gradually which indicates
the fish evolution [vide 2.2 Development of Matsya] in the pre-
historic period.
Vertebrates, developed from fish are having special
features and adaptations according to their surrounding environment.
These vertebrates developed into the land animals known as
mammals. Amongst the mammals, some mammals are aquatic
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mammals called as ‘marine mammals’ belonging to the order Cetecea.
Some Cetaceans are huge biggest aquatic mammals or giants of nature
known as ‘whales’.87

Misunderstanding of people
Fish is the shortest form of the vertebrates where as
whale is a giant appearance of aquatic animals. Whale in the water,
have fins similar to the fishes hence it is regarded as a fish by
common people but if we studied the whale morphologically and
anatomically it shows the same characters of mammals which are seen
in human beings as they are also mammals.
In this chapter, Mastya and whale are studied
comparatively with their general lifecycle, adaptations and
evolutionary changes from the pre-historical periods. This information
is summarized shortly in the table 4.3.2
Table 4.3.2 comparative study of Fish and Whale
N. Fish Whale
1. First vertebrates Only aquatic mammals
2. Divided into 2 Belongs the class - Cetaceans, and
superclasses – divided into 2 types – toothed and
Agnatha and baleen
Gnathostomata
3. Arose in pre-cambriaonic First whale’s appearance is still
period, before 550-300 unknown, evolved in Eocene
million years. epoch, before 50 million years.
4. Near about 22000 sp. are Near about 75 sp. are found.

118
 found.
5. Occure in all over the Occurs in polar regions maximum
world, i.e. in fresh and and icy water and deep in the ocean.
marine water.
6. Food- planktons, small Food – squid and fish
fish.
7. Swims in water with high Swims with high speed more than
speed, fins- helpful for fish, flippers are the locomotive
locomotion. organs
8. Respiration through gills Lungs and blowhole – respiratory
and scales, use dissolved organs, they have to come on
oxygen surface for respiration
9. Lay eggs and do not nurse Give birth like humans and mother
young nurse up to 1 year
10 Special features varies Diving, breathing and singing – are
. according to sp. the special features
11 Warm-blooded – body Cold-blooded, no effect of
. temp. changes according surrounding temp. on the body
to the surrounding
12 Size varies sp. to sp. only Huge size varies in the sp. Blue
. sharks are bigger in size whale is the biggest one
13 Weight in kg and length in Weight in metric tons and length in
. cm to meter meters[feet]
14 Very useful to humans – Useful to human – as food[rarely],
. as food, medicine and mostly for industrial use for making
economical source oils, fuel, ornaments

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15 Less storage of energy Great storage of energy – blubber
. than that of whale
16 Fishing is business, sport, Whale hunting is prohibited by IWC
. a type of entertainment for the conservation of remaining
sp.
17 Important place in food Because of few sp. important to
. chain, fooweb. only their ecosystems.

In MP, Manu replaced the Matsya in the river which was 1

yojana [8 miles] in length. The length of this Mastya is 8 miles which
resembles today’s Blue Whale, the biggest mammal on the earth.

4.4 Importance of fish and whale

Evolution of fish shows that fish is the basic element for
the gradual development of humans. From the historical studies of the
origin of the universe, it may be stated as fish was the first living
organism in the water and further development of animals occurred
according to theory of evolution up to mammals.
Fish benefit people in many ways. From the ancient
time Fish make up a major part of the diet of the people. They play an
important role in food-chain sand food pyramids. They have
medicinal value for curing many diseases. Fish liver oil is used mostly
in medicinal purposes. People have also enjoyed fishing as a sport.
Many people keep fish as pets in aquariums. Fishes are also important
in the balance of nature as they are the main unit of aquatic
ecosystems.

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 Although, the fishes vary in shape, size, colours, and
behaviors they attract the people specially kids. As a result of that,
people keep fish as pets in aquariums. Fish-aquariums, fish-food,
fisheries and fish bye-products help to gain the economical source for
the fishermen and the coastal region people which decrease the
unemployment of country.
No one knows how or why the Whale’s land living
ancestors first took to the water. It may be guessed that to escape from
enemies or to find food. Over millions of years these animals
gradually changed and developed in ways that better adapted them to
life in water. But, even now, modern whales must rise to the surface to
breathe.
According to their abundance, whales are distributed all
over the world. Their huge shapes and sizes do not affect on their
swimming speeds. Sound production is the outstanding characteristic
of whales. Whales show the most important mammalian feature, feed
young with their milk. They take care of calves up to one year and
teach them how to attack or catch the prey. Whale’s social behavior is
the proof of their intelligence and that’s why Dolphins are used to
treat handicapped or mentally disordered children. This treatment is
known as ‘Dolphin Therapy.’ No doubt whales have great affinity to
humans.
This discussion of fish and whale shows that both the
animals have a great importance in the evolutionary development of
animal kingdom. Fish is the first stage of vertebral development while
whale is the last of aquatic mammal. This morphological study of
whales shows the resemblance with the evolution of Matsya-avatar
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and it satisfies raised question- why the Lord Visnu had selected first
Matsya-avatar i.e. evolution of Matsya Incarnation.
Cetacean Breath Chart [Table 4.2.1]
SPECIES MAX TIME MAX DIVEDEPTH
Pacific 5 minutes 210 m
White
Sided
Dolphin
Bottlenose 10 minutes 535 m
Dolphin
Killer 15 minutes 250 m
Whale
Narwhal 20 minutes 1000 m
Humpback 20 minutes 150 m
Whale
Gray 25 minutes 170 m
Whale
Fin Whale 30 minutes 500 m
Blue 50 minutes 100 m
Whale
Bowhead 80 minutes 300 m
Whale
Bottlenose 120 minutes 1000 m
Whale
Sperm 140 minutes 3000 m
Whale

122
References
4.1 Fish
1
Norman J. R. : A History of Fishes, ch-1, p.6
2
_________ , ________ , ch-1, p.4
3
_______ , ________ , ___ , p.6
4
Young Discoverer Series - Earth and Space, DK, p.32
5
Norman J. R. : A Histiory of Fishes, ch-17, p.341
6
________, ___________, _____, p.342
7
WBE, vol-7, Fish, p.178
8
Mi. St, DK, A Living Fossil
9
For details vide Khanna S. S., An Intr… , ch-8, p.121,
10
On. DVD, Image of Evolution : chordate timeline
11 ___________ , ___________ ,
article- Fish
12
Kyle Harry M. : The Biology of Fish, ch-1, p.22
13
vide Khanna S. S., An Intr…, ch-20, Ecology of Fishes, pg 417-22
14
WBE, vol-7, Fish, p.157
15
Kyle Harry M. : The Biology of Fish, P. 250
16
Khanna S. S. : An Intr…. , ch-17, p.393
17
Kyle Harry M. : The Biology of Fish, p.320
18 1
Khanna S. S. : An Intr…. , ch-10, p.139
2
WBE, vol.-7, vide article Fish, p.15
3
On. DVD, Article- Fish by Stanley H. Weitzman,
19
Kyle Harry M. : The Biology of Fish, p.11
20
Young J. Z. : The Life of Vertebrates, Fishes, pg 117-20
21
Khanna S. S. : An Intr… Locomotion, p. 147-49
22
Pandey and Shukla : Fish and Fisheries, ch-9, p.69
23
On. DVD, Article- Fish by Stanley H. Weitzman
24
Norman J. R. : A Histiory of Fishes, ch-1, p. 15
25
___________, ________, ______, p. 16

123
26
Kyle Harry M. : The Biology of Fish, ch-1, p. 8
27
Norman J. R. : The History of Fish, ch-6, Pp 103-108,
28
Kyle Harry M. : The Biology of Fish, p. 255
29
Hard-shelled animal: an invertebrate animal with several pairs of jointed legs,
a hard protective outer shell, two pairs of antennae, and eyes at the ends of stalks.
Ex. Crabs, lobsters, shrimp, crayfish.
30
On. DVD, FISH
31
Kyle Harry M. : The Biology of Fish, ch-1, p. 19
32
Khanna S. S. : An Intr., ch-17, p. 396
33
Norman J. R. : The History of Fish, ch-3, p. 34
34
a] ________, ____________, _____, p. 40
b] Young J. Z. : The Life of Vertebrates, Fish, p. 132
35
Khanna S. S. : An Intro., ch-21, p. 429
36
On. DVD, FISH
37
WBE, vol.-7, Fish, p. 171
38
Young J. Z. : The Life of Vertebrates, Fish, ch-7, p. 180
39
On. DVD, FISH
41
vide Young J.Z. : The Life of Vertebrates, Fish, ch-7, p. 183
42
WBE, vol.-7, Fish, p. 170
43
Norman J. R. : History of Fish, ch-6, Pp 145-148
44
Young J. Z. : The Life of Vertebrates, Fish, ch-7, p. 182
45
Micro. Stu. Encarta, see Whale Shark and Plankton
46
Foods : Facts and Principles, ch-45, p. 424
47
_________, _____________, ____, p. 401
48
Pandey and Shukla : Fish and Fisheries, ch - 45, p. 423
49
_________, Foods : Facts and Principles, ch-45, p. 402
50
vide, Khanna S. S. : An Intr….., ch-31, p. 480
51
_________, Foods : Facts and Principles, ch - 45, p. 425
52
_________, _______________, ____, p. 406
53
vide, Khanna S. S. : An Intr., ch - 31, p. 524
54
_____, ___________, ________, p. 480

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55
On. DVD, Fishery
56
NBK, vol-1, p. 340
57
On. DVD, Aquarium
58
WBE, vol.-7, Fish, p. 15
59
On.DVD, vide Cetaceans,
Mammals - A class of warm-blooded vertebrate animals that have, in the female,
milk-secreting organs for feeding the young. The class includes human beings,
apes, many four-legged animals, whales, dolphins, and bats.
60
WBE, vol-22 , whales, p. 203
61
The first fossil from 54.8 to 49 millions years ago in Pakistan.
62
NBK, Vol-20, whale, p. 150
63a
for details vide www.earthage.org>Scientific Evidences for a Worldwide
Flood>a whale fossil
63b
Mic St. Origin of Whale
64
WBE, vol.- 23, whale, p. 207
65
vide www.birds.cornell.edu/brp/research article - ‘The Sea Monsters
Expeditions’
66
vide www.birds.cornell.edu/brp/research article - Blue Whale
67
Coe Makolm : The Natural World, p.119
68
WBE, whale, p. 208
69
On. DVD, Cetaceans
70
vide BICREF research report
71
Mi, st., Blubber
72
WBE, vol.-23, Whale, p. 209
73
Young J. Z. : The Life of Vertebrates, ch - 26 p. 499
74
On. DVD, Cetacean, vide Cetacean breathing chart
75
________ , ____________ , Adaptations - Locomotion
76
WBE, Whale p. 210
77
Young J. Z. : The Life of Vertebrates, ch - 26, p. 501
78
Mi.St., see whale- Reproduction
79
A] On. DVD, Cetaceans – Reproduction

125
 B] vide www.birds.cornell.edu/brp/research article- using cold-war technology
to study the distribution and behavior of whales.
80
On. DVD, Cetaceans, Migration
81
WBE, Whale, p. 210
82
a] On. DVD, vide Cetaceans – Intelligence
b] Young J. Z. : The Life of Vertebrates, ch - 26, p. 500
83
Mic. St., whale
84
On. DVD, Whale
85
vide, sound production and communication, by Young J. Z. from ‘The Life of
Vertebrates’, ch - 26, p. 500
86
vide www.birds.cornell.edu/brp/research - article ‘Effects of Human-made
Sound on The Behavior of Whales’
87
NBK, vol. 7, Giants of nature, Pp. 202-3
*
Sonar - system for detecting underwater objects: a system that determines the
position of unseen underwater objects by transmitting sound waves and measuring
the time it takes for their echo to return after hitting the object.
*
Larynx - voice box: the cartilaginous box-shaped part of the respiratory tract
between the level of the root of the tongue and the top of the trachea. In humans
and some other air-breathing vertebrates it is the organ of voice production,
containing the vocal cord.
#
Echolocation – a physiological process for locating distant or invisible objects
(such as prey) by means of sound waves reflected back to the emitter by the
objects. Echolocation is used for orientation, obstacle avoidance, food
procurement, and social interactions.

126