What Is This Module About?

In Matter 1A: Forms, Properties and Changes, you learned what the periodic table is.
The periodic table is an orderly arrangement of all the known elements according to similarities
in chemical properties. By looking at the position of an element in the periodic table, you will
know what its properties are. You can tell if the element is a metal, nonmetal or metalloid; if it will
form a positive ion or a negative ion; and with what elements it will react.
The periodic table is an important learning tool for those who are interested in studying
chemistry. It will help them understand the similarities and differences between any two elements.
It is also an essential tool for chemists because it enables them to predict the properties of the still
undiscovered elements.
In this module, you will study the periodic table in detail. You will find out how the elements
are arranged in the periodic table and what the basis for this arrangement is. You will also find out
the trends in the periodic table in terms of atomic radius, ionization energy, metallic properties and
other properties of elements.
This module contains three lessons. These are:
Lesson 1 – The Periodic Table and Its Beginnings
Lesson 2 – The Modern Periodic Table
Lesson 3 – Trends in the Periodic Table

What Will You Learn From This Module?

After studying this module, you should be able to:

♦ trace the development of the periodic table;
♦ describe the modern periodic table;
♦ relate the outermost electron configurations of elements to their positions in the
periodic table;
♦ describe the grouping of elements in the periodic table;
♦ define atomic radius, ionization energy, electron affinity and electronegativity;
and
♦ explain the trends in the periodic table of the physical properties of elements, such as
atomic radius, ionization energy, electron affinity and electronegativity.

1
 Wait!
Before you continue reading this module, make sure that you have already read the
following modules:
♦ Matter 1A: Forms, Properties and Changes
♦ The Atom: A Closer Look
♦ Chemical Bonds: Forces That Link

Let’s See What You Already Know

Before you start studying this module, take the following test first to find out how much you
already know the topics to be discussed.
Encircle the letter of the correct answer.
1. Which of the following does not belong to group 6A?
a. 8
O
b. 85
At
c. 34
Se
d. 16
S
2. In which group does thallium belong?
a. 3A
b. 3B
c. 4A
d. 4B
3. Which of the following is the most metallic element?
a. Ne
b. N
c. Ca
d. Na
4. Which of the following elements react by gaining one electron?
a. alkali metals
b. alkaline earth metals
c. halogens
d. carbon family
5. The easier an atom loses an electron, the lesser is its ___________.
a. ionization energy
b. atomic radius
c. electronegativity
d. number of shells
2
 6. The willingness of an atom to receive electrons is measured by its _____________.
a. atomic radius
b. ionic size
c. ionization energy
d. electronegativity
7. Which of the following atoms has the lowest ionization energy?
a. Mg
b. Ne
c. Cl
d. Ba
8. Which of the following is not a transition element?
a. 23
V
b. 13
Al
c. 30
Zn
d. 24
Cr
9. Which of the following will form the smallest ion?
a. Cs
b. Sr
c. Ba
d. Rb
10. Which of the following is a noble gas?
a. Se
b. Ne
c. Te
d. Hf
Well, how was it? Do you think you fared well? Compare your answers with those in the
Answer Key on page 34.
If all your answers are correct, very good! This shows that you already know much about
the topics in this module. You may still study the module to review what you already know. Who
knows, you might learn a few more new things as well.
If you got a low score, don’t feel bad. This means that this module is for you. It will help you
understand some important concepts that you can apply in your daily life. If you study this module
carefully, you will learn the answers to all the items in the test and lot more! Are you ready?
You may go now to the next page to begin Lesson 1.

3
 LESSON 1

The Periodic Table and Its Beginnings

Everything on earth has its beginnings. Every scientific law began as an idea in a curious
thinker’s head. Even the periodic table started this way. The development of the periodic table
progressed as scientific investigation on the nature of the elements expanded. It is the product of
the efforts of many brilliant scientists.
In this lesson, you will find out how the periodic table was developed. You will learn how
scientists were able to figure out the relationships between the properties of the various elements
and how they arranged these relationships into an orderly pattern we now know as the periodic
table. Are you ready to find out the history of the periodic table? Read on!

Let’s Think About This

Look at the copy of the periodic table on the next page. How do you think the elements in
each column are related to one another? What about the elements in each row, what similarities
do they have with one another?
Read the following section to find out.

Let’s Learn

The atomic theory, proposed by John Dalton, opened the door to a vast amount of
chemical investigation. The list of chemical elements grew at a great rate during the first half of the
nineteenth century. Through newly developed analytical techniques, scientists were also able to
separate chemical “brothers” and “sisters” among the elements from one another. For example,
cadmium was separated from zinc ores. A mineral found in Ytterby, Sweden, yielded the almost
identical elements, yttrium and terbium.
New techniques yielded an explosion of discoveries of elements that by the 1860s alone,
more than 60 elements had been identified and their atomic weights measured. As the list of
known elements lengthened, it became obvious that there were similarities among different
elements that there ought to be some pattern of relationship among them.
For example, the properties of copper, silver and gold suggested that they must be related
to one another. So did those of lithium, sodium and potassium. The properties of table salt,
sodium chloride, such as its white crystals, ease of dissolving in water and “salty” taste, are
closely copied by the properties of lithium chloride and potassium chloride.

4
5
 In 1864, John Newlands, an English chemist, proposed a classification system in which the
elements are arranged in the order of increasing atomic masses. He noted that there appeared to
be a repetition of similar properties for every eighth element. At that time, the noble gases hadn’t
been discovered yet. Newlands called his arrangement the law of octaves. Look at the
following table:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Li Be B C N O F Na
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl K
K
Newlands’s Law of Octaves

The table above shows the law of octaves. Every eighth element has the same properties as
the first element in its group. Hence, lithium, Li, has the same properties as sodium, Na, and
potassium, K. Beryllium, Be, has the same properties as magnesium, Mg, and so on.
In 1869, Lothar Meyer, a German chemist, devised a classification of the elements into a
table that accounted for the periodic variations in their properties. His table included 56 elements.
In the same year, Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev proposed the periodic law, which
states when the elements are arranged according to increasing atomic weight, there is a periodic
repetition of elements with similar properties. The figure on the next page shows an early form of
the periodic table, as proposed by Mendeleev.
What do you notice about this arrangement? The order of the elements in horizontal rows is
broken into periods. As a consequence, the arrangement of the elements in vertical groupings can
be considered families (Reihen in the table). Here the elements with similar properties are found:
lithium (Li), sodium (Na), and potassium (K), for instance, in group I (Gruppe I in the table). In
each horizontal period, the elements are arranged in an order that displays decreasing metallic
properties from the decidedly metallic group I to the decidedly salt-forming group VII.
Notice that there are several blank locations in the table (for example, the spot below
aluminum, Al, in group III). These vacancies challenged the incompleteness of the existing
information at that time about the elements and insisted that as yet undiscovered elements would
be found. Mendeleev even predicted the properties of these yet undiscovered elements and their
compounds as well. The table on page 8 is a comparison of the properties of scandium, gallium
and germanium and Mendeleev’s predictions.

6
 Mendeleev’s Periodic Table

Gr u p p e I Gu p p e I I Gr u p p
____ ____ ___
Reihen R 2O RO R 2
1 H= 1
2 Li = 7 Be = 9,4 B = 11

7
3 Na = 23 Mg = 24
4 K = 39 Ca = 40 ___ = 44

5 (Cu = 63) Zn = 65
6 Rb = 85 Sr = 87 ?Yt = 88

7 (Ag = 108) Cd = 112

8 Cs = 133 Ba = 137 ?Di = 138
9 (-) ___
10 ___ ___ ?Er = 178

11 (Au = 199) Hg = 200

12 ___ ___ ___
 Property Mendeleev’s Prediction Observed Properties
in 1871

Scandium (discovered in 1877)

Molar mass 44 grams (g) 43.7 g

Oxide formula M2O3 Sc2O3
Density of oxide 3.5 grams/milliliter (g/mL) 3.86 g/mL
Solubility of oxide Dissolved in acids Dissolved in acids

Gallium (discovered in 1875)

Molar mass 68 g 69.6 g

Density of metal 6.0 g/mL 5.96 g/mL
Melting temperature low 30°C
Oxide formula M2O3 Ga2O3
Solubility of oxide Dissolved in ammonia solution Dissolved in ammonia
solution

Germanium (discovered in 1886)

Molar mass 72 g 71.9 g

Density of metal 5.5 g/mL 5.47 g/mL
Color of metal dark gray grayish white
Melting temperature of
metal high 900°C
Oxide formula MO2 GeO2
Density of oxide 4.7 g/mL 4.70 g/mL
Chloride formula MCl4 GeCl4
Boiling temperature of
metal Below 100°C 86°C

What can you say about Mendeleev’s predictions? They were quite accurate, weren’t they?
This just proves that his periodic law was right.
However, the periodic table and Mendeleev’s periodic law were later discovered to be
erroneous because there were some elements that violated this law. Iodine, for instance, is
supposed to be in group 6 because its atomic weight is smaller than that of tellurium. However, its
properties are similar to those of the elements in group 7, not group 6.
Henry G. Moseley, an English physicist, observed that the frequencies of X rays emitted
from elements could be correlated better with atomic numbers. If you recall, the atomic number
of an element is the number of protons in that element, which is also equal to the number of
electrons. In 1914, Moseley published the result of his work on 39 elements, arranging them
according to increasing atomic numbers, instead of atomic weights. Because of the young
scientist’s work, the modern periodic law was formulated. This law states that the chemical and
physical properties of elements are functions of their atomic numbers.

8
 Let’s Review

Describe the contributions made by the following scientists to the development of the
periodic table:
1. John Newlands
________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
2. Dmitri Mendeleev
________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
3. Henry Moseley
________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
Compare your answers with those in the Answer Key on page 34.

Let’s See What You Have Learned

Answer the following:

1. What is the law of octaves?
________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
2. What is Mendeleev’s periodic law?
________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
3. Why is Mendeleev’s periodic table erroneous?
________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
Compare your answers with those in the Answer Key on page 34. Did you get everything
right? If you did, that’s very good! If you did not, that’s okay. Just review the parts of the lesson
that you did not understand very well. Afterward, you may move on to Lesson 2.

Let’s Remember

♦ The first comprehensive periodic table was proposed by Dmitri Mendeleev, who said
that the elements could be arranged according to increasing atomic weight.
♦ Henry Moseley’s work on the X rays emitted by elements led to the formulation of the
modern periodic law, which states that the chemical and physical properties of
elements are functions of their atomic numbers, not their atomic weights.
9
 LESSON 2

The Modern Periodic Table

The arrangement of elements in the periodic table may be compared to the arrangement of
goods in a market. Markets are normally classified into two—wet and dry markets. In a wet
market, fish, meat and vegetable vendors stay on separate lanes. Such an arrangement allows the
buyers to easily locate the stalls of their choice.

In a dry market, retailers of pants are usually separated from those of shirts, blouses and
fabrics. Retailers of hair accessories, bags, shoes and slippers and paper products are also
orderly arranged.

Because there is order, it is easy to look for items you want to buy. Similarly, the orderly
arrangement of elements in the periodic table allows one to easily locate them and identify their
properties.

10
 Let’s Learn

Below is a copy of the modern periodic table.

A single horizontal row in the periodic table is called a period. What are the elements in
period 1? There are only two elements in period 1, hydrogen and helium. The second period
contains Li, Be, B, C, N, O, F and Ne.
A vertical column of elements, on the other hand, is called a group or family. Elements are
said to belong to a group or family because they have similar physical and chemical properties.
The groups or families are identified by numbers across the top of the periodic table.
The elements are divided into two sections—the A groups, which are the representative
elements, and the B groups, which are the transition elements.

Let’s Try This

1. State whether each of the following sets of elements represents a group, period or
neither.
a. Ca, Br, Fe
b. C, Si, Pb
c. Pt, Ba, Hg
d. Cl, Br, Ag
e. He, Ne, Ar
11
 2. Identify which element is represented by each of the following sets of period numbers
and group numbers.
a. period 6, group 4A
b. period 3, group 8A
c. period 6, group 1B
d. period 2, group 7A
e. period 4, group 2B
Compare your answers with those in the Answer Key on page 35.

Let’s Learn

Before we discuss further the arrangement of the elements in the periodic table, let us first
review what electron configuration is. You found out in the module The Atom: A Closer Look
that electrons are found at distances around the nucleus, called shells or energy levels. The higher
the energy level, the greater the number of electrons it can hold. The following table shows the
maximum number of electrons each energy level can hold:

Energy Level (n) Maximum Number of Electrons

1 2
2 8
3 18
4 32
5 50

You also found out that in each energy level there is a definite number of atomic orbitals,
regions in space where electrons are most likely to be found.
An atomic orbital may be any of five different shapes. These are:
♦ Sharp (s)—spherical; there can only be one of this in an energy level.
♦ Principal (p)—dumbbell-shaped; a maximum of three can be found in an energy level
♦ Diffuse (d)—four lobe-shaped; a maximum of 5 can occupy an energy level
♦ Fundamental (f)—six lobe-shaped; a maximum of 7 can be found in an energy level.
According to Pauli’s exclusion principle, only two electrons can occupy the same atomic
orbital at the same time.

12
 Thus, based on this rule, the maximum number of electrons in each orbital is as follows:

Orbital Number of Atomic Orbitals Number of Electrons

s 1 1(2) = 2
p 3 3(2) = 6
d 5 5(2) = 10
f 7 7(2) = 14

Each element has a unique electron configuration, a designation for the most probable
distribution of electrons in an atom. The following table will guide you in determining the
distribution of electrons for each energy level in an atom:

Main Energy Level (n) Number of Identity of N

Sublevels Sublevels O

1 1 1s
2 2 2s
2p
3 3 3s
3p
3d
4 4 4s
4d
4p
4f

Three rules apply in determining the electron configuration of an element. These are:
1. The Aufbau principle—According to this rule, electrons tend to occupy orbitals of
the lowest energy before moving to higher-energy orbitals. Hence, the 1s orbital will be
filled first, then the 2s orbital, the 2p orbital and so on. The diagram on the next page
shows the relative energies of the various orbitals in an atom. The order of increasing
energies in the atomic orbitals is listed as follows: 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s,
4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f, 6d, 7p, 8s.

13
 You can use the following guide in distributing electrons among the orbitals:

1s 2s 3s 4s 5s 6s

2p 3p 4p 5p 6p

3d 4d 5d 6d

4f 5f

2. When electrons enter a sublevel containing more than one orbital, they will spread over
the available orbitals with their spins in one direction before they pair up with opposite
spins. This is known as Hund’s rule of multiplicity.
3. Electrons occupying the same orbital must have opposite spins. This is Pauli’s
exclusion principle.

Let’s Review

Give the electron configuration of:

1. 8
O
2. 17
Cl
3. 2
He
4. 28
Ni
5. 35
Br
Are your answers the same as mine?
1. 8
O: 1s2 2s2 2p4
2. 17
Cl: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5
3. 2
He: 1s2
4. 28
Ni: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d8
5. 35
Br: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p5

14
 Let’s Learn

A group of elements is often called a family because of the similarities among the elements
that belong to it. Each family is given a name. For example, group 1A elements—lithium, sodium,
potassium, rubidium, cesium and francium—are known as the alkali metals. These elements are
all shiny metals that are highly reactive.
Group 7A elements, on the other hand, are known as the halogens. These elements exist as
diatomic molecules, that is, they occur as F2, Cl2, Br2 and I2. Group 8A elements are known as
the noble gases. They are quite unreactive and hence are seldom found in combination with other
elements.
Look at the representative elements. If you recall, these are the elements that belong to
groups 1A to 7A. Study the electron configurations of some of these elements. Let’s try sodium,
beryllium and fluorine:

11
Na: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1

4
Be: 1s2 2s2

9
F: 1s2 2s2 2p5
What do you notice about these elements? What do you notice about their outer energy
levels? What types of orbitals do their electrons occupy? If you noticed that their outer energy
levels are not filled, that’s very good. This is the main characteristic of the representative elements.
The outer energy level of these elements is incomplete and the electrons occupy s or p orbitals.
The electron configurations of these elements include ns1 to ns5.
The following is a complete list of the families of elements and their special names:
Group 1A Alkali metals
2A Alkaline earth metals
3A Boron family
4A Carbon family
5A Nitrogen family
6A Oxygen family
7A Halogen family
8A Noble gases
Notice that among the representative elements, only the noble gases have filled outermost
energy levels. This is why they are also called inert gases. In fact, all the other representative
elements form bonds with other elements so as to achieve the electron configuration of the stable
gases of group 8A.
Now let us relate the position of each element to its electron configuration. Let’s look at the
electron configuration again of sodium. Sodium has an electron configuration 1s22s22p63s1. How
many electrons does its outermost energy level have? It has 1 electron in its outermost energy

15
level. In which energy level is its outermost electron found? Its outermost electron is found in the
third energy level. Where is sodium located in the periodic table? Sodium is in group 1A and is in
the third period. What can you conclude from this?
The period number of an element indicates the energy level in which its outermost electron is
found. The group or family number of the element, on the other hand, indicates the number of
electrons in its incomplete energy level.
Try the following exercise.

Let’s Try This

Give the group number and period number of each of the following elements based on its
electron configuration.
1. 1s22s22p63s2
2. 1s22s22p3
3. 1s22s22p63s23p1
4. 1s22s22p63s23p64s2
5. 1s22s22p1
Compare your answers with those in the Answer Key on page 35.

Let’s Learn

Remember the following:

Group 1A ns1
These groups are called the s-block elements because the s
orbitals are being filled.
Group 2A ns2
Group 3A ns2np1
Group 4A ns2np2
Group 5A ns2np3 These groups are called p-block elements because the
p orbitals are being filled.
Group 6A ns2np4
Group 7A ns2np5
Group 8A ns2np6
The transition elements or group B elements are referred to as d-block elements because
the d orbitals are being filled.
The lanthanide or rare earth series and the actinide series are called f-block elements
because the f orbitals are being filled. They are also known as inner transition elements.

16
 Let’s Review

Identify whether each of the following elements is an s-block, p-block, d-block or f-block
element.
1. arsenic _________________ 6. radon _________________
2. thorium _________________ 7. palladium _________________
3. osmium _________________ 8. tungsten _________________
4. nickel _________________ 9. platinum _________________
5. strontium _________________ 10. terbium _________________
Compare your answers with those in the Answer Key on page 35.

Let’s Learn

Now let’s take a look at some groups of elements. Let’s start with the members of group
1A, the alkali metals.

Potassium (K) Sodium (Na)

Rubidium (Rb) Lithium (Li) Cesium (Cs)

The alkali metals are lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, cesium and francium. They are
soft, highly reactive and are excellent conductors of heat and electricity. Lithium is the lightest of
all metals and floats on water. Its compounds are used in certain kinds of glass and porcelain
products. It is also an important component of dry cell-batteries and nuclear reactors. Sodium
compounds have many industrial uses. These compounds include sodium chloride, sodium
hydroxide (lye), sodium carbonate (washing soda) and sodium sulfate. Potassium reacts so
violently that it bursts into flames. The compound potassium nitrate (KNO3) is used in fertilizers
and pyrotechnics. Rubidium is used in making cathode ray tubes. Cesium is so reactive that it will
explode even on contact with ice. It is used in the manufacture of vacuum tubes. A cesium
isotope is also used in making atomic clocks. Francium is radioactive and so far, only a very small
amount of this element has been isolated.

17
 The alkaline earth metals are beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium and radium.
Alkaline earth metals are harder and less reactive than alkali metals. Beryllium is quite rare and is
found in emeralds. Magnesium and its alloys are used in the manufacture of lightweight mechanical
parts. It is also an important nutritional element and is the central atom in the chlorophyll molecule.
Calcium is the fifth most abundant element in the earth’s crust and is widely distributed as
limestone, quicklime and calcium fluoride. It is important in the formation of bones and teeth.
Strontium compounds are used in pyrotechnic devices and signal fires. So are barium
compounds. Barium sulfate, on the other hand, is used in X-ray diagnostics. Radium is
radioactive and is very dangerous.

Strontium (Sr) Barium (Ba) Radium (Ra)

Beryllium (Be) Tin (Sn) Calcium (Ca)

The boron family is made up of boron, aluminum, gallium, indium and tellurium. Among the
members of the boron family, aluminum is the best known. It ranks third on the list of the ten most
abundant elements in the earth’s crust. In fact, it is the most abundant metal on earth. It is soft,
lightweight and silvery, and an excellent conductor of heat and electricity. It is used in making
doorknobs, power cables and, when combined with silicon and iron, can also be used in making
construction tools. Boron and gallium are metalloids. Gallium became popular in the 1970s as a
material in making diodes. Indium is a corrosion-resistant metal.

Boron (B) Aluminum (Al)

Gallium (Ga) Indium (In)

18
 The carbon family is made up of the nonmetal carbon, the metalloids silicon and germanium,
and the metals tin and lead. Carbon exists as a diamond, amorphous carbon and graphite.
Recently, another form of carbon, buckminsterfullerene, was discovered. Each molecule of
buckminsterfullerene is made up of 60 carbon atoms.
Silicon occurs abundantly as silicate. It is present in rocks, sand and other types of soil.
Because it is a metalloid, silicon is used in making transistors, integrated circuits and microchips
for computers. Semiconductor industries favor silicon over germanium although both are used in
making photocells in solar calculators.

Carbon (graphite) Carbon (diamond) Silicon (Si)

Germanium (Ge) Tin (Sn) Lead (Pb)

Tin is used in making cans for packing food and other goods. When combined with copper,
tin forms bronze, a very durable alloy.
The nitrogen family is made up of the nonmetals nitrogen and phosphorus, the metalloids
arsenic and antimony, and the metal bismuth. All these elements occur as solids, except for
nitrogen, which occurs as a gas.
Both phosphorus and nitrogen are important components of fertilizers. Both arsenic and
antimony are used in semiconductor devices. Arsenic is a widely used element, being used in the
manufacture of a lot of things, from wallpaper to ceramics. There are also arsenic compounds that
are very toxic, such as arsenous oxide (As2O3). Compounds of bismuth are used in making oil
pigments used for painting.

Phosphorus (P) Arsenic (As)

Nitrogen (N2) Bismuth (Bi) Antimony (Sb)

19
 The oxygen family consists of the nonmetals oxygen, sulfur and selenium, and the metalloids
tellurium and polonium. Oxygen is an extremely important gas used in the process of respiration.
It is also needed for combustion—nothing can burn without oxygen. Sulfur is an essential material
in steel making, petroleum refinery and vulcanizing rubber. Selenium is sensitive to light and is thus
used as a component of copying machines and laser lights. Tellurium is used in making blasting
caps while polonium, which is radioactive, is used in some photography materials.

Sulfur (S8) Selenium (Se) Tellurium (Te)

The halogen family is composed of fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine and astatine. Their
gases occur as diatomic molecules. Fluorine is a highly toxic, reactive greenish-yellow gas at
room temperature. Because of its reactivity, it is never found in its elemental form in nature.
Compounds of fluorine are present in fluoride toothpaste. Fluorocarbons such as Teflon have
made a major impact on life in the twentieth century. Chlorine is also greenish yellow but it is not
as reactive as fluorine. It is used for disinfecting water. At room temperature, bromine is a
reddish-brown fuming liquid. It is used in making dyes, disinfectants and photographic chemicals.
Elemental iodine is a dark gray solid and when heated, it turns into a violet gas. Iodine is added to
table salt to ensure protection against iodine deficiencies. Astatine is highly radioactive and not
much is known about its chemical properties.

20
 Let’s See What You Have Learned

A. Give the electron configuration of each of the following elements and identify its group
number and period number.
1. 56
Ba
2. 31
Ga
3. 7
N
4. 37
Rb
5. 18
Ar
6. 15
P
7. 55
Cs
8. 49
In
9. 53
I
10. 35
Br
B. Identify the element to which each of the following electron configurations
corresponds. Then identify the family to which the element belongs.
1. 1s2 2s2 2p1
2. 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d5
3. 1s2 2s2 2p5
4. 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p4
5. 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d8
C. Describe two groups of elements and give their importance.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Compare your answers with those in the Answer Key on page 36. Did you get a perfect
score? If you did, that’s very good. If you did not, don’t worry. Just review the parts of the lesson
that you did not understand very well. Afterward, you may proceed to Lesson 3.

21
Let’s Remember

♦ A single horizontal row in the periodic table is called a period. A vertical column of
elements, on the other hand, is called a group or family.
♦ The elements are divided into two sections—the A groups or representative elements
and the B groups or transition elements.
♦ The period number of an element indicates the energy level or shell in which its
outermost electron can be found. The group or family number indicates the number of
electrons in the element’s incomplete energy level or shell.
♦ Groups 1A and 2A are called s-block elements. Groups 3A to 8A are called p-block
elements. The transition elements or group B elements are called d-block elements,
while the lanthanide or rare earth series and the actinide series are called f-block
elements.

22
 LESSON 3

Trends in the Periodic Table

The periodic table is very useful because it allows you to predict the properties of an
element just by looking at its position in the periodic table. As you found out in Lesson 2, the
electron configuration of the outermost energy level of an element is also related to its position in
the periodic table. Likewise, you can determine the electron configuration of an element by
looking at the periodic table. An element in group 1 will have an electron configuration ending in
s1, meaning that the outer level of each atom in group 1 has one electron.
Most of the physical and chemical properties of an element depend on the electrons in the
highest energy level. For the representative elements, these electrons are called valence
electrons, the electrons in the outermost energy level. Valence electrons determine the combining
capacity of an atom, that is, they dictate with what elements a given element will combine in order
to achieve the electron configuration of an inert gas.
Since the atomic number of an element represents the number of protons which is also equal
to the number of electrons, it is easy enough to conclude that the properties of elements will vary
across a period and within a group as well. In this lesson, you will find out how various properties
such as atomic radius, metallic and nonmetallic properties, ionization energy and electron affinity
vary among elements in a period and in a group.

Let’s Study and Analyze

Examine the periodic table on page 5. Can you tell which among the elements are metals
and which are not? In what part of the periodic table can you find the greatest number of metals?
What does this say about the trend in metallic properties in the periodic table?
Check if your observations are correct in the following section.

Let’s Learn

Look at the periodic table on page 5. Do you notice the thick zigzag line? This line separates
the metals from the nonmetals.
Generally, elements with three or less electrons in the outermost energy level are classified as
metals, while those with five or more electrons in the outermost energy level are classified as
nonmetals. Elements that are adjacent to the zigzag line are called metalloids, elements that
exhibit both metallic and nonmetallic properties. Can you identify these elements? The metalloids
include boron, silicon, germanium and tellurium.
Can you still recall the properties of metals and nonmetals?

23
 Metals have high melting points, luster and are good conductors of heat and electricity. They
are usually solid and can be shaped into wires (ductile) and hammered into flat shapes
(malleable). All metals are solid at room temperature except mercury, which is a solid.
Nonmetals often occur as gases or liquids. They have low melting points and are poor
conductors of heat and electricity. They are not shiny, malleable or ductile.
Can you name some metals? How about nonmetals?
Magnesium, copper, silver, gold and iron are metals. Some common nonmetals are chlorine,
sulfur, oxygen, carbon and nitrogen. Where can you find these elements in the periodic table?

Let’s Try This

Classify each of the following as metal or nonmetal and state why you say so.
1. K
2. N
3. Mn
4. Br
5. P
Compare your answers with mine:
1. Potassium, K, is a metal because it is located to the left of the zigzag line in the periodic
table.
2. Nitrogen, N, is a nonmetal because it is located to the right of the zigzag line.
3. Manganese, Mn, is a metal because it is located to the left of the zigzag line.
4. Bromine, Br, is a nonmetal because it is located to the right of the zigzag lie.
5. Phosphorus, P, is a nonmetal because it is located to the right of the zigzag line.

Let’s Learn

Metallic properties follow a trend in the periodic table. Across a period, metallic properties
tend to decrease. Thus, the leftmost elements are the most metallic while the rightmost ones are
the most nonmetallic. In period 4, for instance, potassium, K, is the most metallic while krypton,
Kr, is the most nonmetallic. As you go down a group, on the other hand, the most metallic
elements are found at the bottom of the group while the most nonmetallic are found at the top.
Thus, in group 1, hydrogen, H, is the most nonmetallic while francium, Fr, is the most metallic.

24
 Let’s Try This

Arrange the following elements from the most nonmetallic to the most metallic:
Li, Cl, Cs, Al, S
Compare your answer with the one in the Answer Key on page 36.

Let’s Learn

Do you think it is possible to measure the size of an atom? Well, as you found out in The
Atom: A Closer Look, it is difficult to know where the electrons are exactly located around the
atom, hence, there is no sharp boundary for the atom. Therefore, it would not be possible to
measure the size of an individual atom. But there is a way of knowing the radius of an atom.
What is atomic radius? Atomic radius is the straight line extending from the center of the
atomic sphere to its circumference or the boundary of the atom. Look at the diagram below:

Radius

How is atomic radius measured? It is measured by getting the distance between the nuclei
(centers) of two atoms that are bonded together. This distance is called interatomic bonded
distance. Half this distance is the radius of the atom. Consider for instance the diatomic chlorine
molecule in the diagram below:

99 pm

198 pm

The interatomic bonded distance in a chlorine molecule

What you see in the diagram is a chlorine molecule. It is diatomic, meaning it is made up of
two atoms. The distance between the nuclei of the two atoms is 198 picometers (pm).A
picometer is 1/100000000000 of a meter. Half the distance is 99 pm, which is the atomic radius
of chlorine.

25
 If you go across a period in the periodic table, there is a decrease in the atomic radii of the
elements. Why is this so? Notice that as you go across a period, the atomic number increases.
Since there is an increase in the number of protons and in the number of electrons, you can
expect that there will also be an increased attraction between the two. The increase in protons
means that the electrons are being pulled toward the nucleus with a greater force. Hence, the
atomic radius decreases.
If you go down a group of elements in the periodic table, there is an increase in the atomic
radii of the elements. You will notice that there is also an increase in atomic number among a
group of elements. However, as you go down a group, you will see there is also an increase in
energy levels. This means that the outer electrons are farther away from the nucleus of the atom
and hence the force of attraction between these electrons and the protons is reduced.
Consider, for instance, the elements in the following table:

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li Be B C N O F Ne
1.23 0.90 0.82 0.77 0.75 0. 73 0.72 0.71

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
1.54 1.36 1.18 1.11 1.06 1.02 0.99 0.98

Notice how lithium, Li, with an atomic number of 3, is the largest among the elements in the
period but is smaller compared to sodium, Na, which is below it in the group.

Let’s Review

Identify which among the following elements has the biggest atomic radius and which one
has the smallest:
Ca, Sr, Ni, Au, K, I
Compare your answers with those in the Answer Key on page 36.

Let’s Learn

Can you recall what ions are? Ions are electrically charged particles formed from either
adding electrons to or subtracting them from atoms. How are positive ions formed? Positive ions
are formed when the outermost electrons in atoms are removed. The energy required to remove
an outermost electron (which is of course the least firmly attached electron) from an atom in the
gaseous state is called first ionization energy. The energy required to remove the second
electron from the atom is the second ionization energy, and so on. The first ionization energy is
always lower than the succeeding ionization energies. Why do you think this is so?
We say that an atom is neutral because the number of its protons is equal to the number of
its electrons. When you change an atom into a cation or positive ion, you have to remove an

26
electron. This results in a smaller number of electrons compared to that of protons. Because there
are now more protons, there is an excess positive charge that pulls the electrons toward the
nucleus. This makes it harder to remove another electron from the now positive ion. This is the
reason why the succeeding ionization energies are always greater than the first.
For example, the first ionization energy of lithium is 520 kilojoules per mole (kJ/mol). This
means that 520 kilojoules is required to remove an electron from 1 mole of lithium. The second
ionization energy of lithium is 7300 kJ/mol and its third ionization energy is 11815 kJ/mol.
Across a period, there is an increase in ionization energy from left to right. This is due to the
increasing nuclear charge although the atoms are in the same energy level. Remember that as the
atomic number increases, there is a greater number of protons and hence a greater positive
charge in the nucleus that pulls the electrons toward the nucleus. This attraction between the
nucleus and the electrons increases from left to right in the periodic table because the outermost
electrons are in the same energy level, meaning they are at the same distance from the nucleus.
Look at the ionization energies of the elements of period 3, for instance:

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
495.9 738.1 577.1 786.3 1012 999.5 1251 1521

The first ionization energies of period 3 elements, measured in kJ/mol

Did you notice that the ionization energy decreased from Mg to Al and from P to S? Do you
know why? Let’s look at the electron configurations of Al and S:

13
Al: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1

16
S: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4
Both aluminum and sulfur have unpaired electrons in the outermost orbital, 3p. Unpaired
electrons are easier to remove, hence, the ionization energies of the two elements are lower. The
same holds true for all other 3A and 6A elements.
Ionization energy decreases from top to bottom in a group. Although there is also an
increase in nuclear charge, the outermost electrons are at a higher energy level and are therefore
farther from the nucleus. Therefore, there is less attraction between the nucleus and the electrons
and it is easier to remove the outermost electron. Let’s take a look at group 8A:

27
 The ionization energies of group 8A elements,
measured in electron volts per atom

2
He
24.6

10
Ne
21.6

18
Ar
15.8

36
Kr
14.0

54
Xe
12.1

86
Rn
10.7

Let’s Review

Name which element in each set has the highest ionization energy:
1. As, Se, Cu, Fe
2. N, P, Sb, Bi
3. Ca, Ca2+, Mg, Mg2+
Compare your answers with those in the Answer Key on page 36.

Let’s Learn

Anions or negative ions are formed when atoms gain electrons from other atoms. The
amount of energy released when an atom gains an electron is called electron affinity.
There are few reliable values for electron affinities of the elements because it is difficult to
measure electron affinity. It is a well-known fact, though, that electron affinity increases within a
period and decreases from top to bottom in a group. This is because the outermost electrons are
farther from the nucleus, hence, not much energy is released when an electron is accepted into the
outermost shell. The only exception here is fluorine, whose small size causes repulsion among the
outermost electrons and therefore releases only a small amount of energy.

28
 Since we have talked about ions, both cations and anions, do you know which of these two
types of ions are larger than their respective atoms? An anion is larger than its atom because it has
gained one or more electrons. A cation, on the other hand, is smaller than its atom because it has
lost one or more electrons.
Consider the following species and their electron configurations:

12
Mg2+ 1s22s22p6

10
Ne 1s22s22p6

11
Na+ 1s22s22p6

9
F– 1s22s22p6

8
O 2– 1s22s22p6
What do you notice about the species listed? Did you notice that they have the same
electron configuration? If you did, that’s very good! Species that have the same electron
configuration are said to be isoelectronic. Do they have the same size? No. You should
remember that the greater the positive charge, the smaller the species and the greater the negative
charge, the bigger the species. Based on this, can you tell which of the species listed is the
smallest and which one is the largest?
Arranging them from the highest positive charge and the highest negative charge, you will
get:
Mg2+ < Na+ < Ne < F– < O2–
This is also the arrangement of the species from the smallest to the largest.

Let’s Review

Arrange the following from the smallest to the largest.

Ca2+, K+, Se2–, Kr, Br–
Compare your answers with those in the Answer Key on page 37.

Let’s Learn

Do you know what electronegativity is? Electronegativity is the ability of an atom to

attract electrons toward itself. The greater the electronegativity, the greater the attraction of
electrons.
Electronegativity tends to increase from left to right across a period and decreases from top
to bottom in each group. It can also be seen as a measure of the tendency of an atom to form a
negative ion. You found out about this concept in the module Chemical Bonds: Forces That
Link and you know that the greater the electronegativity difference between two bonding atoms,
the more polar the bond formed is.

29
 There is no denying the importance of the periodic table. You will be able to predict the
properties of one element if you know the properties of another element that belongs to the same
family or group. Similarly, you can also tell the properties of compounds formed from elements in
the same group.
You can also use the periodic table to predict the formula of a compound.
For example, suppose you are asked to tell the formula of the compound formed from
sodium, Na, and oxygen, O. Na belongs to group 1A and therefore its ion will have a charge of
+1. O belongs to group 6A and its ion will have a charge of –2. The formula of their compound,
therefore, is Na2O.
The following diagram summarizes the trends in the periodic table:

Let’s See What You Have Learned

Answer the following:

1. Use the periodic table to predict formulas for the compounds formed from the
following pairs of elements:
a. copper-sulfur
b. barium-chlorine
c. beryllium-tellurium
d. sodium-fluorine
2. In each of the following sets, tell which one would be the smallest.
a. Cl–, Br, S2–
b. Na, Na+, Mg, Mg2+, Ca, Ca2+
3. List the following items in the order of increasing metallic property.
a. Zn
b. Ca
c. Na

30
 d. Cs
e. Mg
f. Al
4. Arrange the following in the order of increasing electronegativity.
a. S
b. Se
c. Cl
d. Br
e. I
Compare your answers with those in the Answer Key on page 37. Did you get a perfect
score? If you did, that’s very good. If you did not, that’s okay. Just review the parts of the lesson
that you did not understand very well before you move on to the next part of the module.

Let’s Remember

♦ In the periodic table, metals are found to the left of the thick zigzag line while nonmetals
are found to the right of the line. Metalloids are found close to the line. Metallic
properties tend to decrease from left to right in the periodic table and tend to increase
from top to bottom.
♦ Atomic radius decreases from left to right and increases from top to bottom in the
periodic table.
♦ Ionization energy tends to increase from left to right and tends to decrease from top to
bottom in the periodic table.
♦ Electron affinity increases from left to right and decreases from top to bottom in the
periodic table.
♦ Electronegativity also increases from left to right and decreases from top to bottom in
the periodic table.
♦ You can predict the formula of a compound by looking at the positions of the reacting
elements in the periodic table.
Well, this is the end of the module. Congratulations for finishing it! Did you enjoy studying it?
Did you learn a lot from it? The following is a summary of its main points to help you remember
them better.

31
 Let’s Sum Up

This module tells us that:

♦ The elements are arranged in the periodic table according to increasing atomic number.
♦ The modern periodic table was developed through the efforts of such scientists as John
Newlands, Lothar Meyer, Dmitri Mendeleev and Henry Moseley.
♦ A single horizontal row in the periodic table is called a period. A vertical column of
elements is called a group or family.
♦ The period number of an element indicates the energy level or shell in which its
outermost electron can be found. The group or family number indicates the number of
electrons in the element’s incomplete energy level.
♦ Metallic properties and atomic radii tend to decrease from left to right and tend to
increase from top to bottom in the periodic table. Ionization energy, electron affinity
and electronegativity, on the other hand, tend to increase from left to right and tend to
decrease from top to bottom in the periodic table.

What Have You Learned?

Give what is asked for in each of the following items.

1. Using the periodic table, identify which element in each pair is more metallic.
a. aluminum and silicon
b. calcium and arsenic
c. nitrogen and oxygen
d. sodium and beryllium
2. Arrange the following elements in the order of increasing electronegativity:
O, Al, P, Si, S, Mg
3. How does a family of elements differ from a period of elements?
_______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
4. What are the differences between metals and nonmetals?
_________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________-
_______________________________________________________________________

32
 5. Use the periodic table in order to tell if each of the following sets of elements is part of
a group or of a period. If the set represents neither a group nor a period, write None.
a. Ni, Cr, Ca, Ga
b. O, F, Ge, Pb
c. Ba, Be, Sr, Ra
d. Pt, Hf, Bi, Po
6. Describe and differentiate between the alkali metals and the alkaline earth metals.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
7. Indicate whether each of the following describes a group of elements or a period in the
periodic table.
a. contains the elements Co, As and Se
b. begins with He
c. ends with Kr
d. begins with atomic number 29
8. Explain why the periodic table is important.
_____________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
9. Name at least two scientists who contributed to the development of the periodic table
and describe their contributions.
_________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
Compare your answers with those in the Answer Key on pages 37 and 38. Did you get a
perfect score? If you did, that’s great! It means you learned a lot from this module. If you got a
low score, just review the parts of the module that you didn’t understand very well and take the
test again. Then you will be ready for the next module.

33
 Answer Key

A. Let’s See What You Already Know (pages 2–3)

1. b
2. a
3. d
4. c
5. a
6. d
7. a
8. b
9. b
10. b

B. Lesson 1
Let’s Review (page 9)
1. John Newlands was the scientist who formulated the law of octaves. According
to this law, every eighth element has the same properties as the first element in its
group.
2. Dmitri Mendeleev arranged the elements in the order of increasing atomic
weights. He was the first one to construct a comprehensive periodic table and
even predicted the properties of still undiscovered elements.
3. Henry Moseley’s studies on the X rays of certain elements led him to conclude
that elements in the periodic table should be arranged according to increasing
atomic numbers.
Let’s See What You Have Learned (page 9)
1. According to the law of octaves, every eighth element has the same properties as
the first element in its group.
2. Mendeleev’s periodic law states that when the elements are arranged according
to increasing atomic weight, there is a periodic repetition of elements with similar
properties.
3. Mendeleev’s periodic table is erroneous because in it, the elements are arranged
according to increasing atomic weight. Elements should be arranged according to
increasing atomic number instead.

34
C. Lesson 2
Let’s Try This (pages 11–12)
1. a. period. Ca, Br and Fe are all found in period 4.
b. group. C, Si and Pb are all found in group 4A.
c. period. Pt, Ba and Hg are all in period 6.
d. neither
e. group. He, Ne and Ar are all found in group 8A.
2. a. Pb
b. Ar
c. Au
d. F
e. Zn
Let’s Try This (page 16)
1. period 3, group 2
2. period 2, group 5
3. period 3, group 3
4. period 4, group 2
5. period 2, group 3
Let’s Review (page 17)
1. p-block (because arsenic is in group 5A)
2. f-block (because thorium is a member of the actinide series)
3. d-block (because osmium is a transition element)
4. d-block (because nickel is a transition element)
5. s-block (because strontium is in group 2A)
6. p-block (because radon is in group 8A)
7. d-block (because palladium is a transition element)
8. d-block (because tungsten is a transition element)
9. d-block (because platinum is a transition element)
10. f-block (because terbium is a member of the lanthanide series)

35
 Let’s See What You Have Learned (page 21)
A. 1. Ba: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p66 s2 Therefore, Ba is in
period 6, group 2A.
2. Ga: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d104p1 Therefore, Ga is in period 4, group 3A.
3. N: 1s2 2s2 2p3 Therefore, N is in period 2, group 5A.
4. Rb: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s1 Therefore, Rb is in period 5, group
1A.
5. Ar: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 Therefore, Ar is in period 3, group 8A.
6. P: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3 Therefore, P is in period 3, group 5A.
7. Cs: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p6 6s1 Therefore, Cs is in group
6, period 1A.
8. In: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p1 Therefore, In is in period 5,
group 3A.
9. I: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p5 Therefore, I is in period 5,
group 7A.
10. Br: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p5 Therefore, Br is in period 4, group 7A.
B. 1. boron; boron family
2. manganese; group 7B
3. fluorine; halogens
4. selenium; oxygen family
5. rhodium; group 8B
C. Answers will vary. Just look at “Let’s Learn,” pages 17 to 20, to check if your
answers are correct.

D. Lesson 3
Let’s Try This (page 25)
Cl, S, Al, Li, Cs
Let’s Review (page 26)
K has the biggest radius because it is in period 1A while iodine has the smallest atomic
radius because it is in group 7A.
Let’s Review (page 28)
1. Se (because it is the rightmost element in the set)
2. N (because it is at the top of the group)
3. Mg2+ (because it is an ion and Mg is above Ca in the periodic table)

36
 Let’s Review (page 29)
Ca2+ < K+ < Kr < Br– < Se2–
Let’s See What You Have Learned (pages 30–31)
1. a. Since copper belongs to group 1B, it will form a +1 ion. Sulfur belongs to
group 6A and will thus form a –2 ion. Therefore, the formula of the
compound is Cu2S.
b. Barium belongs to group 2A and will form a +2 ion. Chlorine belongs to
group 7A and will form a –1 ion. Therefore, the formula for the compound
is BaCl2.
c. Beryllium is in group 2A and will form a +2 ion. Tellurium is in group 6A
and will form a –2 ion. Therefore the formula is Be2Te2. Since there is an
equal amount of atoms for each element, we can write the formula as BeTe.
d. Sodium is in group 1A and will thus form a +1 ion. Fluorine is in group 7A
and will form a –1 ion. The formula, therefore, is NaF.
2. a. The smallest is Br because it is a neutral atom and therefore has no excess
electrons.
b. Mg2+ is the smallest because it has lost two electrons. Although Ca2+ also
has lost two electrons, it is bigger than Mg2+ because the neutral Mg atom is
smaller than the neutral Ca atom.
3. Al < Zn < Ca < Mg < Na < Cs This is because metallic properties tend to
decrease from left to right and increase from top to bottom in the periodic
table.
4. Se < S < I < Br < Cl This is because electronegativity increases from left to
right and decreases from top to bottom in the periodic table.

E. What Have You Learned? (pages 32–33)

1. a. Aluminum is more metallic than silicon.
b. Calcium is more metallic than arsenic.
c. Nitrogen is more metallic than oxygen.
d. Sodium is more metallic than beryllium.
2. Mg < Al < Si < P < O < S
3. A family of elements is the group of elements along a vertical column in the
periodic table while a period of elements is a horizontal row of elements.
Elements in a family or group have the same number of electrons in the outermost
energy level. Elements in a period have the same outermost energy level.
4. Metals have high melting temperatures, luster and are good conductors of heat
and electricity. They are usually solid and can be shaped into wires (ductile) and
hammered into flat shapes (malleable). Nonmetals, on the other hand, are usually
gaseous or liquid in form, have low melting temperatures and are poor
conductors of heat and electricity. They are not shiny, ductile or malleable.
37
5. a. period
b. none
c. group
d. period
6. Both alkali metals and alkaline earth metals are highly reactive metals but alkali
metals are more reactive than alkaline earth metals. Alkaline earth metals are also
harder than alkali metals.
7. a. period
b. group
c. period
d. group
8. The periodic table is important because it enables us to predict the chemical and
physical properties of an element just by looking at its position in the periodic
table. It also enables us to predict the possible formulas of compounds by looking
at the group numbers of the reacting elements.
9. Choose two from among the following:
♦ John Newlands—proposed a classification system in which the elements
are arranged in the order of increasing atomic masses. He formulated the
law of octaves, which states that there is a repetition of similar properties for
every eighth element.
♦ Lothar Meyer—devised a classification of the elements into a table that
accounted for the periodic variations in their properties.
♦ Dmitri Mendeleev—proposed the periodic law and devised a periodic table
in which the elements are arranged according to increasing atomic weight
and predicted the properties of still undiscovered elements.
♦ Henry Moseley—correlated the chemical properties of elements with their
atomic numbers. The modern periodic table was devised based on the
results of his studies.

38
 Glossary

Alloy A mixture formed from two or more solids.

Amorphous Having no real or apparent crystalline form.
Atomic clock An electric clock that works based on the natural vibrations of a beam of
cesium atoms.
Conductor A substance that allows heat or electricity to pass through itself.
Density The ratio of the mass of a substance to its volume.
Diagnostics The practice of identifying a disease.
Diode An electronic device that has two electrodes.
Energy level A specific distance from the nucleus of an atom; also called shell.
Frequency The number of oscillations or the swinging from one limit to another of energy
waves per second.
Inert Does not react readily with other elements.
Nuclear reactor A device for the controlled release of nuclear energy.
Oxide A compound formed from oxygen and a less electronegative element.
Periodic Occurring or recurring at regular intervals.
Photocell An electronic device whose electrical properties are modified by the action of
light.
Pyrotechnics Fireworks.
Radioactive Said of an element or isotope that spontaneously emits energetic particles
(such as electrons) through the disintegration of its atomic nucleus.
Solubility The amount of a substance that will be dissolved in a given amount of another
substance.
Species A particular kind of atomic nucleus, atom, molecule or ion.
X ray A form of high-energy radiation produced by bombarding a metallic target by
electrons in vacuum.

References
Keenan, Charles W. and Jesse H. Wood. General College Chemistry. 3rd ed. Tennessee:
Harper International, Inc., 1970.
Mendoza, Estrella E. and Teresita F. Religioso. You and the Natural World Series:
Chemistry. 2nd ed. Quezon City: Phornix Publishing House, Inc., 1997.

39