Turbulent Flows and Modelling

S.VENGADESAN
Department of Applied Mechanics, IIT
Madras
• Turbulent flows occur in many situations of practical
interest for example the flows in pipes, over parts of vehicle
moving in air or water, in atmosphere, in parts if I.C. engine
etc.

• Study of turbulence is of primary interest in aeronautical

engineering, mechanical engineering, civil engineering,
chemical engineering, meteorology and other disciplines
where one encounters fluids in motion.
Reference books on TURBULENT FLOWS and modelling
1. Bradshaw, P. , (Editor) "Turbulence" Springer Verlag (1976).
2. Launder, B.E. and Spalding, D.B. , "Mathematical models of turbulence"
Academic Press (1972).
3. Lesieur, M. "Turbulence in fluids" Martinus Nijhoff (1987).
4. Reynolds, A.J. , "Turbulent flows in engineering" Interscience
Publisher (1974).
5. Schlichting, H. "Boundary Layer Theory" Mc Graw Hill (1979).
6. Tennekes, H. and Lumley,J.L. "A first course on turbulence" MIT Press
(1972).
7. Pope S.B. (2000) "Turbulence" Cambridge University Press.
8. Durbin, P .A. and Paterson. Reif, B.A. (2001) "Statistical theory and
modeling for turbulent flows" John Wiley.
9, Biswas, G. and Eswaran, V. C. (2002) "Turbulent flows" Narosa Publishing
House New Delhi.
10. Davidson, P.A. (2007), “Turbulence”, Oxford University Press.
11. Wilcox, D.C. (2006), “CFD for Turbulent flows”, DCW Industries
12. Versteeg and Malalasekara, (2009), “Introduction to CFD – The finite
volume method”, Pearson Education.
 Turbulence Modelling - References
• JFM, AIAA, Physics of Fluids, ASME series
• International Jl. of Numerical Methods in Fluids,
• International Jl. of Numerical Methods for Heat and Fluid Flow,
• International Jl. of Heat and Fluid Flow,
• Journal of Computational Physics
• Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics
• Computers & Fluids
• Computer methods in Applied Mechanics & Engineering
• International Jl. of Heat & Mass Transfer
• Numerical Heat Transfer
• Progress in Aerospace Sciences
• Flow, Turbulence & Combustion
• Publications under http://ctr.stanford.edu
• Database of http://ercoftac.mech.surrey.ac.uk/
• cfdonline.com
Reynolds Dye Experiment (1883)
Reynolds Dye Experiment (1883)

Originally Reynolds found:

Turbulence typically appears at Re ~ 2000, if no particular
effort is taken to minimize the disturbances.
Recent Expts.  Re up to ________ flow is laminar.
Cigarette smoke
 5000 500000
Turbulent jet at two different Re
3.3 Definition of turbulence:
Sir Osborne Reynolds in 1880’s, called the turbulent motion
as sinous motion.
G.I.Taylor and Von Karman in 1930’s: “Turbulence is an
irregular motion in which in general makes its appearance
in fluids, gaseous or liquids when they flow past solid
surfaces or even when neighboring streams of the same
fluid flow past or over one another”. This definition brought
out two features of turbulence namely irregularity and need
for shear to sustain turbulence.
Current way of defining turbulent flows is to list their
characteristics. (Tennekes and Lumley (1972 p.1)
1.Irregularity: Earlier turbulence was regarded as a random
phenomenon. Currently it is regarded as “Chaotic”.
2. Diffusivity: Turbulent flows have much higher diffusivity than molecular
diffusivities. For example the diffusion of mass, heat and momentum in turbulent
flow is much faster than when the diffusion takes place by molecular motion.
3. High Reynolds number: The turbulent motion is generally observed when
Reynolds number (Re=Vl/ν) is high. For example, flow in a pipe becomes turbulent
when Re based on pipe diameter and average velocity in pipe is more than 2000.
For a boundary layer on a smooth plate the flow is turbulent when Re is greater
than 5x105.

4. Rotational and Three Dimensional: The motion is rotational and three

dimensional.
5. Wide spectrum: Turbulent fluctuation can be thought of as superposition of
several waves of different amplitudes and frequencies. Turbulent motion has a
wide frequency spectrum. Periodic flow with just one frequency is not turbulence.
6.Vortex stretching: The energy from mean motion is converted into
fluctuating motion and is finally dissipated in the form of heat. Thus a continuous
supply of energy is needed to maintain turbulence.
7. Turbulence is a continuum phenomenon: The turbulence motion can be
visualized as the one caused by eddies of different sizes. The size of the smallest
eddy is much larger than the mean free path. The turbulent motion is also
governed by Navier-Stokes equations.
6. The motion is dissipative: The energy from mean motion is
converted into fluctuating motion and is finally dissipated in the
form of heat. Thus a continuous supply of energy is needed to
maintain turbulence.
Examples:
(i) Turbulent motion created by stirring the fluid. After the stirring
stops, the turbulent motion decays and the fluid returns to a
condition of rest.
(ii) In the test section of a wind tunnel the mean velocity is almost
constant, no supply of energy and turbulent decays.
 continuity equation
∂ui ∂u ∂v ∂w
=0 + + =0 ρ =ρ + ρ'
∂xi ∂x ∂y ∂z
p = p + p'
substitute ui = ui + ui′ ; into above eqns.
T = T + T'
∂ui ∂ (ui + u )
'
=0 ⇒ i
=0
∂xi ∂xi
Now, take average of the above terms
∂ui ∂ui
= 0 ; (1) = 0 ; (2)
∂xi ∂xi
∂ui'
(1) − (2) ⇒ =0
∂xi

∂u ' ∂v' ∂w'

+ + =0
∂x ∂y ∂z
 Equations of motion for Turbulent flows
∂ui
=0
∂xi
∂ui ∂ui 1 ∂p ∂ 2 ui
+uj =− +ν
∂t ∂x j ρ ∂xi ∂x j ∂x j

substitute ui = ui + ui′ ; into above eqns.

∂u ∂u
=
∂x ∂x
(ui + u 'i )(u j + u ' j ) = ui . u j + u 'i u ' j

∂ui ∂ui ∂ (ui u j ) 1 ∂p ∂ 2 ui

' '

+uj + =− +ν
∂t ∂x j ∂x j ρ ∂xi ∂x j ∂x j
action of velocity fluctuations on the mean flow
 Reynolds stresses
∂ui ∂ui 1 ∂p 1 ∂  ∂ui ' ' 

+uj =− +

µ − ρ ui u j

∂t ∂x j ρ ∂xi ρ ∂x j  ∂x j 

 ∂u ′2 ∂u ′v′ ∂u ′w′ 
 + +  These Additional terms can
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
 be interpreted as
 ∂u ′v′ ∂ v′2 ∂ v′w′ 
 + +  components of a stress
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
 tensor…
 ∂u ′w′ ∂ v′w′ ∂ w′2 
 + + 
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
  σ′x τ′xy τ′xz   ρu ′ 2 ρu ′v′ ρu ′w ′ 
   
 τ′xy σ′y τ′yz  = −  ρu ′v′ ρv′ 2 ρv′w ′ 
 τ′   2 
 xz τ′yz ′
σz  ′ ′ ′ ′
 ρu w ρ v w ρ w  ′
 

Du i ∂ p ∂ (τ ij ) lam ∂ (τ ij ) turb
ρ = − + +
Dt ∂xi ∂x j ∂x j
 Equations for Turbulent flows…
 ∂u u ∂ (u ) v ∂ (u ) w ∂ (u )  ∂p  ∂u ′ 2 ∂u ′v ′ ∂u ′w′ 
ρ + + + =− + µ∇ u − ρ 
2
+ + 
 ∂x ∂z 
 ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z  ∂x  ∂y

 ∂ v u ∂ (v ) v ∂ (v ) w ∂ (v )  ∂p  ∂u ′v ′ ∂ v ′ 2 ∂ v ′w′ 
ρ + + + =− + µ∇ v − ρ 
2
+ + 
 ∂z 
 ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z  ∂y  ∂x ∂y

 ∂ w u ∂ ( w) v ∂ ( w) w ∂ ( w)  ∂p  ∂u ′w′ ∂ v ′w′ ∂ w′ 2 
ρ + + + =− + µ∇ w − ρ 
2
+ + 
 ∂x ∂z 
 ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z  ∂z  ∂y

∂u ∂ v ∂ w
+ + =0
∂x ∂y ∂z  ρu ′ 2 ρu ′v′ ρu ′w ′ 
 σ′x τ′xy τ′xz   
 
 τ′xy σ′y τ′yz  = −  ρu ′v′ ρv′ 2
ρv′w ′ 
 
 τ′
 xz τ′yz σ′z   ρu ′w ′ ρv′w ′ ρw ′ 2 
 

Dui ∂ p ∂ (τ ij ) lam ∂ (τ ij ) turb

ρ = − + +
Dt ∂xi ∂x j ∂x j
Interaction between mean flow and Turbulent
fluctuations
∂ui ∂ui 1 ∂p ∂ 2 ui ∂ (ui' u 'j )
+uj =− +ν −
∂t ∂x j ρ ∂xi ∂x j ∂x j ∂x j

1 ∂   ∂ui ∂u j  
 − ρ ui u j 
=−  pδ ij + µ  + ' '

ρ ∂x j  
 ∂x j ∂xi  
I II III
I Mean pressure stress
II Mean viscous stress tensor
III Reynolds stress tensor
∂ui ∂u j
ρ u u >> µ
' '
+
∂x j ∂xi
i j

In fully developed turbulence, at large Re, viscous

stress may generally be negligible compared with
Reynolds stress.
 Equations for Turbulent fluctuations

∂ui ∂ui 1 ∂p ∂ 2 ui
+uj =− +ν
∂t ∂x j ρ ∂xi ∂x j ∂x j

∂ (ui + ui' ) ' ∂ (ui + ui )

'
1 ∂( p + p' ) ∂ 2 (ui + ui' )
+ (u j + u j ) =− +ν
∂t ∂x j ρ ∂xi ∂x j ∂x j

∂ui ∂ui ∂u '

1 ∂p ∂ 2
ui
+uj +uj
' i
=− +ν
∂t ∂x j ∂x j ρ ∂xi ∂x j ∂x j

∂ui' ∂ui' ' ∂ui ' ∂ui

'
' ∂ui
'
1 ∂p ' ∂ 2ui'
+uj +uj +uj −uj =− +ν
∂t ∂x j ∂x j ∂x j ∂x j ρ ∂xi ∂x j ∂x j
Interaction between mean flow and Turbulent
fluctuations
∂ui' ∂ui' ' ∂ui ' ∂ui
'
' ∂ui
'
1 ∂p ' ∂ 2ui'
+uj +uj +uj −uj =− +ν
∂t ∂x j ∂x j ∂x j ∂x j ρ ∂xi ∂x j ∂x j

∂u '
∂u '
∂u '
∂u '

u 'j i + ui' − u 'j i − ui'

j j

∂x j ∂x j ∂x j ∂x j

∂ui' ∂ui' ' ∂ui

∂ (ui u j ) ∂ (ui u j )
' ' ' '
1 ∂p ' ∂ 2ui'
+uj +uj + − =− +ν
∂t ∂x j ∂x j ∂x j ∂x j ρ ∂xi ∂x j ∂x j

∂ui' ∂ui' ∂u ∂ (u ' '

u − u ' '
u ) 1 ∂p ' ∂ 2 '
ui
+uj +uj + =− +ν
' i i j i j

∂t ∂x j ∂x j ∂x j ρ ∂xi ∂x j ∂x j
 Energetics of Turbulent fluctuations

∂ui' ∂ui' ∂u ∂ (u ' '

u − u ' '
u ) 1 ∂p ' ∂ 2 '
ui
+uj +uj + =− +ν
' i i j i j

∂t ∂x j ∂x j ∂x j ρ ∂xi ∂x j ∂x j
∂ui'
=0
I II ∂xi

I Coupling to mean flow

II Non-linear term
Linear terms: direct coupling term I between mean and
fluctuating velocities, pressure gradient term
Viscous term: responsible for turbulent dissipation
Non-linear terms: This term can be viewed as the action of
turbulence on itself.
Equation for the time evolution of ui' u 'j

∂ui' ∂ui' ∂u ∂ (u ' '

u − u ' '
u ) 1 ∂p ' ∂ 2 '
ui
+ uk + uk
' i
+ i k i k
=− +ν
∂t ∂xk ∂xk ∂xk ρ ∂xi ∂xk ∂xk
Multiply above eqn. with uj’ and the eqn.
below with ui’
∂u 'j ∂u 'j ∂u j ∂ (u 'j uk' − u 'j uk' ) 1 ∂p ' ∂ 2u 'j
+ uk + uk' + =− +ν
∂t ∂xk ∂xk ∂xk ρ ∂x j ∂xk ∂xk

Add the 2 eqn. and take the average,

∂ (ui' u 'j ) ∂ (ui' u 'j ) ∂u j ∂ui

+ uk = −u u ' '
− u 'j uk'
∂t ∂xk ∂xk ∂xk
i k

∂ (ui' u 'j uk' ) 1  ' ∂p '   ∂ 2u 'j ∂ 2ui' 

' ∂p ' 
− − ui +uj  + ν ui + uj
' '

∂xk ρ  ∂x j ∂xi   ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x k 
k k k

Transport equation for TKE is obtained by contraction

k=
τ ii
2
=
2
(
1 '2
u1 + u2'2 + u3'2 )
∂k ∂k ∂U i ∂  ∂k 1 ' ' ' 
+U j = τ ij −ε + ν − ui u j u j − p u j 
' '

∂t ∂x j ∂x j ∂x j  ∂x j 2 
I II III IV V (1) V(2) V(3)
I – Unsteady term ; II – Convection term
III – Production term ; V(1) – Molecular Diffusion term;
V(2) – Turbulent transport term ; IV – Dissipation ∂ui' ∂ui'
V(3) – Pressure diffusion term ; ε =ν
∂xk ∂xk
Instantaneous & Averaging

Instantaneous

Time-averaged
 Turbulence Modelling - Overview
• Boussinesq (1877) – Eddy viscosity
• It has component velocity and length scale
• Turbulent models that do not provide length scale are “incomplete” –
apriori condition
• Just boundary and/or inlet conditions and no priori knowledge –
“complete”
• Prandtl (1925) – Mixing length hypothesis ;
Kolmogrov (1942) - (k & ω);
Rotta (1951) – second-moment closure;
Launder & Spalding (1972) – k-ε.
• RANS
Algebraic (Zero-equation) Models
One-Equation models
Two-Equation models
Second-order Closure models
• DNS
• LES _________________URANS, Hybrid LES (DES)
 One Equation Model (1)
Transport equation for TKE

∂k ∂k ∂U i ∂  ∂k 1 ' ' ' 

+U j = τ ij −ε + ν − ui u j u j − p u j 
' '

∂t ∂x j ∂x j ∂x j  ∂x j 2 
I II III IV V (1) V(2) V(3)
I – Unsteady term ; II – Convection term
III – Production term ; V(1) – Molecular Diffusion term;
V(2) – Turbulent transport term ;
V(3) – Pressure diffusion term ;
IV – Dissipation ∂ui' ∂ui'
ε =ν
I, II & V(1) – are exact ∂xk ∂xk
III, IV, V(2) – involve unknown correlation
Closure problem
 One Equation Model (2)
Turbulent transport is represented by gradient-diffusion
∂φ
−u 'jφ '  µT
∂x j

Pressure diffusion term and turbulent transport are combined as

1 ' ' ' µ ∂k
ui u j u j + p 'u 'j =
− T
2 σ k ∂x j 3
2
k
Dissipation term based on dimensional background ε = Cµ
l

Finally,
∂k ∂k ∂U i ∂  ν t  ∂k 
+U j = τ ij −ε + ν +  
∂t ∂x j ∂x j ∂x j  σ k  ∂x j 
 One Equation Model (3)
Finally,
∂k ∂k ∂U i k3 2 ∂  ν t  ∂k 
+U j = τ ij − CD + ν +  
∂t ∂x j ∂x j l ∂x j  σ k  ∂x j 

2
=τ ij 2 µT Sij − ρ kδ ij µT = ρ k 1 2 l
3
 The Spalart-Allmaras, (1992) model is also written in terms of the eddy
viscosity. The model includes eight closure coefficients and three
damping functions. The model equations are as follows.

Kinematic eddy viscosity ν t = ν fV 1

The eddy viscosity equation is
∂ ν~ ∂ ν~ ν~  1 ∂ 
2
∂ ν~  Cb2 ∂ ν ∂ ν
=Cb1[1 − f t 2 ]Sν −C w1 f w   +
~~
 + σ ∂ x ∂ x
~
+U j (ν +ν )
∂t ∂ xj  d  σ ∂ xk  ∂ xk  k k

Cb1 (1 + Cb2 )
Cw1 = +
κ 2
σ
 The auxilliary equations are
16
χ 3
χ  1+Cw6 3 
fV 1 = 3 3 ; fV 2 =1− ; fw =g 6 6 
χ +CV 1 1+ χ fV 1  g + C w3 
where,
ν ν ν
χ = ; g = r + Cw2 ( r − r ) ; r =
6 
; S = S + 2 2 fV 2 ; S = ( 2 Ωij Ωij )1 2
ν S k d
2 2
k d

1 ∂ U i ∂ U j 
Ω ij =  − 
The tensor 2  ∂ x j ∂ xi  is the rotation tensor and ‘d' is the

distance from the closet surface.

Cb1 = 0.1355 ; Cb2 = 0. 622 ; CV 1 = 7.1 ; σ = 2 3 ; Cw2 = 0. 3 ; Cw3 = 2. 0 ; κ = 0. 41

 Two Equation Models (1)
Starting point – Boussinesq approximation; & Complete – can be
used to predict properties without prior knowledge of turbulent
structure.
Transport Equation for turbulent length scale - l
Kolmogrov (1942) defines ω
= µT ρ= k / ω; l k 1/ 2 ω ; ε = ωk
where ω – specific dissipation rate; proportional to k l
1/ 2

ω has dimensions of (time)-1

Second variable and related to eddy viscosity on the basis of
dimensional arguments.
 Two Equation Models (2)
Wilcox (1998), k-ω model µT = ρ k / ω
∂k ∂k ∂U i  ∂ ∂k 
ρ +ρUj =τ ij − β * ρ kω + ( µ + σ µT ) 
*

∂t ∂x j ∂x j ∂x j
 ∂x j 
∂ω ∂ω ω ∂U i ∂  ∂ω 
ρ + ρ U j = α τ ij − βρω +  ( µ + σ µT ) 
2

∂t ∂x j k ∂x j ∂x j  ∂x j 
=α 13=
/ 25, β β=f
o β , β β *
o fβ* ,

=β o 9 /125,
= β o* 9 /100,
= σ 1/=
2, σ * 1/ 2

1 + 70 χω Ωij Ω jk S ki 1 ∂k ∂ω
fβ = ; χω = ; χω
1 + 80 χω (β ω) ω 3 ∂x j ∂x j
* 3
o

1 χk ≤ 0

f β* = 1 + 680 χ k2 = ε β=
*
ω k and l k 1/ 2 / ω
1 + 400 χ 2 χk > 0
 k
 Two Equation Models (3)
Launder & Spalding - Standard K-ε model (1972)

µT = ρ k 2 / ε
∂k ∂k ∂U i  ∂ ∂k 
ρ + ρ U j = τ ij − ρε + ( µ + µT / σ k ) 
∂t ∂x j ∂x j ∂x j
 ∂x j 

∂ε ∂ε ε ∂U i ε2 ∂  ∂ε 
ρ + ρ U j = Cε 1 τ ij − Cε 2 ρ +  ( µ + µT / σ ε ) 
∂t ∂x j k ∂x j k ∂x j  ∂x j 

= =
Cε 1 1.44, =
Cε 2 1.92, =
Cµ 0.09, σ k 1.0,
= σ ε 1.3
 Two Equation Models (5) – Wall function(1)
U p 1  Euτ y p  uτ2 uτ3
= ln  =; kp = ; εp ;
uτ κ  ν  12
Cµ κ yp
uτ2 uτ
=kp = ; ωp
β* β *κ y p
E=9.0 (Smooth wall); κ =0.4
The value of kc needed to obtain uτ is calculated by solving the equation
for k with assumption that (a) convection & diffusion are neglected; and
(b) the average of ε over the control volume is given by
yc  k 3/ 2 y ( C1/ 2 k )1/ 2 
 µ

∫0 ε =
c c
dy C µ
 ν 
 
Questionable for flows with moderate to strong favourable pressure
gradient and fails for flows with adverse pressure gradient; complex
flows and separated flows
Works well for flows with well established universal wall function.
Chieng & Launder (1980) and Chen & Patel (1988)
improvements for separated flows.
Turbulent Boundary Layer
Low Re-Two Equation Models (2)
 CONCLUSIONS

• Simulation of engineering flows with

realistic mesh resolution is now possible.
• The turbulence modelling implemented
with appropriate CFD tools will become
part of an integral part of engineering
design & analysis.