Scribd Logo
Upload

Welcome to Scribd!

  • 6 views

    Lawhead Plato

    Uploaded by

    NoxTattoo

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content

    You might also like

    Lawhead Plato

    Uploaded by

    NoxTattoo
    6 views22 pages

    Copyright

    © © All Rights Reserved

    Available Formats

    PDF or read online from Scribd

    Did you find this document useful?

    Is this content inappropriate?

    Report this Document

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    Download as pdf
    6 views22 pages

    Lawhead Plato

    Uploaded by

    NoxTattoo

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    Download as pdf
    of 22
    Plato: The Search for Ultimate Truth and Reality Plato's Life: From Student to University President ‘When Socrates was put to death, his student Plato ‘was not quite thy The politically motivated death tragic end. Plato fe! as those he attributes to Phaedo when Socrates breathed his last breath: “Such was the end... of four friend, who was, 1 think, of all the men of our time, the best, the wisest, andthe most just.” Be- cause of these events, many questions haunted Plato: “What kind of society was it that could not tolerate a Socrates in its midst? What kind of soct- fy ought we to prevail in human affairs? the rest of his life tying to answer these questions 60 Plato had not always planned a career as a phi- Egypt. Whether this is true or n in 388 and to the city of Syracuse in he founded a the Western world, hoot was cal the Aeademy, having been Tocated outside the city walls in a grove sacted to the hero Academus. Nine hundred years late, the ing, and ts fame lives on today, signified that “the Academy” and “academics” are used to refer to higher education philosophical works. Amo: his works was the Republi sy would never be just unless people with philosophic acquired philosophical wisdom. In 368 and again CHAPTER 4: PLATO: THE SEARCH FOR ULTIMATE TRUTH AND REALITY 61 {in 361, he tried to realize this goal by returning to Syracuse in response to the request to educate Dionysius the Younger, the young ruler who had ‘commited to tyranny and soph. On his second the two did not get slong at all, and Plato barely escaped with his life. Plato returmed to the Acad- cemy, where he continued to teach until he died suddenly but peacefully around 348 or 347 3. Plato's Task: Making Philosophy Comprehensive Following i Plato had an than Socrates ever did. If goodness and justice are sheerly a matter of convention, as the Sophists useless spending much time sm. However, he answers to our ethical and political ques- ld be found in an adequate understand: ing of the nacure devoted a subst energies ions. However, we 5 of knowledge be- ‘we can make any progress with the other issues. Previous philosophers have rmishes with the problems of e Dbut Plato was the first to make an assault on these problems. Theory of Knowledge: Reason Versus Opinion ‘To understand Plato’ theory of knowledge, we first have to understand three pos ur lives and societies must be founded on knowi- edge and that this knowledge must be uni (true forall people Second, to disabuse us of our confidence in sense experi- ence. The sort of knowledge we need must be ternal and unchangeable, and we cannot that in experience. Finally, he argued that know! edge is more than true belief, for grounded in ational insight. For example one person and it would be very boorish of at you are wrong. Each persons opinion how the wind appeai 1a,b), Plato gives Socrates and the mathet exchange between in Theodorus: Socrates: Prowagoras, he does that everybody’ 0 acknowledge the truth of hi i par, admitting as ‘wrong. Theodorus: Certainly Socrates: That is to say, he would acknowledge his own belief to be false, iThe admit that the belief of those who think him wrong is true? Theodorus: Necessarily In other words, opinions are eq they are correct and their opponents are wrong in their eo PART ONE: THE ANCIENT PERIOD opinions about knowledge. Protagoras proposed to teach people what they needed to know and ‘even expected them to pay him generous sums of ‘money for this knowledge. But once the relativits have claimed that others, they have and false belief. Suppose your physician believes your foot is broken, and you bel (Th 178c-e). Platos point is that not are of equal value REJECTION OF SENSE EXPERIENCE The second position Plato rejects is one that would later be called empiricism. Empiricists claim that ‘we derive all our knowledge from sense experi- cence. However, Plato provides several reasons why we can never derive true knowledge from the data ofthe five senses. Fist, sense perception only gives us the world of constant change that Heraclitus de- scribed. In this realm we can never say with confi- dence w! Hence, he perceiver. The coffee I consider ito you. Similarly, our percep- ive to the circumstances. For exam- cewarm coflee seems hot in comparison tO in comparison to boiling water. inside the sto looks dark blue in the sunlight. IF we were to sense experience, then the relativism of Protago- ras would be inescapable. I could say only what hhot may seem: seems to be the case or how 188 appear to me Hence, for Plato, the so-alled knowledge gained from perception is too fleeting and ephemeral to take seriously. second problem with sense experience However, if language only referred iy changing particul world, then the meaning of our terms wo in lux and language would not fonction. Hence, ‘magnifying glass, you would see that the somewhat jagged. The particles of ink are not all 1 has depth, for layer of ink imposed on the ink can fade or the paper can or destroying the printed figure However, the points forming a true circle are per- fectly equidistant from the center, have neither width nor depth, and their discoveries. They use reason and not the FIGURE 41 CHAPTER 4: PLATO: THE SEARCH FOR ULTIMATE TRUTH AND REALITY 63 senses to study their objets. If you saw a mathe- 1g out cardboard circles and then them, you would know this person did understand what mathematics is all Or compare the 3 United States degree of justice ms, How are you able to perform this comparison? Can you see jus- tice with your eyes? What color low much does it weigh? Cl ions can apply to physical things, b fest. Individual nations can change in the di tion of becoming more just or mor changing. According to Plato, however, does not change standard is singular and constant ean such reasons, Plato agrees with Heraclitus thatthe eyes and ears are poor witnesses if they are not informed by the unders () Either justice is something real and ebjec- or itisa mere word, second alternative i rue, then our moral Judgments have no value. There isno veal dif- ference between Hitler and a saint except cer- tin sounds we conventionally apply to them, (3) But statement 2 is absurd. There is differ ence between Hitler and a saint, (A) So justice is something real and objective, justice must be something rel, objective, and nonphysical THINK ABOUT IT and independent of ‘what subjective notions we have of it. Fu thermore, argue for or against his view that something real even though it is KNOWLEDGE IS NOT TRUE BELIEF Finally, Plato insists on a very frm distinction be- twreen knowledge and belief, Beliefs can be either true or false, but knowledge must lsvays be tue. Could we then say that knowledge isthe same as true belie? Plato does nor think so. For example let suppose I believe that at this present moment USS. President is telephoning the governor of Thave no grounds for this ny guess. Nevertheless, ue ofa fortunate co- oF PART ONE: THE ANCIENT PERIOD rational grounds for the truth ofthis theorem, a secondhand true opinion, ac~ or true opinions, as Long as they remain, area fine thing anal they dois good, but they ae et so that they are not worth much until one ies them down by (ving) an account ofthe reason why. opinion, a nowledge dies from correc opinion imbeing ed down? UNIVERSAL FORMS ARE ‘THE BASIS OF KNOWLEDGE Following Socrates’ method, Plato is honing in on the correct understanding of knowledge by fas Been sis tar, Pato clearly believes that ‘genuine knowledge s 1. Objective Unchanging. 2. 3. Universal 4 5. Grounded in a rational understanding Having made a strong distinction between the hhere-and-now realm of sense experience and the unchanging realm of rational knowledge, Plato oes on to show that chey are intertwined in a spe- cial way. He says thatthe world of sense experi- ence is not one of total flux or pure indivi could not identify anything nor talk about it at For example, Tom, Dick, Susan, and Jane are i to refer to each of them. In spt of thir dierences, something about them is ie, Corresponding to each common name (such as “human that consists ofthe essential, common properties of anything within that category Cireular objects all have Universal of 1 being, change, and Beauty remains eternally the same. Plato uses a number of terms to refer constants within experience. He calls them “Uni- vversals" because they are what is commen to all these Plato uses these terms to sug ing about the purest embodi- in question. For example, ‘make up the human race. Unfortunately, however, the English term™idea” also refers to the subjec- Live contents of one mind. In this sense of the term, your ideas no longer exist ifyou become un- conscious. Platonic Ideas, however, are that exist independently ofthe minds tht know them. In Plato account, if there were no cicular objects, and no one ever thought of circularity, the objective, geometrical prope nately Plato uses another term can be translated as “Forms.” Since this does not CHAPTER 4: PLATO: THE SEARCH FOR ULTIMATE TRUTH AND REALITY 65 have the misleading associations of the former term, we will refer to Plato’ account as the “theory hing does not necessarily refer to its ‘we are talking about the Form of Tran- then shape is a necessary aspect iowever, the Form of Justice has nothing to dowith shape. KNOWLEDGE COMES ‘THROUGH RECOLLECTION In the dialogue named after him, @ young man by the name of Meno confronts Socrates with a para dox used by some of the Sophists to show that the search for knowledge is impossible. Meno states the dilemma inthis way: How wil you look for something when you don't in ‘he least now what 8? How on earth are you ing (o setup something you don't now as the object of anther way, even ifyou come how wll you know that what you ing you didn? have found In other words, if we are seeking th justice, we either know it or we dont. Jnow what iis, we dont need to seek it, dont know what justice is, how will we recognize it whem we find it? The answer that Plato gives is that both hom ofthe dilemma are true; we both ‘know the universal Forms and we don't know them. Fist, we know them because they a printed on the soul. In other nate knowledge of what is ul and of intrinsic value, Pato believe physical world we forgot this knowledge, This ex- plains the second half ofthe dilemma—why we feel as though we dont have this knowledge. Nev- this knowledge of the Forms is sil there, 10 be recovered through the process of rec- lection. When Plato talks about the pre-existence he soul, he does so in myths and stories, ecog- point, however, is that gaining an understanding bout is more similar to remem- than to discovering new data, ls sort of experience that Plato the nature of knowledge. Certain eto the rational mind and can lent of sense experience. How do we trigger this recollection of the Forms? Plato’ answer is that we do so by engaging in the sort of dialectical questioning that Socrates ‘Meno Socrates converses with an boy who comes to recos Beauty, Goodness, and Equal hhave never seen any ofthese with our eyes. Sense experience and Socrates’ method of dialectical questioning cannot give us knowledge of the Forms, for this is already in our possession. In- stead, they remind us of what we dimly knew but could not consciously apprehend, PLATO'S DIVIDED LINE Ironically, even though Plato was disdaingul ofthe world ofthe senses, some of the most revealing passages he provides for understanding his theory ‘of knowledge use concrete images. One of his ‘most famous symbols is his account ofthe divided line. Pato asks us to imagine the following: Tee line divided into two unequal parts, one to represent the visible onder, he other the inelighble and divide each pare again in the same proportion, symbolizing degrees of comparative clearness or ob- surg 6.5094) In his description ofthe divided line, Plato corre- 66 Modes of Awareness ® ie D Pure Knowledge KNOWLEDGE Thinking Beliet oPINion Imagination or Conjecture o PART ONE: THE ANCIENT PERIOD Objects of, Awareness Higher Forms DY Lower Forms’ Things, Objects vistBLe wor Shadows, Images, and Reflections FIGURE 42 Diagram of Plato’ divided line demonstrate that epistemology and metaphysics, parallel each other. diagram ofthe di- vided line is shown in Figure 4-2. Asis clear from the figure, the journey of the human mind along passes through seve ignorance (A) to pure knowledge ito two main cognitive sates, and of knowledge. These corre tain levels of reality, hich ae physi) world (Wand gible world (C'and D). However, each of divided, The lowest vel solved in the lives ofthe soap opera characters on television, taking them to be real people, would be another example. However, we can be deceived not only by physical images but also by images created with clever words. Hence, those people who believe the sick rhetoric of Sophist politician and his justice is about are trapped fusing a distorted shadow of person can have true opinions, but he (or she) does not have knowledge. This is because he does ‘hot understand the reason why things ae this way and sees only particulars but not the Forms, There Is aratio here. The of the horse in the ‘water (Segment realm of awareness and represents the sor of rea- soning employed in mathematics and the special sciences. This realm of cognition has two charac- teristics. First, the mind uses objects in the visible ‘means to arrive at an understanding of igible world, For example, Plato says that the student of geometry uses diagrams and draw- CHAPTER 4: PLATO: THE SEARCH FOR ULTIMATE TRUTH AND REALITY 67 ings of tangles to prove various theorems, But the visible lines he dravws are really not the objects of his knowledge. Is the pure Form of Tangularity hae is studying. Second, knowledge at this level is ‘based on assumptions that are (D), the mind soars beyond allassumptions and sensory crutches to rational jon ofthe pure Forms. These Forms are the imate principles that we use to derive all sub destination of this process prehension of “the frst everything else depends ‘mate source of knowledge (R7.508e, 518c). The only way we can describe itis by means of an analogy. Think of the Good as the sun, Plato says. The sun makes possible the source ofall partial éruths thar words can convey, “after along period of We can only encounter: is nota benevolent, anthro- pomorphie deity. Metaphysics: Shadows and Reality ‘THE REALITY OF THE FORMS Plato’ attempt to work out Socrates’ insights drove him to pursue their metaphysical founda- tons. Plato shared Socrates’ concern to capture ‘universal concepts in carefully constructed and rationally derived definitions. However, Socrates in metaphysics. So he tothe question of what sons about the geometrical properties of circles? She doesn't examine the circular hoops, rings, or when she nds experience Instead wih er the eternal Fort of Cita aged or de- studies, Ifthe Forms are real, then where do they exit? ‘The question is meaningless because "where" and ‘when’ questions apply only to spatiotemporal ob- jects. You cannot ask, for example, where the mul- ence. Every science and every craft accomplishes its task with reference to the Forms. The biologist studies frogs but is not {interested in simply this or that particular frog for its own sake, Instead, the biologist seeks to know ‘what i universally tre about all frogs. He seeks to understand the Form characteristic of frogs. Simi- Jarl, the carpenter has a famillavty with the Form of Chairness and the Form of Tableness and seeks to instantiate these in his wood. ‘THE PROBLEM OF CHANGE was also de metaphysics by the un- solved problems that previous philosopher behind. Looming large among these problems was the problem of change. Like a pebi one’s shoe, it was a constant irritant in Greek philosophy that refused to go away. There is a paradox about change. When you visit relatives whom you've not seen since you were very 68. PART ONE: THE ANCIENT PERIOD young, they may say, "My, how you have changed!” But what are they saying? Obviously, they are saying you are different from the way you were. However, you are not different from your younger self in the way you are different from your sister. In some sense you are the same person, You are the same, and you are not the same, Both Heraclitus and Parmenides sought to dissolve the paradox of change with extreme solutions. Heraclitus said that everything in the world of experience is changing and perma- nence Is merely an illusion, Parmenides and his cs eliminated the problem by claim- permanence is fundamental and change is merely an appearance. Although thelr positions were di impossible because there is nothing stable about the world that we could know (with the excep- tion of the Logos). Yet Parmenides’ solution is not satisfactory either, because change is abvi- ously a fact of lie. Plato believes that they are both wrong and they are both right. They are ‘wrong in their monism, because they too quickly icture. Plato was a genius at synthes ng the insights of his predecessors. He adapted their insights but modified them to e ir weaknesses, Im seeking a compromise between Herac! telligible to reason, THINK ABOUT IT 4.2. Does it make sense to you to say, as Plato does, that some things have greater degrees of realty than others? Why? ‘THE RELATIONSHIP OF PARTICULARS TO THE FORMS {A this point, Plato faces the problem of all du- alisms. Onoe you have separated reality into two Giferent realms, how do you understand the rela- tionship between them? For Plato, the universe is nota democracy, for these two kinds of reality are not equal. The physical world is less real than the ‘world of Forms and depends on the higher world ‘The reality that transcends experience produces ‘whatever order and reality we find in the world of experience. It-sounds strange to.us to hear tale about “de- agrees of tell us a thing either is or isnot real? Even Par- ‘menides, that great opponent of common sense, ‘would agree. But according to Pl of sensation occupy a gray and the unreal. Maybe it would hel some ways in which Plato’ notion of degrees of ‘common experience and apiece of ‘any paper does, smeone we love, it isa kind of reality ‘on our dresser and evokes warm them. What fascinates us about the picture is that hares in some of the re ‘mirror or shadows have some reality, but they are only vague images of something more substantial than they are, To use Plato term, the photograph CHAPTER 4: PLATO: THE SEARCH FOR ULTIMATE TRUTH AND REALITY 69 and the reflected images participate in the reali- Thus far, we have been comparing two physi cal objects, one of which is a copy of or derived from something else. These examples Plato’ point that something isa lower leve! the physical wor Plata’ point. To beter i given the runaround by an college bureaucracy in her ‘ought to be. The vision of a humane, caring col- lege, known only with her mind, was the standard against which she compared the present, defici institution she was experiencing. As result comparison, her school was so far from what a real college should be that she described it as “un- real.” We tend to think of ideals as imaginary ob- jects that exist only in our daydreams. But according to Plat, the ideal hear, the correct sort of chromosomes.” But this person would have missed the point. To say Hitler ‘was inhuman has nothing to do with what we ‘would discover in an autopsy. For Plato, to be fully Jhuman depends not so much on physical charac- teristics as it does on one's nonphiysial features such asthe condition of oneS soul, the degree of a pperson$ rationality and one’ values, organization called Project HOPE. With donated ‘money, supplies, and volunteer labor, he converted 1 former naval ship into the SS HOPE, a hospital ship that over the world, bringing med- snd training to needy people. In philosophy we could say Walsh ‘was more fully a Teal human being because of his exemplary moral qualities. Compared to him, ssubhuraan. Although he was a great hy smanitatian, Walsh could have only a part We can now summarize the relationship be- tween particulars and their Forms. Fist, the Forms are the cause ofthe existence of particular things, analogous to the way a statue causes its shadow: Second, physical objects resemble their Forms, ‘analogous to the way a photograph isthe likeness the person. Thitd, particular objects participate cording to their part Humanity, Adolf Hitler would be on the average person somewhere in the middle, and a person would represent the fullest patici- the Form. Fourth, as the previous exam- ples fe, Forms represent the standards of ‘evaluation we use to judge particulars as excellent or deficient. Engineers evaluate ball bearings in 70 PART ONE: THE ANCIENT PERIOD CO) FIGURE 43 comparison to the Perfect Sphere, and horse breeders judge their stock in comparison to the Ideal Horse. Finally, the Forms make particulars Inteligible. Try to describe a close friend, No mat- ter how unique they may be, you must resort toa 4st of universal qualities to say anything about them (for example, “al,” “brilliant,” “fems "athletic". Without the Forms we eould not think, speak, oF make sense out of anything. ‘THE ALLEGORY OF THE CAVE ls out his theory of knowledge and real ¢ Allegory of the Cave, one of the most iking stores in the history of Western lite (7514-521 com of a cave where hey can only see the back wall of the cave. Bebind them, some unnamed men parade statues of animals and other abject in front of a fre. However, the pris: loners cannot see the fire or the artificial objects ‘They can only see the shadows projected on the wall, and consequently they believe these to be ed. At first the sight of the wooden objects would be confusing and the to this new level of reality. He would see rel ani the cave, for their vision of ral shadows, Plato imagines they have a p awarding prizes and honors skillful at recognizing and anticipating particular shadows. However, these honors are worl ‘one who has encountered the ful asks, “Would he not far sooner ‘be on earth as him to discern the shado crs. Furthermore, his former friends would he had gone mad when he talked of the green ‘grass, the glassy lakes, and the bright sunlight, Fi- Plato says, “If they could lay hands on the man who was trying to set them free and lead them ‘up, they would kal him” Plato makes several applications ony. First, with respect to metaphy represents Plato’ theory of the | world made up of differ 1d images. The land above represent CHAPTER 4: PLATO: THE SEARCH FOR ULTIMATE TRUTH AND REALITY 71 FIGURE 4-4 This diagram of Plato Allegory of the Cave represents chained prisoner whose only reality is (A) the shadows, which are projected by (B) replicas the steep and rugged passage out ofthe cave to the upper worl ie world of real objects and (D) the sun. These levels correspond tothe modes of awareness and levels of reality on the divided line depicted in Figure #2. Just asthe person who has climbed up out of the ‘cave isthe only one that can really understand the shadows for what they are, so the person with ‘wisdom is one who has mentally gone beyond the physical world and understood the Forms that ‘make all things intelligible. The man in the story who had knowledge of the higher reality and re- turned back to the cave to free the others abvi- ously represented Socrates (or any other person the correct philosophical vision). He was misunderstood by the cave dwellers and thought to have gone mad because he was accustomed to in the other world. Nevertheless, he felt an the others, even at the ‘more and more knowledge of roduce understanding perspective, a higher es. Hence, Plato says, ‘What is required is a vision of the genuine id tobe by some, who ‘On te contrary, our own accou of every man des possess ness, so the entire soul must be turned away fram ‘changing wort, un ts eye ca bear to con- R PART ONE: THE ANCIENT PERIOD THINK ABOUT IT ss describes the people his friend Glaucon says they prisoners." Socrates then gives the stunning reply that they are “like ourselves.” Why do ‘you suppose Socrates compares us to these prisoners? To what degree do you think this comparison is accurate? Moral Theory AGAINST RELATIVISM As with much of his philosophy, Plato discussion the most persuasive. In the worst scenario, who- ever in socegy is most powerful will determine its they slaughtered multitudes of innocent men, ‘women, and children, because this simply reflected the values and laws of their society at that particu- lar time, Neither could we say such as Mother Teresa, who ca dying, was morally superior to Sophists view, we would haveto say that these two people ate morally equal in that they each sincerely pursued their own subjective moral code and both ‘ecrved the approval of their socet Plato, of course, would point out that these ‘conclusions indicate that something is deeply mis taken about moral relativism and subjectivism. Plato’ general approach will be to maintain that ethics is just as objective a science as mathematies, In mathematics we explore the nonphysical Forms smay seem like a very big leap, It seems rel easy to arrive at and agree ties of a circle, However, even ‘people to perceive the eat morality, however, our bodily appetites, 0 4 do not refer to anything real ie would be comparable to being adrift in the middle of the ocean with no navigational maps, no compass, no guiding stars, blown here and there by the arbit power and persuasion in our society THINK ABOUT IT 4.4 How would you answer the question “Why be moral?" Compare your answer with those of five of your friends. Who do you think gave the best answer? After read- ing the next two sections, compare these answers with those of Glaueon, ‘To what degree does your answe of your friends) agree or disagree with Glaucon’ cynical answer? CHAPTER 4: PLATO: THE SEARCH FOR ULTIMATE TRUTH AND REALITY 73 WHY BE MORAL? Alage part of Plato$ moral theory revolves around the discussion hear the word justice. Hence, refer oa fair, decent, and correct ordering of soi ‘ery and its transactions. In this sense, we could say thatthe laws of ‘within a person who is sense, a just person is the tuly moral person, The pat just (or well-ordered) individual and the just (or ‘well-ordeted) society is important will see when we discuss his hae believes that che principl Justice receives Plato fullest treatment in the Republic. Pato first gives a hearing to the voices of his skeptical and eynical pees, who question why ‘we should even be concemed with justice. Accord- ingly, the question “Why be morally good?" In other words, what is the point of being a ‘morally good person? Why should we prefer the just life over a life of pleasure and uncaring self interest? To lay the groundwork for this discussion, Glaucon (one of the characters inthe dialogue) sets ‘out three categories of things that are good. Fits, some things ae good for their own sake and not for their consequences, These would be simple pleasures, such as enjoying a sunset. Second, some ‘things we value both for their own sike and for their consequences, such as Inowledge and health. Third, some burdensome things we value only for their consequences. For example, no one enjoys going to the dentist, but the benefit of having healthy teeth is worth the pain. In which category should we pl fe falls into the second category. It sort of good, “a thing which anyone ‘who is to gain happiness most value both for itself and for its results.” fo make his point more forcefully, Glaucon the story ofthe magic ring. According to leg- a shepherd by the name of Gyges found a Ting that gave him the magie power to become in- visible they could never be caught ‘identified? To expand on thi thought experiment,

    You might also like