PDA Open Water Manual

www.pd a ww.
com
OPEN WATER DIVER

MANUAL
Version 2015 Copyright Arno Schrittwieser

English translation and revision by Till Hoffmann
Open Water Diver Manual
Welcome to your PDA Open Water diver course.
Over two thirds of our pl a net’s surf a ce is covere d by w a ter. You a re a bout to discover
a ne w world a nd w e a re looking forw a rd to guid e you on your first ste ps into this
wond erful a nd a dve nturous world. W e will te a ch you a ll the knowle dg e a nd skills you
ne e d for your und er w a ter a dve ntures. W e wish you lots of fun a nd unforg ett a ble
exp erie nces.
Your PDA Te a m
Who or what is PDA?
PDA is a n intern a tion a l diving e duc a tion org a niz a tion, which m e a ns th a t your diving
certific a tion is recognize d worldwid e. W e certify divers intern a tion a lly through our
diff ere nt tr a ining progr a ms, w e provid e te aching m a teri a ls to stud e nts a nd instructors,
set st a nd a rds a nd monitor these a nd w e te a ch a nd certify instructors, focusing on sa f e
diving pr a ctices a nd fun.
What are you qualified to do after passing the Open Water Diver course?
After successfully completing your Open Water Diver course, you are certified to:
Dive with a p a rtner using scub a e quipm e nt to a d e pth of 20 m eters
Re nt e quipm e nt
Continue your dive tr a ining a nd p a rticip a te in further dive a ctivities
Course structure
The O p e n W a ter Diver course consists of thre e p a rts: the Knowle dg e d evelopm e nt
(8 to 10 hours), which sup plies you with a ll the theoretic a l knowle dg e a bout diving th a t
you ne e d to know, the Pool tra ining (2 to 3 sessions 3 hours e a ch) where you will le a rn
a ll releva nt skills in the pool th a t a re ne e d e d to follow sa f e diving proce dures, a nd
pr a ctice these until you h ave sufficie ntly m astere d the m. And l astly the O p e n w a ter
tra ining (4 to 5 dives) where you will a p ply your knowle dg e a nd skills you h ave le a rne d
in a re a l und er w a ter e nvironm e nt. At the e nd of your knowle dg e d evelopm e nt you will
t a ke a fin a l ex a m, this is a multiple choice ex a m following up on the most im port a nt
asp ects a bout diving th a t you h ave to know. The p ass m a rk is 75% but you m ay ret a ke
the ex a m if you should score b elow th a t m a rk. After you h ave successfully p a rticip a te d
in a ll thre e se g m e nts of the O p e n W a ter Diver course a nd h a ve p asse d the fin a l
knowle dg e ex a m you will receive you interna tion a lly recognize d certific a tion in form of
a PDA picture ID dive c a rd. W e w ell store your records a nd you c a n re quest a ne w ID
c a rd a ny tim e should your c a rd g et lost.
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Requirements for certification

H ere is a check list of a ll the re quire m e nts a nd prerequisites for your certific a tion.
Administrative prerequisites:
Complete and sign course sign-up
Pay course fee
Determine course scedule and dates
Complete and sign release form
Complete medical statement or hand in doctor’s physical
Fill out equipment record file
Set up record file
Requirements for certification and issuing of PDA dive ID card:
Participation in all knowledge development classes
Mastering all the practical scuba diving skills in the pool
Conducting at least four open water dives under the direct supervision and
guidance of a PDA instructor
Passing the final exam
Course fee paid in full
Completed certification application including a passport picture
Completed and signed release form
Completed medical statement or a current doctor’s physical
Let’s get started…
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Table of contents
1. Water and Air 4 5. Dive planning and dive management 40

Ch ar acteristics of w a ter Diving as a te am
W a ter pressure H a n d sign a ls
Pressure effects Dive pl a nning 43
Equ a lizing pressure 5 G e ner a l rules of recre a tion a l diving 44
Reverse block Diving with a dive com puter 45
Rupture of th e e ardrums 6 Dive t a bles 47
Air – Volum e –Pressure –Density Th e PDA dive t a ble 48
Bre a thing an d Scub a diving Ch a pter 5 Knowle dge review 52
Th e lungs 8
Lung overextension injuries 6. The underwater world 53
Re gul a tors 9 Sa ltw a ter
Snorkel 10 Freshw a ter 54
Dive t a nks Tid es
Ch a pter 1 Knowld eg e revie w 12 Curre nts 55
O rie nt a tion a n d n avig ation
2. See – feel – hear 13 Inter acting with a qu a tic life 56
Light Ch a pter 6 Konwle de ge revie w 57
Be h avior of light un der w a ter
Vision un der w a ter 14 7. Problem management 58
M asks 15 Proble ms a n d diving
Soun d Most com mon c a uses for proble ms
H e aring un d er w a ter Surf ace proble ms 59
Th e e ar 16 U n d er w a ter proble ms
Th erm al properties of w a ter O ut of a ir situ a tions 60
Hypoth ermi a 17 Distresse d diver 61
Hyp erthermi a Pa nicke d diver 62
Diving suits 18 U nresponsive diver
Ch a pter 2 Knowle dg e revie w 21 N e ar drowning 63
Injuries inflicte d by a qu a tic life
3. Buoyancy 22 Ch a pter 7 Knowle dge review 64
Archim e des‘ principle
Flo a ting – sinking 23 8. Skills requirements 65
Positioning your body un der w a ter Overview of the O WD course’s pr actic a l skills
Why do I n e e d weights? 24
Buoya ncy control d evice 25
Differe nt types of BCDs
Fins 27
Weight syste ms 28
Ch a pter 3 Knowle dge revie w 29
4. Gases 30
Wh a t is a ir? 31
D a lton’s l aw of p arti al pressure
Nitrog en 32
Nitrog en n arcosis
Decom pression sickn ess 33
O xyge n 36
O xyge n toxicity problems
Carbon dioxide 37
Carbon monoxide 38
Ch a pter 4 Knowle dg e revie w 39
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1. Water and air

Objectives for this chapter
Explain the term atmospheric pressure
Explain how pressure changes under water
Determine the absolute pressure for any given depth
Explain how to equalize
Know what to do if you’re unable to equalize
Explain what a reverse block is
Explain the relationship between volume and pressure of gases
Know the most important rule in scuba diving and why this rule is so important
Name the parts of a scuba diving breathing regulator
Name the most common materials used for dive tanks
Characteristics of water
W a ter (H 2 O) is a com pound b etw e e n oxyg e n a nd hydrog e n, o ne of the e a rth’s most
com mon com pounds. W a ter h as a d e nsity of 10 0 0 kg/ m 3 a t a te m p er a ture of 4 d e gre es
Celsius a nd is a bout 80 0 tim es d e nser th a n a ir. W a ter c a n b e found on e a rth in its
liquid, solid a nd g aseous st a tes. Furthermore a distinction is m a d e b etw e e n sa lt a nd
fresh w a ter. Sa ltw a ter h as a slightly higher d e nsity of 1.035 kg/ m 3 .
Water pressure
The pressure und er w a ter incre ases by 1 b a r every 10 m eters.
There is a slight diff ere nce b etw e e n fresh a nd sa ltw a ter which
is so minor th a t for diving a p plic a tions it c a n b e disre g a rd e d.
Atmospheric pressure + w a ter pressure e qua ls the
Surrounding pressure (a bsolute pressure)
The formul a for the surrounding pressure is:
(D e pth /10) + 1 = PU (surrounding pressure)
Pressure effects
U nlike g ases, liquids c a nnot b e com presse d. The hum a n body
consists b etw e e n 55 % to 70% of w a ter which is why w e only
f e el the eff ects of pressure in our body a ir sp a ces.
The m a in a ir sp a ces in our body a re:
Sinuses
Lungs
Ea rs
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Equalizing pressure - Equ a liz a tion techniqu es

Va lsa lva m ethod (squezing a nd g e ntly trying to exh a le through your nose)
Sw a llowing motions
Moving your j a w
H ow often a nd wh en?
The first te n m eters of your d esce nd a t le ast every m eter. After th a t every tim e you st a rt
f e eling a slight se nsa tion of pressure on your e a r drums. If you c a n’t e qu a lize,
discontinue your d esce nd! Stop a nd slowly asce nd until the discomfort a nd f e eling of
pressure in the a ir sp a ces e ases, the n e qu a lize a nd continue your d esce nt e qu a lizing
fre que ntly. N ever e qu a lize forcefully or d esce nd b eyond f e eling discomfort a nd pressure
in the a ir sp a ces. If you a re un a ble to e qu a lize you h ave to a bort the dive.
Wh a t could prevent you from b eing a ble to equ a lize?

The most com mon c a use preve nting e qu a liz a tion is cong estion which c a n plug the a ir
p assa g es. This c a n b e due to:
hypothermi a
colds
a llergies
In r a re c ases d evi a tions of the n asa l se ptum c a n m a ke e qu a liz a tion difficult or eve n
im possible. This would a lso result in discomfort a nd proble ms while flying a nd driving a t
higher a ltitud es.
Medic a tio n a nd equ a liz a tio n

G e ner a lly you should not use m e dic a tions, such as d econg est a nts, for diving b ec a use
they m ay w e a r off quicker und er w a ter, cre a ting proble ms e qu a lizing whe n you st a rt
your asce nd.
Reverse block - Wh a t is it?

Exp a nding a ir c a n b e tr a p p e d in a n a ir sp a ce due to cong estion during your asce nd,
cre a ting a reverse block in the sinuses. In r a re c ases you might f ell discomfort in your
te eth due to exp a nding a ir tr a p p e d und ern e a th d e nt a l fillings; how ever this is extre m ely
r a re since the qu a lity in d e nt a l work h as m uch im prove d over the l ast 20 ye a rs.
Diving with e a r plugs?

G e ner a lly it is not a dvisa ble to use e a r plugs while diving b ec a use they will m a ke it
im possible to e qu a lize. H ow ever, there a re sp eci a l e a r plugs, d esigne d for recre a tion a l
diving th a t e n a ble e qu a liz a tion.
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Rupture of the eardrum (perforated eardrum)

O ur e a rs a re se a le d off to the outsid e by the e a rdrums, a very thin skin. Serious injury
c a n occur if the pressure is not e qu a lizes, the e a rdrums c a n str a in or eve n te a r.
Sym ptoms
U nd er w a ter Tre a tm ent
Sh a rp p a in Ke e p the e a r dry
Vertigo Discontinue to dive
N a use a Ke e p the e a r cle a n
Loss of orie nt a tion Se ek m e dic a l tre atm e nt
Do not a dminister a ny m e dic a tion
Above w a ter without consulting a doctor
Air esc a ping the a ff ecte d e a r
Im p a ire d he a ring
Dull to sh a rp p a in
Air- Pressure - Volume- Density relationships

The Boyle -M a riotte l a w st a tes th a t
the pressure is inversely proportion a l
to the volum e of g ases.
Wh a t do es this m e a n?
If you fill a n a ir b a lloon with 4 liters of
a ir a t a surrounding pressure of 1 b a r,
tie it a nd expose it to a pressure of 2
b a r, the pressure insid e the b a lloon will
a lso rise to 2 b a r but the volum e will d ecre ase by a h a lf. If you double the pressure of a
g as, you h a lve the volum e - if you h a lve the pressure of a g as, the volum e will double.
Breathing and scuba diving - Bre a thing a ir a t surrounding pressure

In ord er for us to b e a ble to bre a ther un d er w a ter, our bre a thing re gul a tor h as to
const a ntly a d a pt the pressure of the g as w e a re bre a thing a ccording to the w a ter
pressure. W e a re bre a thing a ir und er w a ter which h as a higher d e nsity th a n on the
surf a ce.
Wh a t is th e correct bre a thing m ethod und er w a ter?

Bre a the as rel a xe d as possible, inh a ling a nd exh a ling d e e ply.
You should not try to conserve a ir by holdin g your bre a th as this is not very efficie nt
bre a thing a nd c a n le a d to other proble ms.
Th e most im porta nt rule of scub a diving:
Bre a th e continuously, n ever hold your bre a th!
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Do es pressure und er w a ter a ff ect the a ir in our lungs?

You know now th a t the pressure is inversely proportion a l to the volum e of g ases. A
d ecre ase in pressure therefore results in a n incre ase in volum e. If you took a d e e p
bre a th a t a d e pth of 2 0 m eters a nd held th a t bre a th while asce nding, the d ecre ase in
pressure would c a use the volum e of the a ir in your lungs to incre ase. At the surf a ce, the
volum e of the lungs would h ave incre ase d by tim es thre e, which could overexte nd or
eve n burst your lungs. These injuries c a n b e lif e thre a te ning.
Bre a thing a nd overexertion

If you a re overexerting yourself, your bre a thing r a te will incre ase which c a n result in
incre ase d oxyg e n d e pletion in your body a n d c a n c a use stress. Follow these sim ple ste ps
to a ct a p propri a tely:
Stop - Breathe - Think - Act
Stop the stre nuous a ctivity th a t le d to overexertion, ca lm yourself down a nd t a ke control

of your bre a thing. O nce you h ave re g a ine d control of your bre a thing d evise a pl a n to
sa f ely continue your dive.
Correl a tion b etw e e n d epth a nd a ir consum ption

Ea ch diver h as his or her ow n individu a l a ir consum ption d e p e nding o n va rious f a ctors:
D e pth
W a ter te m p er a ture
Visibility
Curre nts
St a te of mind
Physic a l condition etc.
O ne thing how ever is for cert a in, the d e e p e r you dive, the more g as you will consum e in
the sa m e a mount of tim e. The incre ase of pressure in the d e pth c a uses the g as to b e
more d e nse a nd less in volum e. At a d e pth of 30 m eters a nd a surrounding pressure of
4 b a r you will bre a the 4 tim es as much a ir as com p a re d to the surf a ce (surf a ce – 1 b a r
to 30 m – 4 b a r). In other words, if your a ir sup ply l asts you for 6 0 minutes on the
surf a ce, th a t sa m e a ir sup ply would l ast you for 15 min a t a d e pth of 30 m eters.
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The lungs - The functioning of th e lun gs

The a ir you bre a the tr avels through the
respir a tory tr a ct to the lungs. O ur lungs
a re one big a ir sp a ce, se p ar a te d into
two ind e p e nd e nt lob es. You m ay picture
the lungs as a big spong e fille d with
m a ny c avities (a ir sa cs = a lveoli).
Betw e e n the a lveoli you h ave tissue a nd
vessels. All a lveoli a re surround e d by
ve nous (oxyg e n d e plete d) a nd a rteri a l
(rich in oxyg e n) blood vessels. Another
im port a nt structure of the respir a tory
org a n a re the bro nchi a l tub es which
connect to the up p er a ir p assa g es. The
e piglottis lies insid e the voice box
(l a rynx) closing the up p er e nd of the
wind pip e (tr a che a). The thro a t which
includ es the n asoph a rynx a nd the or a l c avity connects the respir a tory tr a ct to the
outsid e of the hum a n body.
Which m ech a nism regul a tes our bre a thing?

O ur cells ne e d a const a nt flow of oxyg e n so they c a n produce e nergy, which w e ne e d to
survive. O ur cells use the oxyg e n to bre a k down (burn) nutrie nts, m a inly c a rbohydr a tes
a nd f a t to produce e nergy. This che mic a l re a ction a lso produces c a rbon dioxid e (co2)
which is tr a nsform e d into bic a rbon a te a nd tr a nsporte d to the lungs vi a ve nous vessels
a nd exh a le d through the respir a tory tr a ct. N ot the a mount of oxyg e n in our cells, as
ofte n b elieve d, but the co2 a nd bic a rbon a te levels re gul a te our bre a thing. The
bre a thing reflex, which c a uses us to inh a le, is trigg ere d once the co2 a nd bic a rbon a te
levels re a ch a cert a in level.
Lung overextension injuries

Overexte nsions of the lungs a re a mong the most serious injuries th a t c a n h a p p e n to a
scub a diver but a re, a t the sa m e tim e, very e asy to avoid. By never holding our bre a th
a nd m a king sure our a ir p assa g es a re a lw a ys op e n w e c a n a lmost elimin a te the risks of
such a n injury.
Forms of lung overexte nsion injuries:
Pneumothor a x (coll a pse d lung)
Me di astin a l e m physe m a (a ir insid e the chest)
Subcut a neous e m physe m a (a ir in the l ayer und er the skin)
Arteri a l g as e m bolism (g as bub bles in the blood vessels)
Sym ptoms
Shortness of bre a th a nd difficulty t aking d e e p bre a ths
Dry cough
Chest p a in
Bre a thing sounds
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First a id tre a tm e nt
Administer m e dic a l oxyg e n
Monitor the vit a l functions
Im m e di a tely c a ll a n a m bul a nce / m e dic a l assist a nce
Position the p a tie nt in whichever position bre a thing works b est
Equipment
Breathing regulator
The re gul a tor is connecte d to the t a nk a nd sup plies a ir to the
diver which is re gul a te d to m a tch the surrounding pressure. Curre nt
mod els a re a ll d esigne d with a “f a il-sa f e” m ech a nism.
Com ponents
A set of re gul a tors consists of the following p a rts:
The first st a g e brings the pressure from insid e the t a nk down to
interm e di a te pressure. The second st a g e, a lso ref erre d to as the
bre a thing re gul a tor, h as a lever op er a te d v a lve which d elivers a ir
while inh a ling through the mouth piece. The va lve will close once
you stop inh a ling a nd the a irflow will stop. This is c a lle d on
d e m a nd a ir flow. Insid e the second st a g e the m e dium pressure
is re gul a te d down to m a tch the surrounding pressure. Mod ern
re gul a tor set ups includ e a n a ltern a te a ir source, a lso c a lle d
octopus. The octopus is a n a d dition a l second st a g e use d as a
b a ckup a ir source to sup ply your diving p a rtner with a ir should
he run out of a ir. Ea ch of these com pone nts is connecte d to the
first st a g e vi a m e dium pressure hoses, e n a bling a ir to flow from
the t a nk through the first st a g e into the second st a g e /s. The
infl a tor hose is a nother m e dium pressure hose which connects the
first st a g e to the infl a tor loc ate d on your BCD (Buoya ncy Control
d evice g e ner a lly c a lle d j a cket). You c a n use your infl a tor to infl a te
your j a cket with a ir from the t a nk. The pressure g a ug e hose is a
high pressure hose guiding a ir str a ight from the t a nk to the
pressure g a ug e, which m e asures the pressure in the t a nk a nd thus lets you know how
much a ir you h ave left. It is very im port a nt to const a ntly monitor your pressure g a ug e
und er w a ter. It c a n b e loc a te d in a console with other instrum e nts such as a com p ass, a
d e pth g a ug e or a dive com puter.
Wh a t should I look for in a regul a tor?

The most im port a nt f e a ture for your re gul a tor is th a t you c a n bre a the e asily a nd it fits
comfort a bly into your mouth. Every m a jor diving e quipm e nt m a nuf a cturer off ers a r a ng e
of re gul a tors which a re a ll suit a ble for recre a tion a l diving. O ne of the m a in diff ere nces,
which is reflecte d in the price of the e quipm e nt, is whether a re gul a tor is d esigne d for
w a rm w a ter or cold w a ter diving. Cold er w ater te m p er a tures re quire a d dition a l
technic a l f e a tures insid e the first st a g e th a t preve nt the a ir flow from fre ezing up the
first st a g e. Talk to your diving ce nter or you scub a e quipm e nt ret a iler to find out which
diving re gul a tor m e ets your ne e ds a nd is right for you.
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M a inten a nce
Re gul a tors a re sturdy but you should still h a ndle the m with c a re, they ke e p you a live
und er w a ter. Rinse your re gul a tor a fter e a ch dive, esp eci a lly a fter you’ve b e e n diving in
sa lt w a ter, m aking sure no w a ter se e ps into the first st a g e a nd into the hoses whe n you
rinse your re gul a tor. Do not le ave it exposed to direct sunlight for exte nd e d p eriods of
tim e. The UV light will corrod e the hoses a nd pl astic p a rts, re ducing the lif e sp a n of your
re gul a tor. O nce a ye a r you should h ave your re gul a tor service d by your dive ce nter.
Most m a nuf a cturers a lso recom m e nd service a fter 10 0 dives, this num b er va ries from
m a nuf a cturer to m a nuf a cturer.
Snorkels
A snorkel e n a bles you to swim on the surf a ce with your f a ce
in the w a ter, without h aving to r a ise your h e a d to bre a the.
Com ponents
A snorkel b asic a lly consists of two com ponents:
Pip e
Mouthpiece
Fe a tures
The pip e should not b e long er th a n 4 0 cm (16 inches) a nd the
tub e’s di a m eter (bore) should b e a t le ast 2 cm (0.8 inches) to
re duce bre a thing resist a nce. The mouthpiece should b e m a d e
of non- a llerg e nic silicone a nd should fit comfort a bly into your
mouth. Som e snorkels com e with a silicone purg e va lve loc a te d a t the low est point of
the snorkel d esigne d to purg e w a ter through the bottom of the snorkel.
M a inten a nce
Rinse off sa ltw a ter a nd do not le ave expose d to direct sunlight for exte nd e d p eriods.
Dive tanks or cylinders

The t a nk e n a bles us to c a rry the g as w e ne e d to bre a the und er w a ter. Bre a thing a ir
com pressors a re use d to fill t a nks with high -pressurize d a ir r a nging to a pressure of
20 0 up to 3 0 0 b a r. Every t a nk is e quip p e d with a va lve to ope n or close the a ir flow
from the t a nk.
M a teri a ls
Scub a t a nks a re m a d e most com monly from two diff ere nt m a teri a ls, ste el or a luminum.
For sp eci a l purposes, t a nks c a n a lso b e m a d e from a c a rbon com posite m a teri a l. Ea ch
m a teri a l h as diff ere nt prop erties th a t ne e d to b e t a ke n into a ccount whe n d eciding
which t a nks is right for you.
Ste el
Most com monly use d in Europ e, t a nks re quire only a cylind er thickness of 3-6 m m due
to the stre ngth of ste el. The volum e /w eight r a tio of ste el t a nks does not re quire
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a d dition a l w eights to e qu a lize positive buoya ncy. Ste el t a nks c a n b e fille d with
up to 30 0 b a r. H ow ever ste el does not hold up a g a inst corrosion as w ell,
esp eci a lly in sa lt w a ter.
Aluminum
Aluminum t a nks hold up b etter a g a inst corrosion in sa lt w a ter th a n ste el t a nks a nd a re
com monly use d in diving hot spots a round the world such as the Re d Se a, the M a ldives,
the C a rib b e a n, Asi a. Re quiring a much gre a ter thickness, a luminum t a nks are bulkier
a nd he a vier th a n ste el t a nks a nd their volu m e /w eigth r a tio re quires a d dition a l w eights
to counter the positive buoya ncy of the t a nk. They c a n b e fille d with up to 225 b a r.
C a rbon – Com posite m a teri a ls

These cylind ers a re m a d e of com posite m a teri a ls, the neck a nd the b ase of the cylind e r
a re m a d e of a luminum a nd the bo dy is m a d e of c a rbon.
This re duces their w eight by a bout 50% to com p a r a ble ste el t a nks, how ever this
a dva nt a g e is lost und er w a ter b ec a use you ne e d to c a rry a d dition a l w eights whe n
diving with c a rbon t a nks. C a rbon t a nks c a n b e fille d with up to 30 0 b a r.
Sizes – a ir c a p a city
Cylind er or t a nk c a p a city is either expressed in liters or cubic f e et (CF or CUF). Ste el
t a nk’s c a p a city is usu a lly expresse d in liters. St a nd a rd sizes a re:
7 liter 10 liter
12 liter (long or short) 15 liter
The c a p a city of a luminum t a nks is g e ner a lly expresse d in CUF or CF a t a pressure of
20 0 b a r. Most com mon sizes a re:
4 0 CUF 5,66 liter 70 CUF 9,9 0 liter
80 CUF 11,31 liter 110 CUF 15,55 liter
H a ndling a nd tr a nsport
The D e p a rtm e nt of Tr a nsport a tion a nd simila r n a tion a l a g e ncies est a blish re gul a tions
concerning the tr a nsport of pressurize d cont a iners, ofte n consid ere d h a z a rdous c a rgo.
Re gul a tions va ry by country a nd a re not uniform. Ea ch individu a l tr a nsporting dive t anks
h as to b e f a mili a r with a nd a dhere to loc a l l a ws. In a d dition to existing l a ws, a num b er
of g e ner a l rules should a lso b e follow e d whe n tr a nsporting a nd h a ndling diving t a nks.
Ta nks a re he avy a nd unst a ble whe n st a nding. To avoid injury or d a m a ging your t a nks
never le ave the m st a nding u n a tte nd e d or u nsecure d a nd a lso secure the m whe n lying
down so they c a n’t roll. Alw ays secure the m prop erly insid e a ve hicle with the va lve
either f a cing sid e w ays or b a ckw a rds.
Filling your ta nks

You should only h ave your t a nks fille d a t trustworthy a nd certifie d Dive ce nters, Ret a il
shops or Resorts. U ncle a n a ir c a n h ave serious im p a cts on your he a lth. If there is a n
odor or t aste to the g as in your t a nk, do not use it to go diving!
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M a inten a nce
Diving t a nks a re subject to re gul ations th a t re quire p eriodic pressure tests. Re gul a tions
va ry from country to country; your dive ce nter c a n tell you the d et a ils of these
re gul a tions a nd usu a lly off er visu al insp ections which should b e p erform e d a nnu a lly in
a d dition to the re quire d hydrost a tic tests. Ma ke sure you do not store your t a nk e m pty,
as it will dr a w in moisture pote nti a lly c a using corrosion. Alw ays store your t a nk st a nding
a nd secure d in a dry a nd cool pl a ce. After long p eriods of tim e you should e m pty the
old a ir a nd refill the t a nk b efore using it to go diving.
Ch a pter 1 knowle dg e revie w
The pressure under water increases by 1 bar every …..

A 13 m e t e rs
B 10 m e t e rs
C 4 m e t e rs
D 6 m e t e rs
How high is the surrounding pressure at a depth of 30 meters?

A 3 bar
B 2 bar
C 4 bar
D 5 bar
What should you do if you are unable to equalize?

A K e e p tryin g h e a d ove r h e e ls.
B Sto p, asc e n d a littl e u ntil th e f e e lin g of disco m f ort dis a p p e a rs.
C N eve r use f orc e to e q u a lize.
D Answ e rs B a n d C a r e b oth corr e ct.
Which is the most important rule of scuba diving?

A O nly use your snork e l a t th e surf a c e.
B D o not dive d e e p e r th a n you a r e a bl e to fr e e dive.
C D o not e x p ose your r e g ul a tor to th e su n.
D Br e a th e co ntinu ously – n eve r hol d your br e a th.
How much air will be in a balloon, after you filled it with 3 liters of air at a depth
of 20 meters and let it rise to the surface?
A 3 lit e rs
B 9 lit e rs
C 1 lit e r
D Th e q u estio n c a n’t b e a nsw e r e d with th e give n d e t a ils.
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2. See – Feel – Hear

Objectives for this chapter
Explain why objects may appear larger and closer than on land
Understand how light is absorbed by water and the consequences
Know the most important feature of a dive mask
Understand how sound travels under water
Explain the difficulties of targeting the source of sound under water
Know how to behave when you hear boat engine noises under water
Understand how water conducts heat
Explain why you need to wear a dive suit
Explain the terms hypothermia und hyperthermia
Know what to do in a case of hypothermia
Know what to do in a case of hyperthermia
Light
Light is cre a te d by electrom a gnetic r ays origin a ting
from the sun. The sp ecter of visible light r a ng es
b etw e e n 380 N m (n a nom eters) a nd 78 0 N m of
w avele ngth. Light tr avels a t a sp e e d of 30 0 0 0 0
km /sec.
Behavior of light under water

W a ter is a bout 80 0 tim es d e nser th a n a ir c a using the
light to tr avel much slow er through w a ter th a n
through a ir. Light tr avels a t a sp e e d of
225 0 0 0 km /sec through w a ter.
Wh a t is a bsorption?
As light tr avels through w a ter, the w a ter molecules
a bsorb the light, converting it to therm a l e nergy a nd
other processes. D e pth a nd the w a ter’s visibility h ave
a n im p a ct on the d e gre e of a bsorption.
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Refra ctio n (light sc a ttering)

The term refr a ction d escrib es the optic a l effect th a t
a p p e a rs whe n light shifts its course slightly due to a
ch a ng e in velocity whe n e ntering a diff ere nt
m e dium. This eff ect c a n b e notice d in two inst a nces
whe n scub a diving. The light sc a tters a t the surf a ce
a nd off the p a rticles in the w a ter a nd it a lso
ch a ng es sp e e d tr aveling from the w a ter to the a ir in
our dive m ask, c a using refr a ction in both c ases.
Vision under water

Why do objects a p p e a r l a rg er a nd closer?
This eff ect is c a use by the refr a ction of light e ntering our scub a m ask. This m a kes object
look l a rg er a nd closer by 1/3.
Wh a t is optic a l reversa l?
In w a ters with high visibility the eff ects of refr a ction c a n b e reverse d, m e a ning th a t
objects will look further th a n they a re.
Color vision
The white light w e se e is m a d e up of a ll the colors mixe d tog ether. This a bsorption
c a uses the colors to disa p p e a r one by one, st a rting with re d a nd or a ng e working its w ay
up the color sp ectrum to yellow a nd on to gre e n the d e e p er you dive. Blue is the l ast
color to disa p p e a r. The n a tur a l colors will a p p e a r brownish d a rk a fter the light h as b e e n
a bsorb e d. If you w a nt to e njoy the colorful und erw a ter world you ne e d to use a n
a rtifici a l light source (diving l a m p).
Th e functioning of the eye

Light r ays e ntering the eyes a re refr a cte d by
The corne a, the le ns a nd the vitreous body a nd
c a pture d by the retin a. The refr a ction is
m e asure d in diopter. The hum a n eyes ne e d
a ir to focus, this is why our vision is blurre d
und er w a ter without a m ask.
H ow c a n th e eyes suffer from a b a rotra um a?

The dive m ask is a n a rtifici a l a ir sp a ce on our body. D ecre asing pressure during a
d esce nt cre a tes a va cuum insid e the m ask. If w e do not e qu a lize the m ask by letting a ir
out of our nose the incre asing va cuum c a n exert ne g a tive pressure on our eyes a nd th e
eye muscles, pulling the m out of their sockets. This c a n c a use blood vessels in the eye to
rupture a nd le a d to bruises a round the eyes. This c a n b e e asily avoid e d by sim ply letting
som e a ir out of your nose while e qu a lizing your e a rs, this will e qu a lize the ne g a tive a ir
pressure in your m ask.
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Equipment
Masks
O ur eyes c a nnot focus in w a ter, in ord er to se e cle a r, w e ne e d a ir for our eyes to focus.
M asks e n a ble us to se e cle a r und er w a ter.
Com ponents
M asks g e ner a lly consist of four com pone nts:
The m ask body or skirt
The fr a m e
The gl as or gl asses
The str a p
Fe a tures
The most im port a nt thing whe n it com es to a dive m ask is a prop er a nd comfort a ble fit.
Your dive ce nter will help you try on diff ere nt m asks to m a ke sure you find the one b est
suite d for you. The gl ass le ns should b e m a d e from te m p ere d gl ass, which is less likely
to sh a tter into sh a rp pieces should it bre a k. The m ask body or skirt should b e m a d e
from non- a llerg e nic silicone a nd should fit close a g a inst your f a ce to form a good se a l.
The fr a m e should m e m a d e from im p a ct resist a nt pl astic.
M a inten a nce
Do not le ave your m ask expose d to direct sunlight. Use the
protective c ase th a t c a m e with your m ask to shield it from UV light
a nd to m a int a in the sh a p e of the m ask skirt. Rinse it with freshw a ter esp eci a lly a fter
sa ltw a ter a nd pool dives.
Visu a l correction m asks

If you ne e d visu a l correction, som e m a nuf acturers off er visu a l le nses for their m asks a t
a re ason a ble cost. Should your stre ngth not b e ava il a ble, custom m a d e le nses c a n b e
ord ere d from your optici a n.
Sound
Sound is e nergy tr avelling in w aves through a m e dium; it tr avels through a ir a t a sp e e d
of 343 m /s (1235 km /h). The higher the d e nsity of a m e dium, the f aster sound will tr avel.
W a ter is a bout 80 0 tim es more d e nse th a n a ir c a using sound to tr avel a t a sp e e d of
1480 m /s, a bout 4,35 tim es f aster th a n through a ir.
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Hearing under water

H ow w ell c a n w e h e a r un d er w a ter?
W e c a n he a r very w ell und er w a ter due to the f a ct th a t sound tr avels much f aster.
The ear - Direction a l he a ring und er w a ter

Direction a l he a ring und er w a ter how ever is
more difficult. O ur br a in loc a tes the source of
sound by d etermining which e a r is re a che d
first by the sound a nd from this pinpointing a
direction. U nd er w a ter sound tr avels 4,35 tim es
f aster m a king it difficult for the br a in to
d etermine which e a r is re a che d first. W e might
think w e c a n tell which direction a sound is
coming from, but a re ofte n mist a ke n. The br a in
will g e ner a lly conclud e th a t the sound is
coming from som e where a bove us.
H ow to b e h ave wh en you he a r a noise?

Whe never w e w a nt to id e ntify a nd loc a te th e source of sound und er w a ter, w e h ave to
est a blish visu a l confirm a tion.
Bo a t engin e noises
Whe never you he a r noises pote nti a lly origin a ting from motorize d bo a ts a nd w a ter cr a fts
you should b e very c a utious. Im m e di a tely desce nd to a sa f e d e pth w ell b e ne a th the
w a ter surf a ce. This will put a sa f e dist a nce b etw e e n you a nd a ny bo a ts’ prop ellers.
Re m a in a t a sa f e d e pth until the noise h as disa p p e a re d. In a re as with fre que nt bo a t
tr a ffic a lw ays dive close to shore or a long the re ef. Re gul a tions re quire divers to c a rry a
diver’s buoy a nd/or fl a g which is w ell visible a bove the surf a ce, indic a ting the loc a tion
of the divers und er w a ter. Alw ays e m ploy a sa f ety buoy whe n surf a cing in the op e n
w a ter. Do not a p pro a ch bo a ts from und ern e a th unless they a re sitting a t a nchor.
O therwise a p pro a ch bo a ts on the surf a ce from a sa f e dist a nce est a blishing cont a ct with
the cre w b efore swim ming closer to the bo a t.
Things th a t m ay a ff ect your he a ring und er w a ter

Air insid e the outer e a r
H ood
Thermal properties of water

W a ter conducts he a t 25 tim es f aster th a n a ir, due to ist d e nsity which is 80 0 tim es
higher th a n a ir.
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Why do es our body cool down f aster while diving th a n wh en w e a re

swimming or snorkeling?
Whe n swim ming or snorkeling, p a rts of the body re m a in a bove the w a ter surf a ce (the
he a d, should ers a nd p a rts of the b a ck). In a d dition to the com plete subm ersion w e a re
bre a thing pressurize d a ir which is cooler a n d drier th a n the a ir a bove the surf a ce. O ur
body ne e ds to w a rm a nd moiste n the a ir th a t w e bre a ther und er w a ter. This re quires
e nergy dr a wing from our body’s w a rmth a n d fluids.
Hypothermia
H ow c a n hypothermi a occur?
The most com mon mist a ke is to w a it too long b efore a borting the dive due to f e eling
cold. If you a re cold und er w a ter a nd st a rt to shiver a nd c a nnot control the shivering it
is p ast tim e to stop the dive a nd le ave the w a ter to w a rm up. N ot choosing the
a p propri a te suit for your dive c a n quickly le a d to f e eling cold und er w a ter.
Sym ptoms Tre a tm ent

Shivering in a n u ncontroll a ble m a nner Dry off a nd put on w a rm clothes as
Lips a nd fing ern a ils turning blue quick as possible
Pa le skin St ay in a dry a nd w a rm pl a ce
Slow re a ction Do not drink a lcohol
Loss of te m p er a ture f e eling Drink w a rm b ever a g es
Coordin a tion proble ms
W e a kness in the le gs a nd a rms
First a id
Do not use hot w a ter in a n a tte m pt to w a rm up the victim. This could le a d to a wid e ning
of the blood vessels a nd too much cold blood could b e tr a nsporte d to the body’s core,
inte nsifying the hypothermi a. Continuously monitor the vit a l signs a nd consciousness of
the victim. If there is no st a te of shock, a dminister w a rm b ever a g es.
Hyperthermia
H ow c a n hyp erthermi a occur?
Bec a use w a ter h as a cooling eff ect on our body, hypothermi a usu a lly occurs b efore we
e nter the w a ter. If w e w a it too long in the he a t of the d ay suite d up in our dive g e a r,
b efore w e jum p into the w a ter, our body ca n quickly over he a t. The dive suit disa bles
our bodies to re gul a te our body te m p er a ture by sw e a ting. W e sw e a t insid e our suit but
a ir c a nnot eva por a te the sw e a t a nd cool us off, so w e continue to sw e at a nd to
overhe a t.
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Sym ptoms Tre a tm ent

Blushing of the f a ce Im m e di a tely t a ke off dive suit
N o sw e a t Find a cool a n d sh a d e d a re a
Acceler a te d pulse Cool off with w a ter or a show er
Sh a llow bre a thing Drink ple nty of cold fluids
Dry a nd w a rm skin Do not drink a lcohol
Disorie nt a tion
First a id
Use a cold tow el to cool off the neck a nd the he a d, wip e down the bo dy with cold
tow els. Monitor the vit a l functions a nd consciousness of the victim. If the victim is
responsive a dminister fluids a nd electrolytes.
Equipment
Diving suits
Diving suits protect us from the cold by re ducing he a t loss but a lso serve va rious other
functions, from sun protection a nd protection from a br asions to looking f ashion a ble.
Wh a t is neopre ne?
N eopre ne is a ctu a lly a br a nd n a m e from th e com p a ny
DuPont use d to ref er to chloropre ne rub b er. N eopre ne
is very flexible a nd resist a nt. N eopre ne use d for diving
suits is fo a m e d by pressing g as (usu a lly nitrog e n) into
liquid chloropre ne rub b er. Countless tiny g as bub bles
a re tr a p p e d insid e the neopre ne d elivering gre a t
insul a tion.
Function of a dive suit

Dive suits provid e w a rmth und er w a ter by cre a ting a thin l ayer of w a ter b etw e e n the
skin a nd the neo pre ne a nd by insul a ting this l ayer from the outsid e w a ter te m p er a ture.
The skin w a rms this thin l ayer of w a ter a nd the w a rm w a ter reflects he a t b a ck to the
skin. Dive suits h ave to fit tight, otherwise the l ayer of w a ter could b e too l a rg e a nd
dr a in w a rmth from the skin without eff ectively reflecting it b a ck, a nd the w a ter l ayer
c a n move e asily every tim e the diver moves, c a using it to cool off a nd exch a ng e w a ter
with the cool surrounding w a ter.
Different styles a nd typ es of diving suits
The diving e nvironm e nt dict a tes which typ e of suit c a n b e use d. The cold er the w a ter the
b etter the insul a tion re quire d from the suit. The m a in diff ere nce lies in the thickness of
the neopre ne use d for the suit, one other diff ere nce lies in the l ayer of w a ter b etw e e n
the suit a nd the skin.
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Body suits or tropic a l overa ll

1 - 3 m m strong over a lls m a d e from neopre ne, lycr a or nylon a re prim a rily w a rn in
w a rm, tropic a l w aters. H e a t insul a tion is not the m a in consid er a tion whe n it com es to
w a rm w a ters but body suits a lso provid e sun burn protection as w ell as protection from
scr a p es a nd a br asions as w ell as jelly fish stings.
Shorty suits
A dive suit m a d e from neopre ne 3 -5 m m strong with short le gs a nd short a rms, this suit
is a lso use d for w a rm w a ter.
L ong John suits

Are over a ll p a nts m a d e of neopre ne, which a re g e ner a lly worn und er
a long sle eve j a cket. Long john suits a re use d in mod er a te w a ter
te m p er a tures a nd usu a lly 5 to 7 m m strong.
Wet suits
W et suits a re the most com mon dive suits, a single over a ll m a d e of 5
or 7 m m strong neopre ne with either a front or b a ck zip p er. W et suits
c a n b e use d for m a ny w a ter te m p er a tures, d e p e nding on the
thickness of the neopre ne a nd they c a n b e com ple m e nte d with a n ice
vest worn over the over a ll to a d d insul a tion for cold er te m p er a tures
und er 18 C (65 F).
Semi-dry suits
A ne w er version of the w et suit re duces the flow of w a ter insid e the
suit by se a ling off the a rms a nd le gs. W a ter will still e nter the suit
through the neck a n d the zip p er, but it is ke pt insid e the suit m a king
the he a t exch a ng e b etw e e n the skin a nd th e w ater more efficie nt.
This e n a bles you to either re duce the neopr e ne thickness for your dive
suit or to dive in cold er w a ters as low as 10 C (50 F) th a n with re gul a r
com p a r a ble w et suits. This f e ature is mostly st a nd a rd in mod ern dive
suits.
Dry suits
Are m a d e from neopre ne but c a n a lso b e m a d e from diff ere nt
m a teri a ls such as codur a, nylon or tril a mina te. They provid e insul a tion
in a diff ere nt w ay th a n w et suits, as the n a m e a lre a dy sugg ests it, a
dry suit does not use a l ayer of w a ter b etwe e n the skin a nd the suit,
but a l ayer of a ir. The suit c a nnot a llow a ny w a ter to e nter the a re a
b etw e e n suit a nd skin for this to work. Dry suits a re e quip p e d with
g as proof zip p ers, either on the b a ck or in the front a nd h ave neck
a nd wrist se a ls to ke e p the w a ter out. The boots a re a tt a che d to the
suit. They a re worn with und erg a rm e nts, a nything worn b etw e e n your
skin a nd the w a ter insid e a dry suit re duces he a t loss. Air is tr a p p e d
b etw e e n your skin a nd the suit, cre a ting a nother a rtifici al a ir sp a ce
th a t is a ff ecte d by the surrounding pressure.
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Dry suits h ave a second infl a tor hose conne cte d to the suit (usu a lly in the chest
a re a) to a d d a ir a nd a va lve (usu a lly loc a ted on the left a rm) to rele ase a ir in
ord er to e qu a lize pressure ch a ng es. Using a dry suit com es with som e a d dition a l
ch a lle ng es a nd you ne e d to m aster a d dition a l skills b efore you should use a dry suit in
your op e n w a ter dives. You c a n t a ke the Dry Suit Diver sp eci alty course during your
O p e n W a ter diver course to le a rn these nec essa ry skills.
M a inten a nce - n eopren e

Rinse with fresh w a ter a fter pool a nd sa ltw a ter dives. Do not le ave neopre ne expose d to
the sun for long er p eriods. This c a n c a use the g as bub bles tr a p p e d insid e the neo pre n e
to diffuse out of the m a teri a l a nd will re duce the insul a tion provid e d by the m a teri a l
a nd its flexibility c a using it to te a r. You c a n m a chine w ash neopre ne suits a t up to 4 0 C
without tum bling cycle a nd there a re a ntib a cteri a l neopre ne d eterg e nts. Use a bro a d
clothes h a ng er for your dive suit to m a int ain the form whe n drying.
Dry suits
Dry suits com e a t a more com plex d esign a nd a hig her price point. M a inte n a nce shoul d
b e t a ke n more serious, esp eci a lly the wrist a nd neck se a ls a nd the g as proof zip p er
re quire sp eci a l a tte ntion. The se a ls should b e cle a ne d a nd covere d with t a lcum pow d er
a fter every dive. Use w a x to ke e p the zip p er smooth a nd never b e nd it. Store your dry
suit in a dry a nd cool pl a ce.
Dive suit a ccessories - H oods

W e lose a p proxim a tely 75% of our body he a t through our he a d. W e a ring a neopre ne
hood re duces the he a t loss a nd ke e ps us w a rm long er und er w a ter.
Gloves
Gloves a re worn und er w a ter to protect from scr a p es a nd a br asion a nd the c a n provid e
insul a tion. In w a rm w a ter you would w e a r lightw eight gloves th a t provid e no insul a tion
(re ef gloves), for cold er w a ter, neopre ne gloves or eve n mitts a lso provid e insul a tion
a nd w a rmth.
Wet suit boots

W et suit boots provid e insul a tion for the f eet in cold er w a ter, but a lso protection whe n
w a lking on rocky terr a in to or from the dive site. W et suit boots a re m a d e of neopre ne
up to 7 m m strong a nd should re a ch a bove the a nkles to e nsure a se a mless connection
with the le gs of the dive suits.
N eopren e socks
Provid e a d dition a l insul a tion in cold w a ter or c a n b e worn with full foot fins. They a re
usu a lly 2 -3 m m strong.
U nd erg a rm e nts
U nd erg a rm e nts worn und er w et suits provid e a d dition a l insul a tion by re ducing w a ter
flow insid e the suit a nd they m a ke it e asier to g et into a nd out of your w et suit. They a re
usu a lly m a d e of either thin neopre ne or lycr a.
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Ch a pter 2 – Knowle dg e revie w
Under water we perceive objects. to be..

A f a r a w a y a n d sm a ll.
B a b out 3 0% close r a n d l a rg e r.
C ve ry blurry.
D pr ese nt th a t a r e not (o ptic a l illusio ns).
How much faster does sound travel in water compared to air?

A 26 ti m es f ast e r.
B 4,35 ti m es f ast e r.
C 0 ,6 ti m es f ast e r.
D 12,3 4 ti m es f ast e r.
Why do we wear a dive suit under water?

A Th e bri g ht colors of our suit m a k e us m or e visi bl e u n d e r w a t e r.
B N e o pr e n e c a n prot e ct a g a inst sh a rk bit es.
C To prot e ct our b o dy fro m hyp oth e rm i a .
D To cushio n our b a ck a g a inst th e dive t a nk.
When we hear boat engine noises under water, we should….

A surf a c e i m m e di a t e ly to se e w hich b o a t it is.
B r e m a in a t a s a f e d e pth u ntil th e noises h a ve dis a p p e a r e d.
C st a y close to th e shor e or th e r e e f w h e n surf a cin g.
D Both a nsw e rs B a n d C a r e corr e ct.
What should we do when we start to shiver uncontrollably?

A A b ord th e dive a n d g e t out of th e w a t e r.
B Swi m f ast e r to g e t w a rm a g a in.
C Snu g gl e u p to your dive p a rt n e r to k e e p w a rm.
D Re m a in still u ntil th e shive rrin g sto ps.
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3. Buoyancy
O bjectives for this ch a pter
Explain Archimedes‘ principle
Name the different types of buoyancy which are relevant for scuba diving
Know the differences between fresh and salt water when it comes to diving
Explain the function of the lungs as a buoyancy control device
Know how to position yourself correctly under water depending on the situation
Know the most common techniques for swimming under water
Name the pieces of equipment that are used to control buoyancy
Know how to determine the correct amount of weights
Archimedes‘ principle- Buoyancy, upward and downward movement

Archim e d es‘ principle is one of the most import a nt l a ws of physics whe n it com es to
scub a diving. Archim e d es w as a Gre ek m a the m a tici a n a nd physicist who live d a round
30 0 b.C.:
„A body im m erse d in a fluid is buoye d up by a force e qu a l to the w eight of the

displ a ce d fluid. “
H ow do volum e a nd w eight influ enc e buoya ncy?

Positive buoyancy – A body imm erse d in a liquid will exp erie nce upw a rd move m e nt a nd
flo a t if it w eighs less th a n the fluid it displ aces.
Neutral buoyancy - A body imm erse d in a liquid will neither flo a t nor sink but hover if it
w eighs the sa m e a mount as the fluid it displ a ces.
Negative buoyancy– A body imm erse d in a liquid will exp erie nce downw a rd move m e nt
a nd sink to the bottom if it w eighs more tha n the fluid it displ a ces.
Differenc es sa lt w a ter – fresh w a ter

Since the force of buoya ncy d e p e nds on the w eight of the liquid th a t is displ a ce d, sa lt
w a ter will cre a te a l a rg er force of buoya ncy th a n fresh w a ter b ec a use sa lt w a ter is
he avier th a n fresh w a ter. A body th a t is ne utr a lly buoya nt in fresh w a ter will b e
positively buoya nt or flo a ting in sa lt w ater. As a conse quence w e will re quire more
w eights whe n diving in sa ltw a ter th a n w e d o in fresh w a ter.
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Th e rel eva nc e of diff erent typ es of bu oya ncy for scub a diving
Floating: Positive buoya nt – upw a rd movem ent
W e st a rt every dive on the surf a ce, flo a ting a nd whe n w e e nd our dive, asce nding b a ck
to the surf a ce.
Sinking: N eg a tive buoya nt – dow nw a rd movem ent

W e ne e d downw a rd move m e nt to d esce nd b e ne a th the surf a ce a nd to re a ch our
d esire d d e pth.
N eutra l buoya ncy– hovering a t a c ert a in d epth

This is the d esire d st a te during the dive. If w e a re neutr a lly buoya nt w e c a n conserve
e nergy by not h aving to counter upw a rd or downw a rd move m e nt to re m a in a t the
chose n d e pth.
Positioning your body under water

During th e d esc end
Alw ays d esce nd f e et first. Diving down he a d over he els c a n le a d to vertigo a nd loss of
orie nt a tion. D esce nding f e et first will m a ke it e asier for you to control your buoya ncy
through your BCD a nd ke e p visu a l cont a ct with your dive te a m.
During th e dive
M a int a ining a horizo nt a l a nd level position und er w a ter re duces the w a ter resist a nce
a nd helps you conserve e nergy whe n swim ming und er w a ter.
Stre a mlining
Ap a rt from positioning yourself horizont a lly it is a lso im port a nt to ke e p your hoses a nd
e quipm e nt tucke d in close to your body to re duce w a ter resist a nce. This will a lso protect
your e quipm e nt from d a m a g e not to b e dr a g g e d on the bottom or c a ught on objects.
H ow to move un d er w a ter
Try to avoid a ny exertion und er w a ter. Pa ce yourself a nd move slowly a nd ste a dily. It is
not a r a ce a nd the f aster you swim, the f aster you will use up your a ir sup ply, cutting
your tim e und er w a ter short. Try to ke e p your a rms still a nd close to your body, use your
le gs to move your body.
Swimming styles
Flutter kick (le g kick use d in cr a wl swim ming)
Frog Kick (simil a r to the bre ast stroke kick)
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Th e lungs used as a buoya ncy control d evice

Besid es the m ech a nic a l d evices w e use to re gul a te our buoya ncy, the j a cket a nd the
w eights, our lungs off er us a n a tur a l w ay to control our buoya ncy. O ur bre a thing
e n a bles us to efficie ntly m a ke sm a ller a djustm e nts to our buoya ncy und er w a ter. By
t a king d e e p er bre a ths, w e incre ase our body’s volum e a nd thus the a mount of w a ter
displ a ce, b ecoming slightly more positive buoya nt a nd w e c a n reverse this eff ect by
exh a ling d e e ply, d ecre asing our volum e. You will le a rn these skills und er w a ter during
your pool dives.
Why do I need to carry weights under water?

W e ne e d to c a rry w eights und er w a ter to counter the positive buoya ncy from our
neopre ne suit a nd other pieces of e quipm e nt. Without w eights w e would not b e a ble to
a chieve ne g a tive buoya ncy to d esce nd u nd erne a th the surf a ce. If you c a rry too little
w eight, you will either not b e a ble to d esce nd or you will h ave to b attle positive
buoya ncy by kicking h a rd er, using up more a ir a nd pote nti a lly c a using proble ms during
your sa f ety stop a t the e nd of your dive. H aving too much w eight will a lso incre ase your
e nergy a nd a ir co nsum ption b ec a use you will f a ce gre a ter w ater resist a nce. As you c a n
se e, it is im port a nt to d etermine the prop er a mount of w eights for your dive.
Factors that influence how much weight you need

Fresh w a ter or sa lt w a ter?
Sa lt w a ter h as a gre a ter d e nsity th a n fresh w a ter which results in gre a ter buoya ncy. We
ne e d a bout 5% more w eights whe n diving in sa lt w a ter with the sa m e e quipm e nt as in
fresh w a ter.
Th e siz e a nd the m a teri a l of our dive ta nk

Whe n d etermining the a mount of w eight w e ne e d w e h ave to t a ke the size a nd the
m a teri a l of our dive t a nk into consid er a tion. The l a rg er the volum e of our dive t a nk, the
he avier the t a nk a nd the less w eight w e ne e d to c a rry. Ste el t a nks a re much sm a ller
th a n a luminum t a nks with the sa m e a ir c a p a city volum e a nd therefore displ a ce less
w a ter a nd h ave more ne g a tive buoya ncy. Diving with a luminum t a nks re quires you to
c a rry a d dition a l w eight th a n whe n diving with ste el t a nks.
Diving suit
The fo a m e d structure of neopre ne gives your dive suit a lot of positive buoya ncy, the
thicker the suit the more w eight you ne e d.
H ow to d etermin e the rig ht a mount of w eight?

You could use a rule of thum b a nd t a ke 10% of a divers w eight as the a mount of w eight
ne e d e d, how ever th a t does not t a ke a ll the a fore m e ntione d f a ctors into consid er a tion, it
c a n b e use d as a st a rting point. To correctly d etermine your right a mount of w eight,
e nter the w a ter with a ll your e quipm e nt. Rele ase a ll the a ir from your j a cket in w a ter
too d e e p to b e st a nding a nd bre a the const a ntly through your re gul a tor. Refr a in from
moving a nd the w a ter should b e som e wher e close to your nose, you h ave the right
a mount of w eight.
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If you sink b e ne a th the surf a ce, you a re c a rrying too much w eight, if your he a d is
a bove w a ter, you a re not c a rrying e nough w eight. The more exp erie nce d you
b ecom e the less w eight you will ne e d. It is a good id e a to ke e p tr a ck of the a mount of
w eight you ne e d whe n diving with diff ere nt e quipm e nt a nd in diff ere nt e nvironm e nts.
You c a n e nter this inform a tion into you diving log book a fter e a ch dive.
Equipment
Buoyancy control device (Jacket, BCD, Wing etc.)
Mod ern buoya ncy co ntrol d evices serve two m a in purposes:
Sa f ely securing the dive t a nk to the diver
Re gul a ting upw a rd a nd downw a rd move m e nt by buoya ncy control
Every j a cket (buoya ncy control d evice) consist of a c a rrying d evice for the t a nk, a h a rd
b a ck pl a te with a locking m ech a nism, a nd a n exp a nd a ble bl a d d er which c a n b e
infl a te d a nd d efl a te d und er w a ter, either using a ir from the lungs or the infl a tor which
is connecte d to the t a nk.
Different types of BCDs

Bcd is sim ply the a b brevi a tion of the term buoya ncy
control d evice a nd is use d for a ll typ es of flo a t a tion
d evices use d in scub a diving.
Buoya ncy vest, Scub a diving j a cket or a dv-j a cket

(a djusta bl e diver j a cket)
Recre a tion a l divers most com monly use this this style of
bcd. Sh a p e d as a j a cket or vest, they com e with
a djust a ble should er a nd b elly str a ps. These bcds a re
g e ner a lly use d to dive a single t a nk, som e m a nuf a cturers
a llow the use of twin t a nks. a dv-j a ckets a re usu a lly
ava il a ble in sizes XS-XXL a nd the exp a nd a ble bl a d d er
off ers a volum e r a nging from 5 to 20 liters d e p e nding on
j a cket size. The sh a p e of the bl a d der lets the a ir exp a nd
over a n a re a covering the b a ck, re a ching a round
und erne a th the a rms to the sid es of the b elly.
Wing -j a cket
The m a in diff ere nce b etw e e n wing -j a ckets a nd a dv
Ja ckets is the bl a d d er, which is sh a p e d like a wing a nd
only loc a te d on the b a ck of the j a cket. This off ers the
a dva nt a g e th a t the exp a nding bl a d d er does not restrict
move m e nt of the a rms a nd the up p er body.
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Tec-j a cket
So c a lle d Tec-j a ckets a re wing j a ckets which a re suit a ble to b e use d for diving with
sever a l t a nks. The bl a d d er h as a l a rg er volum e a nd a ll f aste ning clips a re m a d e from
st a inless ste el. Tec-j a ckets a re more robust a nd dur a ble th a n re gul a r wing j a ckets,
which com es a t a higher price point.
B a ck pl a te h a rn ess with wing

This syste m consists of a b a ck pl a te, either m a d e from a luminum, ste el or a com pound
m a teri a l like c a rbon, e quip p e d with a locking m ech a nism. A wing bl a d d er will b e a d d e d
se p a r a tely in b etw e e n the b a ck pl a te a nd the dive t a nk/s d e p e nding o n the flot a tion
volum e re quire d. These syste ms c a n a ccom mod a te single or multiple t a nks with a
flot a tion volum e r a nging from 12-10 0 liters.
Sid e mount system

This is a ne w er syste m which e n a bles the diver to c a rry the t a nks on his sid es r a ther
th a n on his b a ck. Mostly use d by wreck a nd c avern divers these syste ms c a n a lso b e
suit a ble for recre ation a l divers.
Fe a tures of these diff erent bcds

ADV j a ckets
a re g e ner a lly very comfort a ble a nd off er sever a l pockets for divers to store sm a ll
g a dg ets. A cushione d b a ck pl a te m a d e from pl astic c a n b e e asily a djuste d. ADV j a ckets
re quire more w eight b ec a use of their positive buoya ncy (2-4 kg), mod ern j a ckets off er
the option of w eight inte gr a te d syste ms, a llowing the diver to store the w eight insid e
the j a cket r a ther th a n c a rrying it on a b elt worn a round the b elly.
Wing -j a ckets
a re more exp e nsively m a nuf a cture d a nd pr ese nt the top se g m e nt of recre a tion a l diving
j a ckets. Inte gr a te d w eights, cushione d b a ck a nd should er a re as a nd va rious qu a lity clips
a nd pockets a re st a nd a rd.
Tec-j a ckets
a re very robust a nd dur a ble j a ckets, less t a ilore d to b e comfort a ble tec-j a ckets a re very
versa tile a nd function a l. Inte gr a te d w eight syste m com es st a nd a rd.
B a ck pl a te h a rn ess with wing

is by f a r the most purist syste m a ble to a dopt to the diver’s ne e ds. The high a djust a bility
a nd the possibility to a d d pockets a nd clips a nywhere a llow countless configur a tions
a nd c a n grow with the ch a lle ng e.
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Integra ted w eight system or not?

Inte gr a te d w eight syste ms re duce the direct str a in of the w eights on the b a ck a nd the
spine. W eight b elts pull down on the hip while the bcd lifts up from und er the should er,
putting str a in on the low er b a ck which c a n b e avoid e d using a n inte gr a te d w eight
syste m.
M a inten a nce
Rinse with fresh w a ter a fter pool a nd sa ltw a ter dives. Do not le ave your j a cket exposed
to the sun for long er p eriods. Before storing your j a cket for long er p eriods of tim e you
should rinse the insid e of the bl a d d er with w a rm w a ter a nd use a n a ntib a cteri a l
disinf ecting solution. The infl ator should b e service d every two ye a rs or every 10 0 dives
by a prof ession a l dive or service ce nter.
Fins
Styles
Full foot fins
fit like rub b er slip p ers a nd a re ofte n ref erre d to as
snorkeling fins. They do off er little insul a tion a nd
protection for the f e et a nd a re usu a lly use d only in
w a rm w a ter.
O p en h e el fins
h ave a n op e n he el pocket a llowing you to slip in your
dive boots. An a djust a ble str a p e nsures a prop er fit
with your dive boots. They a re a lso ref erre d to as
a djust a ble str a p fins.
Which fin is right for m e?

Your physic a l a bility, your size a nd where you pl a n
to dive help you find the right fins for you. If you
pl a n on diving in w a rm w a ters, full foot fins should
fit snugly but comfort a bly on your b a re f e et without
binding. O p e n he el fins should fit your dive boot
insid e the pocket a nd the pocket should com e up to
your a nkle, if it does not com e up th a t high, choose
a l a rg er size. For both full foot a nd op e n he el fins,
the l a rg er a nd stiff er the bl a d e of the fin, the more physic a l stre ngth you ne e d to use it.
M a inten a nce
Rinse with fresh w a ter a fter pool a nd sa ltw a ter dives. Do not pl a ce he avy objects on
your fins to avoid d eform a tion of the rub b er foot pockets. Store your fins in a dry a nd
cool pl a ce. Check the a djust a ble str a ps for rips a nd te a rs b efore diving, a lw ays ke e p a
re pl a ce m e nt str a p with your dive g e a r.
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Weight systems
Weight b elts
a re 5 cm (2 inches) wid e b elts m a d e from nylon or codur a with a quick rele ase buckle.
The w eights a re thre a d e d onto the b elt, va ri a tions of b elts h ave pockets for the w eights.
The quick rele ase buckle e n a bles you to ditch the w eight b elt in a n e m erg e ncy with o nly
one h a nd by sim ply pulling on the loose e n d of the b elt. W eight b elts h ave the long est
history as w eight syste ms.
Weight-vests
h ave w eight pouches to store the w eight a n d a re worn like a vest over the should ers.
This shifts the w eight from the hips to the should ers m a king it more comfort a ble to b e
c a rrie d on l a nd.
Integra ted w eight systems

a re a more mod ern a p pro a ch to w eight syste ms a nd inte gr a te the w eight syste m with
your j a cket. W eight b elts ofte n shift a nd c a n b e uncomfort a bly to w e a r, inte gr a te d
syste ms elimin a te these proble ms. They a lso com e with a quick rele ase syste m, e n a bling
the diver to ditch the w eights with only one h a nd in a n e m erg e ncy.
H a z a rdous m a teri a l a dvisory

Le a d is a very poisonous m et a l. It is esp eci ally toxic to the hum a n org a ns a nd the
nervous syste m. Childre n esp eci a lly should b e protecte d from exposure to le a d.
Europ e a n re gul a tions prohibit the use of le a d shot, le a d b a rs a re still ok to b e use d.
Id e a lly your le a d w eights should b e co a te d as this re duces the im p a ct of your le a d on
the e nvironm e nt a nd the exposure of le a d to hum a ns a nd esp eci a lly childre n. When
h a ndling unco a te d le a d m a ke sure to w ash your h a nds a fterw a rds a nd m a ke sure
childre n do not lick their h a nds a fter h a ndling unco a te d le a d.
M a inten a nce
Store your le a d w eights out of the re a ch of childre n a nd p ets.
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Ch a pter 3 - Knowle dg e revie w
Which law of physics describes the buoyancy of object immersed in fluids?

A Einst e in‘s l a w.
B Th e princi pl e of b u oy a nt o bj e cts.
C Archi m e d es‘ princi pl e.
D D a lto n’s l a w.
What happens to an object which is neutrally buoyant in salt water when it is

placed in fresh water?
A It will flo a t.
B It will sink to th e b otto m.
C It will r e m a in n e utr a lly b u oy a nt.
D U n a bl e to pr e dict with th e give n inf orm a tio n.
Which pieces of equipment affect the amount of weight needed?

A Th e dive suit.
B Th e fins.
C Th e j a ck e t.
D Answ e rs A a n d C a r e b oth corr e ct.
The lungs are an important aid to buoyancy control.

A Corr e ct
B F a lse
Any weight system used for scuba diving has to…

A b e ye llo w.
B b e e q q ui p p e d with a q uick r e l e ase m e ch a nism.
C b e co a t e d d.
D w e i g ht a t l e ast 4 k g.
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4. Gases
Name the major gases in the air we breathe
Explain the constitution of the air we use for scuba diving
Understand Dalton’s law
Know what nitrogen narcosis is
Name the symptoms of nitrogen narcosis
Know how to behave when showing signs of nitrogen narcosis
Know how to avoid nitrogen narcosis
Describe what decompression sickness is and what causes it
Name the symptoms of decompression sickness (DCS or the bends)
Know the first aid procedures for DCS
Know how to avoid DCS
Explain why oxygen is important for the human body
Explain what is meant by oxygen toxicity problems
Name two definite symptoms of oxygen toxicity problems
Describe the greatest danger resulting from oxygen toxicity problems
Know how to avoid oxygen toxicity problems
Know the first aid procedures for oxygen toxicity problems
Describe the effects of carbon dioxide
Explain the terms hypercapnia and hypocapnia
Describe the effects and dangers of carbon monoxide
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What is air?
The term a ir is use d to d escrib e the g as mixture th a t h as form e d insid e the a tmosphere
th a t surrounds our pl a net. A mixture is a com bin a tion of two or more subst a nces such
th a t e a ch subst a nce ret a ins its own che mic a l id e ntity, no ne w subst a nce is b eing
cre a te d. Air is a mixture from sever a l g ases, the m a in com pone nts b eing nitrog e n,
oxyg e n, a rgon a nd c a rbon dioxid e.
Com position of a ir:
78,084 % nitrog e n (N)
20,942 % oxyg e n (O)
0 0,934 % a rgon (Ar)
0 0,038 % c a rbo n dioxid e (CO 2)
0 0,0 02 % tr a ce g ases such as xe non, krypton, r a don, helium, m eth a n a nd
c a rbon mo noxid e.
To sim plify m a tters for recre a tion a l scub a diving w e assum e the com position of a ir to
consist of 21% oxyg e n a nd 79% nitrog e n.
Dalton’s law of partial pressure

To fully the com pre he nd eff ect g ases h ave on the hum a n body, it is im port a nt to
und erst a nd th a t it is the g ases’ p a rti a l pressure th a t is im port a nt a nd not their
p erce nt a g e of the mixture. D alton’s l a w d efines a g ases’ p a rti a l pressure as:
“In a mixture of non-re a cting g ases, the tota l pressure exerte d is e qu a l to the sum of
the p a rti a l pressures of the individu a l g ases. “
P tot a l = p 1 + p 2 + … + p n
As you h ave le a rne d, the a tmospheric pressure a t se a level is 1 b a r. If w e a p ply D a lton’s

l a w to the tot a l pressure of 1 b a r of a ir, w e c a n conclud e the p a rti a l pressures to b e:
0,21 b a r O + 0 ,79 b a r N = 1,0 b a r P G e sa mt

To c a lcul a te the p a rti a l pressure of a g as (P x ) for a give n surrou nding pressure (tot a l
pressure = P tot), w e h ave to multiply the p a rti a l volum e of the g ase‘s p erce nt a g e (Vx )
with the tot a l pressure.
P x = V x x P t ot
Ex a m ple: Wh a t is the p a rti a l pressure of Oxyg e n (P O ) a t a d e pth of 20 m eters with

oxyg e n a t 21%? Solution: Surrounding pressure a t 20 m eters (d e pth/10) + 1 b a r = 3 b a r
tot a l pressure. 21% oxyg e n p a rti a l volum e e qu a ls 0,21. This le a ds us to 0,63 b a r P O.
P O = Vx x P tot
P O = 0,21 x 3 = 0,63 b a r P O
The p a rti a l pressure of oxyg e n a t 20 m eters is 0.63 b a r while the volum e p erce nt a g e
re m a ins 21%.
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Nitrogen (N)
Nitrog e n, as you h ave le a rne d, holds the l a rg est fr a ction of the a ir w e bre a the. U nd er
norm a l conditions, insid e the hum a n body, it re m a ins inert, m e a ning it is che mic a lly
in a ctive a nd does not h a ve a ny im p a ct on our body. If the conditions a re a ltere d like
the surrounding pressure whe n scub a divin g, nitrog e n c a n st a rt to a ff ect our body.
Nitrogen narcosis
Bre a thing a ir a t a high surrounding pressure results in a n incre ase d p a rti a l pressure of
nitrog e n, which c a n c a use nitrog e n n a rcosis. The incre ase d p a rti a l pressure of nitrog e n
c a uses nitrog e n to dissolve into nerve cell m e m br a nes, c a using te m por a ry disruption in
nerve tr a nsmission, c a using n a rcosis. First sym ptoms a nd signs of nitrog e n n a rcosis c a n
a p p e a r a t a d e pth of 3 0 m eters whe n divin g with re gul a r a ir. The recom m e nd e d d e pth
limit for recre a tion a l diving therefore is set a t 30 m eters. H ow ever cert a in c a t a lytic
f a ctors c a n incre ase the risk a nd le a d to nitrog e n n a rcosis a t low er d e pths.
Sym ptoms a nd signs of nitrog en n a rcosis

The following sym ptoms a re liste d in ord er of their a p p e a r a nce, with incre asing
pressure.
Euphori a Tunnel vision

Overestim a tion of your own a bilities Ringing in the e a rs
Im p a ire d p erce ption Dizziness
Re duce d re a ction Im p e a re d he a ring
Irr a tion a l b e h avior Fe a r
Atte ntion d eficit H a lluzin a tion
Coordin a tion proble ms U nconsiousness
The progression in the signs a nd sym ptoms of nitrog e n n a rcosis is directly rel a te d to a n
incre ase in pressure, a progression is unlikely a t const a nt pressure.
C a ta lytic f a ctors th a t contribute to nitrog en n a rcosis a t low er d epths
Cold te m p er a tures Stress

D a rkness, re duce d visibility Fe a r
Hyp erc a pni a (excess c a rbon dioxid e) Exertion
H ow to re a ct to signs a nd sym ptoms of nitrog en n a rcosis?

If you d etect signs a nd sym ptoms of nitrog en n a rcosis in yourself or your dive p a rtner,
you should not d esce nd a ny d e e p er but should d ecre ase your d e pth by slowly asce ndin g
a f e w m eters. You will quickly notice the signs a nd sym ptoms to f a d e, as the d ecre asing
pressure low ers the p a rti a l pressure of nitrog e n, c a nceling its im p a ct on your body.
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H ow to h elp your dive p a rtn er

If you susp ect your dive p a rtner to b e im p a cte d by nitrog e n n a rcosis, g et his a tte ntion
a nd est a blish visu a l cont a ct with him a nd sign a l him to asce nd tog ether with you.
Re p e a t your re quests until he re a cts to it a nd you h ave d ecre ase d your d e pth. U nless
there is a cle a r e m erg e ncy refr a in from h a ndling your dive p a rtner’s e quipm e nt a nd
buoya ncy control d evices. You do not know ex a ctly which sym ptoms he h as a nd how he
might re a ct to your interf ere nce, you could sp a rk f e a r or loss of control in your p a rtner.
Mutu a l surveill a nce

It is a dvisa ble to a gre e on mutu a l surveill a nce techniques with your p a rtner whe n diving
a t d e pths where nitrog e n n a rcosis se e ms prob a ble. For ex a m ple you could a gre e on a
num b er b efore h a nd th a t h as to b e a d d e d to a r a ndom num b er sym bolle d und er w a ter,
the tim e it t a kes your p a rtner to solve the equ a tion gives clues to whether he might b e
a ff ecte d by nitrog e n n a rcosis. G e ner a lly you h ave to b e a w a re of the physiologic a l f a ct
th a t nitrog e n n a rcosis will eve ntu a lly a p p e a r with incre asing d e pth, no m a tter how
exp erie nce d the diver is.
H ow to avoid nitrog en n a rcosis.

Do not dive d e e p er th a n 30 m eters
Re duce your pl a ne d d e pth in less th a n optim a l a nd pote nti a lly exh a usting conditions,
such as d a rkness, cold w a ter or curre nts
Dive with nitrox
St ay focuse d und er w a ter
Decompression sickness – DCS (the bends)

Since our body is mostly m a d e up of liquids, it h as the a bility like a ny liquid to store
g ases, in direct rel a tion to the surrounding pressure. Bre a thing a ir a t the sa m e pressure
as the surrounding pressure, w e const a ntly a bsorb som e of the g ases th a t w e bre a the
und er w a ter a nd store the m insid e our tissue. This process is c a lle d the sa tur a tion of
g ases. Nitrog e n is the releva nt g as whe n br e a thing und er w a ter as it is not consum e d
by our body as com p a re d to oxyg e n, which is use d in our cells to produce e nergy a nd
converte d into Co2 which is the n tr a nsporte d out of our body. O ur body st a rts a bsorbing
a nd storing nitrog e n whe n w e d esce nd a nd the sa tur a tion process continues until w e
st a rt asce nding. The d ecre asing surrounding pressure c a uses the store d nitrog e n to
le ave our body a g a in. G ases diffuse tow a rds low er pressure, whe n w e d esce nd the
p a rti a l pressure of nitrog e n outsid e our body rises a nd is higher th a n insid e our body,
nitrog e n st a rts to e nter our tissue. Whe n w e asce nd, the pressure d ecre ases a nd the
p a rti a l pressure of nitrog e n insid e our body is higher th a n outsid e, the nitrog e n st a rts to
le ave our body. The l a rg er the gr a die nt, the f aster the g as will try to diffuse. This c a n
cre a te proble ms whe n scub a diving. If w e asce nd too f ast, nitrog e n rushes into our
blood stre a m a nd could form g as bub bles, le a ding to serious m e dic a l conse que nces by
blocking off vessels. This is c a lle d a d ecom pression sickness. It is extre m ely im port a nt to
asce nd slowly to give our body e nough tim e to re duce the nitrog e n. The m a ximum
sp e e d should not exce e d 10 m eters p er minute whe n asce nding. At the e n d of e a ch dive
w e m a ke a sa f ety stop a t a d e pth of 5 m eters for 3 minutes, this e n a bles our body to
further re duce nitrog e n (the l a rg est pressure incre ase / d ecre ase h a p p e ns in the first 10
m eters).
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Signs a nd sym ptoms of DCS.

Nitrog e n th a t rushes into our bloodstre a m could form bub bles which c a n from in
diff ere nt pl a ces in the body. D e p e nding on the severity of the signs a nd sym ptoms w e
diff ere nti a te b etw e e n Typ e 1 a nd Typ e 2 DCS. Sym ptoms usu a lly occur within 5 to 20
minutes a fter the dive, but som etim es it might t a ke up to 6 hours until the p e a k of the
sym ptoms is re a che d.
DCS Typ e I DCS Typ e II

Tingling skin (divers fle as) Shock
Dull a che Im p a ire d he a ring
Skin r ash Loss of eyesight
W e a kness a nd f a tigue Slurre d sp e a ch
Joint a nd lim b p a in Pa r a lysis
Sickness a nd vomitting Difficuly bre a thing
U nconsciousness
D e a th
Recre a tion a l dives a re no -d ecom pression dives

The a mount of nitrog e n th a t is a bsorb e d by your body d e p e n ds on how long a n d how
d e e p you dive. N o-d ecom pression limits tell you how long you c a n st ay a t a cert a in
d e pth a nd still b e a ble to asce nd str a ight to the surf a ce, a dhering to the m a ximum
sp e e d a nd the sa f ety stop. These a re so c a lle d no-d ecom pression dives. If you overst ay
a no-d ecom pression limit, your body h as a bsorb e d more nitrog e n th a n the tissue c a n
sa f ely a bsorb a nd there is a high risk for DCS. In this c ase you h ave to m a ke
d ecom pression stops a t pre d etermine d d e pths to a llow your body to re duce the
nitrog e n b efore re a ching the surf a ce. These dives a re c a lle d d ecom pression dives or
sa tur a tion dives a nd re quire a d dition a l tr a ining.
H ow to avoid DCS
Alw ays st ay within your no-d ecom pression limits
Do not exce e d the recom m e nd e d d e pth lim it of 30 m eters
Alw ays asce nd slowly, no f aster th a n 10 m eters/ minute
Alw ays m a ke a sa f ety stop
Use nitrox
M a ke sure you a re w ell hydr a te d b efore diving
Progression of DCS
It c a n t a ke up to 6 hours from the first signs to the p e a k of DCS, d e p e nding on the
dive /s th a t le a d to DCS. A worse ning of the sym ptoms c a n g e ner a lly b e exp ecte d during
the progression in this tim e.
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First a id
If a diver is susp ecte d to b e suff ering from DCS, the first thing you should do, once he is
sa f ely out of the w a ter, is to h ave him bre a ther pure oxyg e n. Every dive ce nter a nd
diving vessel is e quip p e d with pure oxyg e n for e m erg e ncies. The victim should drink
fluids to st ay hydr a te d if he or she is respo nd e nt. Do not t a ke a ny m e dic a tion unless a
physici a n is consulte d first. The victim’s vit a l functions should b e const a ntly monitore d. A
b a ck position with r a ise d le gs is a dvisa ble, unless the p a tie nt pref ers a diff ere nt
position which a llows him to b e more comfort a ble. Any DCS II h as to b e tre a d e d in a
pressure ch a m b er a nd un d er m e dic a l surveill a nce. The sym ptoms of a DCS a re g e ner a lly
reversible, if tre a te d within 8 hours in a pressure ch a m b er; therefore it is very im port a nt
to not d el ay the victim’s tr a nsport to a f acility where he c a n b e tre a te d. Im m e di a tely
a rr a ng e for m e dic a l tr a nsport, informing the m th a t a diving a ccid e nt h as occurre d,
which h as releva nce for the pre p a r a tion of his tr a nsport a nd his tre a tm e nt. M a ke sure
to sup ply a ll ava il a ble d a te of the dive /s tha t le a d to the DCS to the m e dic a l te a m,
including the diver’s dive com puter if he h a d one.
Wh a t is a pressure ch a m b er tre a tm e nt?

Insid e a pressure ch a m b er the surrounding pressure is incre ase d, to r a ise the p a rti a l
pressure of nitrog e n insid e our body. This ca uses the nitrog e n bub bles in our blood
stre a m th a t pote nti a lly h ave blocke d vessels, to b e a bsorb e d b a ck into our cells. O ur
body now c a n re duce the nitrog e n levels in the tissues while the pressure insid e the
ch a m b er is slowly low ere d. D e p e nding on the severity of the DCS, this process h as to be
re p e a te d up to 20 tim es. The p a tie nt is continuously monitore d by a m e dic a l te a m. In
ord er for the pressure ch a m b er tre a tm e nt to b e as successful as possible, the m e dic a l
te a m h as to h ave a ll the diving d a t a of a ny dives 36 hours prior to the a ccid e nt. Dive
ch a m b er f a cilities c a n re a d this d a t a from a ny dive com puter.
Wet recom pression

In the e a rly d ays of scub a diving b efore com pression ch a m b ers w ere ava il a ble, w et
recom pression w as use d to force the nitroge n bub bles b a ck into the tissue. Wh a t this
m e a nt w as th a t the diver who h a d the a cci d e nt w as brought b a ck down to a cert a in
d e pth until the sym ptoms h a d subsid e d a nd the n he w as slowly brought b a ck to the
surf a ce. This includ es gre a t risks for the victim a nd the help ers a nd w et recom pression
should not b e use d in a ny c ase.
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Oxygen (O)
O xyg e n is vit a l to hum a ns a nd most other cre a tures for ne a rly a ll m et a bolic processes; it
sup plies the hum a n body with e nergy. The eff ects of oxyg e n on our org a nism a re a lso
a ff ecte d by the surrounding pressure a nd the resulting p a rti a l pressure of oxyg e n (P O ).
There a re thre e st a tes of oxyg e n sa tur a tion in our body:
N ormoxic – Body is sup plie d with sufficie nt a mounts of oxyg e n. P O of 0,21 b a r.
Hypoxic – A P O low er th a n 0,21 b a r c a n le a d to a n und ersup ply of oxyg e n in our body,

for ex a m ple a t high a ltitud es whe n mount a ine ering.
Hyp eroxic – A P O hig her th a n 0,21 b a r c a n le a d to a n oversup ply of oxyg e n. O xyg e n

c a n b ecom e toxic for our cells a bove a p a rti a l pressure of 1,6 b a r.
Oxygen toxicity problems

C a uses of oxyg en toxicity?
An incre ase d P O higher th a n 1,6 b a r c a n le a d to CNS (Ce ntr a l N ervous Syndrom e), a n
oxyg e n toxicity proble m a lso ref erre d to as the Pa ul Bert eff ect. It is a condition
resulting from the h a rmful eff ects of bre a thing molecul a r oxyg e n a t incre ase d p a rti a l
pressures which le a ds to a higher production of hydroxyl r a dic a ls which c a n initi a te a
d a m a ging ch a in re a ction within cell m e m br a nes.
Signs a nd sym ptoms

Som e of the signs a nd sym ptoms of ce ntr a l nervous syste m oxyg e n toxicity c a n b e very
simil a r to the ones of nitrog e n n a rcosis, such as visu a l ch a ng es (tunnel vision), ringing in
the e a r (tinnitus), n a use a, irrit a bility (a nxiety, confusion, etc.) a nd dizziness. There a re two
sym ptoms how ever th a t a re cle a r indic a tors for oxyg e n toxicity:
Twitching (esp eci a lly of the lips a nd f a ci a l muscles)

Seizures a nd inte nse muscle contr a ctions le a ding to cr a m ping
Eff ects of oxyg en toxicity a nd how to re a ct

The gre a test d a ng er from oxyg e n toxicity is drowning. Twitching a nd cr a m ping of f a ci a l
muscles, esp eci a lly the lips, c a n c a use a diver to lose control over the bre a thing
re gul a tor. O nce the re gul a tor is no long er insid e the mouth, the bre a thing reflex will
eve ntu a lly force the diver to inh a le w a ter le a ding to drowning. Should you susp ect signs
or sym ptoms of oxyg e n toxicity in your dive p a rtner it is very im port a nt th a t you re duce
the P O im m e di a tely by asce nding to sh a llow er d e pths. Should your dive p a rtner h ave
lost the re gul a tor, re pl a ce it im m e di ately. It m ay t a ke up to two hours for the sym ptoms
to w e a r off.
H ow c a n you prevent oxyg en toxicity?

Refr a in from diving a t d e pths th a t exce e d a P O of 1,5 b a r
Refr a in from diving with Nitrox without the prop er tr a ining
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G e ner a lly the critic a l P O limits a re b eyond the recre a tion a l dive d e pths. Whe n
diving with re gul a r a ir, the P O b ecom es critic a l a t a d e pth of 66 m eters, f a r
d e e p er th a n recre a tion a l divers a re a dvise d or a llow e d to dive. Diving with oxyg e n
e nriche d a ir mixtures (Nitrox) c a n move the P O limits to a sh a llow er d e pth. Diving with
Nitrox re quires a d dition a l tr a ining a nd is m a nd a tory b efore you c a n sa f ely dive with
oxyg e n e nriche d a ir mixtures.
Rescu e a n d first a id
M a ke sure the bre a thing re gul a tor st ay in the diver’s mouth
Overexte nd the victim’s he a d to a llow exp a nding a ir to esc a p e the lungs
Slowly asce nd tog ether with the victim
Im m e di a tely tr a nsport the victim out of the w a ter a nd re move a ll e quipm e nt
Position victim saf ely so he c a n not h arm hi mself during a ny seizures
Do not a dminister fluids or food as long as the seizures continue
Const a ntly monitor the victim
Carbon dioxide – CO2

Whe n converting oxyg e n into e nergy, our cells e mit c a rbon dioxid e as a m et a bolic
product, which h as a very im port a nt function for our body. C a rbon dioxid e is
tr a nsform e d into bic a rbon a te so it c a n b e tr a nsporte d in our bloodstre a m. O nce a
threshold is re a che d, the bre a thing reflex is trigg ere d in our br a in, c a using us to exh a le
c a rbon dioxid e a nd inh a le fresh oxyg e n.
Wh a t is hyp erc a pni a?

An incre ase d production a n d/or a re duce d exh a l a tion of c a rbon dioxid e c a n le a d to
excess of c a rbon dioxid e in our body, a st a te c a lle d hyp erc a pni a. This c a n occur in
divers trying to conserve a ir by bre a thing less. First signs of hyp erc a pni a a re incre ase d
a nd sh a llow bre a thing, som etim es in conne ction with he a d a ches. Incre ase d c a rbon
dioxid e will le a d to a more fre que nt bre a thing reflex a nd pote nti a lly the f e eling of not
g etting e nough a ir. This c a n le a d to incre ase d stress a nd in worst c ases to
unconsciousness.
Wh a t is hypoc a pni a?
Fre e divers ofte n e m ploy a technique where they re duce the level of c a rbon dioxid e
(hypoc a pni a) in their blood in ord er to d el ay the bre a thing reflex. Low ering the
bic a rbon a te levels in your blood by sp ecifica lly exh a ling c a rbon dioxid e c a n le a d to
oxyg e n d e pletion in your cells b efore the bre a thing reflex is trigg ere d by the rise in
bic a rbon a te. This situ ation would result in unconsciousness b ec a use the cells in our
body a nd in our br a in h ave too little oxyg en. This is c a lle d a pool bl a ckout a nd if a
com mon c a use for drownings.
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Carbon monoxide - CO
C a rbon monoxid e is a g as without a ny odor a nd c a n b e very d a ng erous; it is the
product of m a ny oxid a tion a nd f erm e nt a tion processes. C a rbon monoxid e insid e our
body will bind to he moglobin, which is responsible for tr a nsporting oxyg e n, a nd block
a ny oxyg e n molecules. It h as a 320 tim es higher a ffinity to he moglobin th a n oxyg e n. A
p a rti a l pressure of c a rbon monoxid e of 0,01 b a r c a n b e leth a l within minutes. Smoking
a lso incre ases c a rbon monoxid e levels in our body a nd re duces our oxyg e n tr a nsport
efficie ncy.
Signs a nd sym ptoms of CO poisoning

Dizziness
Vomitting
H e a d a che
Tire dness
Re d lips
Re d fing er a nd toe n a ilb e ds
H ow to avoid CO poisoning.
M a ke sure your diving t a nks a re fille d a t dive ce nters a nd resorts with prop erly
m a int a ine d com pressors. Port a ble com pressors th a t a re pow ere d with fuel should h ave
a long a ir int a ke hose a w ay from the exh a ust fum es. Your t a nk should b e insp ecte d a t
re gul a r interva ls a nd fre e from cond e nsa tes or f a tty residue on the insid e.
Rescu e a n d first a id
In od er to e nsure fre e p assa g e of a ir, the victim should l ay on the sid e in the recovery
position
Check the a irw ays
Administer pure oxyg e n
Tr a nsport victim to a m e dic al f a cility as soon as possible
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Ch a pter 4 – Knowle dg e review
To simplify calculations, for recreational diving, air is considered a mixture of…

A 36 % oxyg e n a n d 6 4 % nitro g e n.
B 32 % oxyg e n a n d 68 % nitro g e n.
C 21 % oxyg e n a n d 79 % nitro g e n.
D 23 % oxyg e n a n d 77 % nitro g e n.
Dalton’s law states that…

A th e tot a l pr essur e of a g as m ixtur e is e q u a l to th e su m of th e p a rti a l
pr essur es of th e in divi d u a l g ases.
B th e su m of a g as m ixtur e a lw a ys e q u a ls 1 b a r.
C e a ch p a rti a l pr essur e e q u a t es th e p e rc e nt a g e of th e g as.
D no m or e th a n tw o g ases f orm a m ixtur e.
The gas responsible to narcosis at great depths is…

A c a rb o n dioxi d e.
B a rg o n.
C nitro g e n.
D hydro g e n.
You can avoid decompression sickenss by always…

A asc e n din g to th e surf a c e slo wly, no f ast e r th a n 1 0 m e t e rs p e r m inut e.
B st a yin g within your no - d e co m pr essio n li m its.
C c a rryin g out a s a f e ty sto p of 3 m inut es a t a d e pth of 5 m e t e rs.
D All th e a b ove a nsw e rs a r e corr e ct.
The greatest danger of oxygen toxicity under water is…

A a l a u g hin g fit.
B e u p hori a .
C cr a m pin g.
D dro w nin g.
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5. Dive planning and dive management

Explain why recreational diving is a team sport and which points are parts of good
dive planning
Know the most common underwater signals for recreational diving
Know the most important rules of recreational diving
Understand the most important functions of diving computers
Know the rules for diving with a dive computer
Explain what a dive chart is
Know how to apply the rules of diving with a dive chart
Explain the differences when it comes to diving with a dive computer or a dive chart
Diving as a team – why w e should n ever dive a lone.

Safety – The m a in concern whe n it com es to recre a tion a l diving. As a te a m you will b e
a ble to a d dress a nd solve a ny proble ms th a t you might e ncounter und er w a ter. O ther
b e nefits th a t com e from diving with a p a rtn er:
You c a n docum e nt a nd b a ck your exp erie nc e in your log book

Sh a re d m e mories of gre a t exp erie nces
More fun
Hand signals
Verb a l com munic a tion und er w a ter is only possible with the help of com plic a te d
technic a l e quipm e nt a nd therefore not pr a ctic a l in recre a tion a l diving. To b e a ble to
com munic a te with you dive p a rtner w e use h a nd sign a ls th a t c a rry diff ere nt m e a ning.
The following a re the most com mon h a nd sign a ls a nd a re g e ner a lly use d
intern a tion a lly. They m ay va ry som etim es, m a ke sure to revie w h a nd sign a ls b efore
every dive with your dive te a m. Beyond these most com mon dive sign a ls there a re m a ny
more sign a ls, ofte n dive p a rtners d evelop their own sign a ls to incre ase their
com munic a tion a nd fun und er w a ter.
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OK (?/!) Surface ok Surface ok Ok with glove
Something is Problems I am cold Out of air

not right equalizing
Surface help Surface need Descend Ascend

assistance go deeper go higher
Look Stop Slow/Calm Level out

down
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Dive_hand_signals.
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Which way? Lead-follow Stay together Turn around
Check your Half tank Reserve Give me air

air 100 bar 50 bar
Danger I don’t know Boat Think
Hold hands Safety stop Abort dive
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Dive planning
Im porta nt points of consid era tion wh en it com es to dive pl a n ning
Orienta tion a t the dive site
G a ther a ll necessa ry inform a tion a bout your dive site
H ave som eone expl a in the loc a l conditions to you
Is the w e a ther d ece nt e nough for the pl a nn e d dive
Are the conditions und er w a ter d ece nt, such as visibility, curre nt, w aves, etc.
D etermine where a nd how you will e nter a nd exit the w a ter
Th e dive
D etermine you m a ximum dive tim e
D etermine you m aximum dive d e pth
D etermine which route or course you will follow
D etermine the objective for the dive
D etermine the point of return, as in re m a ining pressure in your t a nk
Who h as w hich responsibiliti es durin g the dive?

O rie nt a tion
Monitoring tim e a nd d e pth
Monitoring the re m a ining pressure in the t a nk for the point of return
Who is le a ding the w ay?
Common procedures
Revie w the most im port a nt h a nd sign a ls
Alw ays check your a nd your p a rtner’s e quip m e nt b efore e ntering the w a ter
Em erg e ncy proce dures – Missing dive p a rtn er
Where is pure oxyg e n?
H ow a nd w ho to cont a ct in a n e m erg e ncy?
Where is the next pressure ch a m b er?
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General rules for recreational diving

Check your equipm ent b e fore every dive
Every diver is responsible to check his or he r e quipm e nt b efore every dive to e nsure it is
functioning prop erly, no m a tter if it is p erson a l or re nt a l e quipm e nt.
M a nd a tory bud dy check

Dive p a rtners check e a ch other’s dive e quipm e nt b efore e ntering the w a ter, e nsuring
prop er function a nd or usa g e of:
the buoya ncy control d evice (does it infl a te a nd d efl a te)
w eights (prop er a mount of w eights, is the quick rele ase unobstructe d)
a ir sup ply (how much a ir is in the t a nk, does the re gul a tor work)
str a ps (a ll str a ps securely f aste ne d, bcd a nd t a nk str a ps)
fins a nd m asks (m asks d efogg e d, a ll str a ps in d ece nt condition)
a nd instrum e nts (dive w a tch, d e pth g a u g e, pressure g a ug e a ll functioning)
M a ximum d epth for O p en W a ter Diver – 20 m eters!
M a ximum d epth for exp erie nced recre a tion a l divers- 4 0 m eters!
At optim a l conditions!
Good visibility
no strong curre nt
w a rm w a ter
good loc a l knowle dg e of the dive site
Recomm en d ed d epth limit for exp eri enced recre a tio n a l divers – 30 m eters!
Diving within the re a ch of d aylight

Do not dive insid e c aves or wrecks outsid e the re a ch of d aylight. The a d d e d dist a nce to
the surf a ce m ay not exce e d your m a ximum dive d e pth. In conclusion, if a wreck is
situ a te d a t a d e pth of 10 m eters, a n O WD diver is only a llow e d to p e netr a te the wreck
for a m a ximum of 10 m eters, with a const a nt direct vie w of the e ntr a nce a nd d aylight.
M a ximum asce nd sp e ed
10 m eter p er minute, in a c ase of e m erg e ncy the m a ximum asce nd sp e e d is 18 m eters
p er minute.
Sa fety stop
Every dive a t a d e pth of 10 m eters or more should h ave a sa f ety stop c a rrie d out a t a
d e pth of 5 m eters for 3 minutes b efore surf a cing. This sa f ety stop is m a nd a tory for dives
of 30 m eters or d e e p er.
Rep etitive dives

Any dive following a previous dive within 24 hours is consid ere d a re p etitive dive. The
d e pth of a re p etitive dive should not exce e d the d e pth of the prece ding dive. O ur body
might still h ave nitrog e n store d in the tissue from the prece ding dive /s a nd multiple
re p etitive dives c a n incre ase the risk of DCS.
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Recreational diving is no-decompression diving!

N o-d ecom pression diving
m e a ns you a re a ble to asce nd to the surf a ce a t a ny tim e with a m a ximum sp e e d of 10
m eters p er minute. Your body h as not a bsorb e d the nitrog e n threshold th a t would
re quire a d ecom pression stop.
N o d ecom pression dives!
D ecom pression diving a re dives th a t go d e e p er a nd/or l ast long er th a n your no-
d ecom pression limits a nd do not a llow a direct asce nd to the surf a ce but re quire a
d ecom pression stop to a llow your body to re duce the nitrog e n level to preve nt DCS.
Sa fety stops a re not d ecom pressio n stops!

If a sa f ety stop is not c a rries out, the diver does not h ave to worry a bout conse que nces.
If a d ecom pression stop is not c a rrie d out, the diver is a t a high risk of DCS.
G as reserve
O nce your t a nks re a ches a n a ir pressure of 50 b a r you should h ave st a rte d your asce nd
a nd b e c a rrying out your sa f ety stop a t 5 m eters. N ever e m pty your t a nk to avoid “out of
a ir situ a tions” und er w a ter! An e m pty t a nk will dr a w moisture which will re duce the life
sp a n of your t a nk.
Diving with a dive computer

Dive com puters a re com monly use d in recre a tion a l diving a nd com bine sever a l
m a nd a tory instrum e nts; they ke e p your dive tim e, monitor your d e pth a nd c a lcul a te the
nitrog e n your body is a bsorbing. Som e mod els c a n receive the a ir pressure from a
tr a nsmitter on the t a nk a nd a lso function as pressure g a ug es. Another a dva nt a g e in
a d dition to the conve nie nce they off er is th a t they monitor your a ctu a l dive a nd use this
d a t a to c a lcul a te dive limits, as com p a re d to dive t a bles th a t use theoretic a l estim a te d
d a t a to c a lcul a te dive limits. Com puters c a lcul a te the “runtim e d ecom pression“, they
a lw ays use the curre nt d e pth to c a lcul a te nitrog e n a bsorption a nd d eliver very a ccur a te
dive limits. H ow ever this a lso m e a ns th a t their c a lcul a tions a re f a r more progressive
th a t dive t a ble c a lcul a tions, which would b e more conserva tive a nd give you a bigg er
sa f ety cushion. Both dive com puters a nd dive t a bles e m ploy the sa m e log a rithms to
d etermine dive limits.
Which d a ta should b e sup pli ed by your dive com puter?
You should b e a bl e to a ccess th e following inform a tion und er w a ter:

Curre nt d e pth D ecom pression stops
M a ximum d e pth Sa f etystop
Dive tim e M a ximum d e pth w a rning
Re m a ining no d ecom pression tim e Dive tim e w a rning
Asce nding sp e e d or sp e e d w a rning W a ter te m p er a ture
D ecom pression w a rning
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You should b e a bl e to a ccess th e following inform a tion a bove w a ter:

Re m a ining no fly tim e Store d dives- log book function
Tim e /Tim e zones Surf a ce interva l
D a te
Different typ es of dive com puters

N o d ecom pression dive com puters
D ecom pression dive com puters
Nitrox dive com puter
G as ble nds dive com puter
A distinction is a lso m a d e whether the Dive com puters connects to the a ir sup ply or not.
N o a ir inte gr a tion: com puter is not connecte d to the a ir sup ply

Air inte gr a te d dive com puter: dive com puter is connecte d to the a ir sup ply vi a
a high pressure hose
a tr a nsmitter
Air inte gr a te d dive com puters a lso function as pressure g a ug es a nd c a n c a lcul a te you
a ir consum ption to d etermine the re m a ining dive tim e.
G en era l rul es for diving with a dive com puter

Re a d a nd un d erst a nd your dive com puters m a nu a l. M a ke sure you know how to a ctiva te
a ll functions a nd set a ll a l a rms.
M a ke sure you know which inform a tion the displ ay re a ds a nd wh a t they m e a n.
Ea ch dive p a rtner should h ave their own dive com puter. If a diver does not h ave a dive
com puter he must st ay a t a slightly low er d e pth th a n the diver with the com puter a t a ll
tim es.
N ever switch dive com puters with you p a rtner in b etw e e n dives or diving d ays!
N ever exce e d the dive limits of your dive com puter, eve n if your dive com puter off ers you
the option of d ecom pression dives, st ay within the no d ecom pression dive limits!
Should your dive com puter f a il during a dive, st ay a t a low er d e pth th a n your p a rtner a nd
continue the dive, m a ke a sa f ety stop a nd w a it a t le ast 6 hours b efore diving a g a in.
Should your p a rtner not h a ve a dive com puter, you h ave to a bort your dive, m a ke your
sa f ety stop a nd asce nd with your p a rtner.
If you h ave to switch dive com puters in b etw e e n re p etitive dives, w a it at le ast 6 hours
b efore diving a g a in.
Alw ays check your dive com puter a nd esp eci a lly the b a ttery level b efore diving.
Ensure your dive com puter h as switche d on whe n you d esce nd b e ne a th the surf a ce.
O b ey the no fly tim es of your dive com puter a fter your dive. G e ner a lly it is a dvisa ble to
w a it 24 hours a fter diving b efore a ir tr avel.
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Dive tables
G en era l rul es for using dive ta bl es:
The m a ximum sp e e d for asce nding is 10 m eters p er minute.
Whe n pl a nning re p etitive dives, the first dive should a lw ays b e the d e e p est.
Any dive sh a llow er th a n 12 m eters is consid ere d to b e 12 m eters d e e p.
The dive t a ble shows incre asing d e pths a t 3 m eter interva ls.
Alw ays use the next l a rg er d e pth if your d e pth is not shown.
Alw ays use the next long er dive tim e if your tim e is not shown.
Die PDA dive t a ble c a nnot b e use d for multilevel dives.
The minimum surf a ce interva l is 10 min, should the interva l b e less th a n 10 min it h as to
b e consid ere d a continu a tion of the dive.
A surf a ce interva l of a t le ast one hour b etw e e n re p etitive dives is recom m e nd e d.
Dives c a rrie d out und er stre nuous conditions (poor visibility, curre nts, cold w a ter) should
e m ploy the next l a g er d e pth a nd dive tim e in the t a ble th a n a ctu a lly pl a nne d for
c a lcul a tions.
Die PDA dive t a ble c a n only b e use d for dives a t a ltitud es up to 30 0 m eters a bove se a
level. For higher a ltitud es sp eci a l high a ltitud e diving t a bles h ave to b e use d.
Avoid progressive dives th a t a re close to the limits of the dive t a ble.
A sa f ety stop of 3 minutes a t 5 m eters is m a nd a tory for every dive
You might h ave to c a rry out a d ecom pression stop to avoid DCS, should you overst ay your
dive limit or ascend too f ast.
W a it 24 hours a fter diving b efore flying.
W a it a t le ast 6 hours a fter diving b efore driving or tr avelling to high a ltitud es.
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The PDA dive table
The PDA dive t a ble consists of three t a bles:

Ta ble 1- Pressure group (nitrog e n sa tur a tion)
Ta ble 2- Surf a ce interva l
Ta ble 3- Re p etitive dive
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Ta ble 1 – Pressure group (nitrog en sa tura tion)

The d e pth is indic a te d on the left sid e of the t a ble either in m eters or f e et, st a rting a t 12
m eters (4 0 f e et) going to 39 m eters (130 f e et). Choose your pl a nne d d e pth a n d follow
this column to the right where the dive tim es a re loc a te d. Dive tim e limits a re m a rke d in
re d a nd should not b e exce e d e d. After you h ave loc a te d your dive tim e in the column of
your d e pth you follow the column downw a rd und erne a th your dive tim e. This will le a d
to a letter (from A-L). This letter st a nds for your pressure group a t the e nd of the dive
a nd reflects the nitrog e n sa tur a tion of your body. Letter A would sym bolize low levels of
nitrog e n where as L would b e a lot of nitrog e n.
Ex a m ple: D e pth of the dive 19 m eters (h ave to use 21 m), dive tim e 33 minutes (h ave to
use 35 min) will le a d you to the pressure group G.
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Ta ble 2 surf a ce interva l

This t a ble t a kes into a ccount the r a te a t which w e re duce the nitrog e n levels from e a ch
pressure group a t the surf a ce. Follow the a rrow und erne a th your pressure group letter
to the tim e fr a m e m a tching your surf a ce tim e (interva ls showing from-to tim e fr a m es).
From the tim e fr a m e th a t m a tches your surf a ce interva l, follow the column to the left
where you will find your ne w pressure group sym bolling your a djuste d nitrog e n level.
Ex a m ple: You h a d the pressure group G a fter your l ast dive a nd a re t a king a 2 hours
surf a ce interva l. You find the m a tching tim e fr a m e: 2 hours- 2 hours a nd 58 minutes,
a nd follow the column to the left. Your ne w pressure group is D, the nitrog e n level in
your body h as d ecre ase d from G to D.
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Ta ble 3 rep etitive dives

This t a ble e n a bles you to d etermine your re m a ining dive tim e limits a nd your residu a l
nitrog e n tim e. From your pressure group move a long the column to the left to the d e pth
of your next pl a nne d dive. The re d num b er indic a tes your re m a ining dive tim e for the
corresponding d e pth, a bove it the blue num b er indic a tes your residu a l nitrog e n tim e.
You h ave to a d d the residu a l nitrog e n tim e to your a ctu a l dive tim e a fter the dive to
find your ne w pressure group a fter the re p etitive dive.
Ex a m ple: After our surf ace interva l a nd the pressure group D w e w a nt to m a ke a nother
dive to a d e pth of 21 m eters. W e follow pressure group D to the left to the
corresponding d e pth a nd find our re m a inin g dive tim e of 25 min. W e know now w e
could st ay up to 25 min a t 21 m eters. O ur a ctu a l dive tim e is 23 minutes. Do d etermine
our pressure group a fter this dive, w e h ave to a d d the blue num b er, our residu a l
nitrog e n tim e from the first dive, to the dive tim e of 23 minutes from the second dive.
This gives us a theoretic a l dive tim e of 43 minutes a t a d e pth of 21 m eters, which
reflects the nitrog e n level in our body a fter these two dives. W e c a n now use t a ble 1 to
look up our pressure group.
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What is a buddy check?
A W h e n you p ush your p a rtn e r into t h e w a t e r.

B You ch e ck your dive p a rt n e r’s e q ui p m e nt b e f or e e nt e rin g th e w a t e r.
C You ch e ck your dive p a rt n e r’s divin g c e rtific a tio n.
D You ask your p a rtn e r if th e e q ui p m e nt h a s b e e n ch e ck e d.
What is the recommended maximum depth for recreational diving?

A 15 m e t e rs
B 2 0 m e t e rs
C 3 0 m e t e rs
D Th a t d e p e n ds o n th e r e gio n your a r e divin g in.
What is a safety stop?

A Int e rru ptin g your asc e n d a t a d e pth of 5 m e t e rs f or a t l e ast 3 m inut es.
B Sto p eve ry 5 m e t e rs d urin g your asc e n d to ch e ck o n your dive p a rtn e r.
C Sto p w h a t eve r you a r e d oi n g w h e n you h a ve a pro bl e m.
D Sto p a t your d e pth w h e n you h e a r b o a t e n gin e noise.
Which are important rules when it comes to diving with a dive computer?
A Eve ry dive p a rtn e r shoul d h a ve his o w n dive co m p ut e r.
B Eve ry dive co m p ut e r shoul d h a ve Wi -Fi.
C M a k e sur e your dive co m p ut e r h as a ctiv a t e d b e f or e d esc e n din g.
D Both a nsw e rs A a n d C a r e corr e ct.
What is the maximum speed ascending to the surface?

A 18 m e t e rs p e r se co n d.
B 10 m e t e rs p e r m inut e.
C 1 m e t e r p e r se co n d.
D 18 m e t e rs p e r m inut e.
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6. The underwater world

Explain how currents are formed
Name the different types of currents relevant to scuba diving
Explain how a thermocline is formed
Explain what sediment is
Know what affects the tides
Understand the aspects of natural navigation
Know what a compass is and how it can be useful under water
Explain how to behave responsible under water
Saltwater
Betw e e n 96% a nd 97% of a ll the w a ter found in liquid st a te on e a rth is sa lt or br a ckish
w a ter. About 70% of the e a rth’s surf ace is covere d with w a ter.
Fa un a
The m a jority of the 30 0.0 0 0 scie ntific a lly ide ntifie d sp ecies th a t live in w a ter a re found
in sa lt w a ter. The m a jority of these live in a nd a round cor a l re efs.
Flora
The flor a und er w a ter, esp eci a lly in sa lt w ater is much less diverse th a n on l a nd.
Se a gr ass, kelp a nd m a ngroves a re a mo ng pl a nts th a t grow in sa lt w a ter.
Cora l re efs
Cor a l re efs a re built by little cre a tures c alled cor a ls. Re ef building cor a ls a re m e m b ers
of the h a rd cor a ls f a mily, which use miner a ls from the ground a nd the w a ter to build a n
exterior skeleton of c a lcium c a rbon a te for protection. Cor a ls typic a lly live in com p a ct
colonies a nd a re c a p a ble of building structures l a rg e e nough to cre a te a nd influe nce
ecosyste ms. Cor a l re efs a re the l a rg est structures on e a rth constructe d by a nim a ls a nd
a re estim a te d to e ncom p ass a tot a l a re a of 6 0 0 0 0 0 km 2. Cor a l re efs a re fr a gile a nd
und er stress from e nvironm e nt a l ch a ng es. Cor a l re efs a re g e ner a lly divid e d into four
cl asses: fringing re efs, b a rrier re efs, a tolls a nd p a tch re efs. Tropic a l cor a l re efs ne e d a
const a nt w a ter te m p er a ture w a ter of 20 C to survive, how ever w a ter th a t is too w a rm
will kill the m over tim e.
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Fresh water
O nly a bout 3% of the e a rth’s w a ter is fresh w a ter a nd a bout 2/3 of it c a n b e found
froze n as ice on gl a ciers a nd the pol a r c a ps. O nly a bout 0,3% of it is loc ate d on the
surf a ce in l a kes or rivers.
Fa un a
O nly 520 of the 10 0 0 0 id e ntifie d fish sp ecies a re found in Europ e. O ther th a n fish w e
c a n find diff ere nt sp ecies of mussels, sn a ils, cr a bs a nd eve n r ays, dolphins a n d sn a kes.
Flora
Pl a nts a re more a bund a nt th a n in sa lt w a ter b ec a use sa lt is difficult to d e a l with for
most pl a nts. There a re thre e diff ere nt typ es of fresh w a ter pl a nts: pl a nts th a t flo at on
the surf a ce, pl a nts th a t a re p a rti a lly subm erg e d a nd pl a nts th a t grow und er w a ter. In
a d dition to th a t w e h ave pl a nts th a t grow in the shore zone. Most pl a nts a re not winte r
proof a nd a re re a p p e a ring e a ch spring.
Th ermoclin e
A thermocline, som etim es c a lle d m et a limnion, is a thin but distinct l ayer of w a ter in
which the te m p er a ture ch a ng es more r a pidly with d e pth th a n it does in the l ayers
a bove or b elow. These te m p er a ture ch a ng es found in fresh w a ter a re cre a te d by l ayers
with diff ere nt w a ter d e nsity. H a loclines which a re found in sa lt w a ter a re cre a te d by
l ayers with diff ere nt sa lt conte nt a nd through tid es a nd curre nts. A thermocline c a n
ch a ng e the te m p er a ture by up to 10 C within a f e w cm.
W a ters bottom
Fresh w a ter bodies ofte n receive a l a rg e in put of org a nic m atter (le aves, pl a nts, polle n,
etc.) which collects a t the bottom a nd form a l ayer of se dim e nt unless c a rrie d a w ay by a
curre nt. This l ayer of se dim e nt is ofte n very soft und fine a nd e asily disturb e d, which c a n
he avily a ff ect the visibility und er w a ter. In r a re c ases you will find a gr avel or rocky
bottom in st a nding fresh w a ter.
Tides
Tid es a re w a ter move m e nts in the oce a ns c a use d by the gr avit a tion a l forces of the
moon, the sun a nd the e a rth’s rot a tion th a t c a use the se a levels to rise a nd f all
p eriodic a lly. The low est point of the a m plitud e is c a lle d low tid e a nd the highest point
of the a m plitud e high tid e. The two intertid a l zones a re c a lle d flood tid e for rising se a
levels a nd e b b tid e for f a lling se a levels. The gr avit a tion a l force of the sun is
a p proxim a tely h a lf as strong as the moon’s gr avit a tion a l force. The e a rth rot a tes once
a round the sun in 24 hours a nd the moon t a kes 24 hours a nd 5 0 mins to rot a te the
e a rth. This results in the intertid a l p eriod b etw e e n two high a nd low tid es to l asts 12
hours a nd 25 minutes. Tid e ch a rts a re use d to pre dict the d a ily tim es for high a nd low
tid e. The rise in se a levels c a use by the moon is roughly 30 cm but the resulting curre nts
a nd the topogr a phy of a co ast c a n le a d to a much l a rg er rise of the w a ter of up to 14
m eters in cert a in loc a tions.
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Currents
O ce a nic curre nts a re c a use d by wind, tid es a nd diff ere nces in the w a ter’s d e nsity. W e
diff ere nti a te b etw e e n const a nt curre nts such as the Gulf Stre a m or the Aghul as
Curre nts, a nd te m por a ry curre nts. Te m por a ry curre nts th a t a p p e a r a long a co ast line or
a re ef a ff ect divers more ofte n; they a re mostly drive n by tid es a nd winds.
O nshore curre nts a re driven by high tid es w he n the rising w a ter pushes tow a rds the
shore a nd by o nshore winds.
O ffshore curre nts a re drive n by low tid es through the rece ding w a ter a nd by offshore
winds as w ell as by rivers flowing into the oce a n.
Longitudin a l curre nts flow a longsid e the coastline or a re ef a nd a re in most c ases
drive n by wind.
Rip curre nts a re sp ecific kinds of w a ter curre nts th a t a re usu a lly found ne a r b e a ches.
They a re strong, loc a lize d a nd r a ther n a rrow curre nts of w a ter cre a te d by the
topogr a phy of the a re a, where w a ter th a t h as b e e n pushe d tow a rds the b e a ch is
funnele d b a ck out to the oce a n. Rip curr e nts a lw ays flow out a t a right a ngle to the
b e a ch.
Orientation and navigation

N a tura l n avig a tion
N avig a tion a nd orie nt a tion u nd er w a ter without the help of technic a l d evices is c a lle d
n a tur a l n avig a tion. Diff ere nt n a tur a l clues ca n b e use d to orie nt a te ourselves und er
w a ter:
The sun: w e c a n d etermine the com p ass direction with the loc a tion of the sun a nd the
tim e of the d ay.
Grooves in the sa nd: grooves in the sa nd o n the bottom usu a lly run p a r a llel to the
shoreline.
The surf: the direction the w aves a re tr avelling usu a lly points to the shore.
Form a tions: w e c a n use distinctive form a tions und er w a ter to help with orie nt a tion.
Topogr a phy: the topogr a phy und er w a ter c a n help us d etermine where w e a re, if
c a refully studie d b efore the dive.
Com p ass n avig a tion

O ne very useful technic a l d evice for orie nt ation is the com p ass. With a com p ass und er
w a ter, you c a n:
d etermine the direction

set a course a nd follow it
pinpoint a t a rg et a nd re a ch it
e asily n avig a te a return course
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A com p ass consists of thre e com pone nts:
The com p ass rose is loc a te d insid e a tr a nsp a re nt, oil fille d c asing situ ate d on a ne e dle.
The m a gnetic ne e dle a ligns with the north.
The rot a ting set ring sits on top of the c asing a nd is m a rke d with 36 0 d e gre e interva ls
to set a course.
The orie nting a rrow a nd the direction of tr avel a rrow a re use d to pinpoint a t a rg et a nd
re a d the d e gre es of the course from the set ring.
G en era l rul es for th e use of a com p ass:

Ke e p the com p ass ne e dle horizont a lly so it c a n rot a te fre ely. In a more vertic a l position
the ne e dle might not b e a ble to a lign prop erly with the north.
Ke e p m et a l objects a w ay from the com p ass as they c a n interf ere with the m a gnetic
ne e dle.
M a ke sure your e ntire body points str a ight in the direction of tr avel, ke e p the com p ass
in both h a nds in front of your body or form a squ a re with your a rms a nd the h a nd
holding the com p ass, this will preve nt you from a djusting your course with your a rm
only a nd not your body.
Interacting with aquatic life

W e a re sim ply guests und er w a ter a nd should b e h ave the w ay good guests a re
exp ecte d to b e h ave without doing a nything th a t could h a rm our hosts.
Alw ays m a int a in neutr a l buoya ncy a n d ke e p a dist a nce from the bottom a nd the re ef.
Do not touch a nything u nless you h ave to, to e nsure your sa f ety. Gloves to not p ermit
you to hold o n to rocks or cor a ls, or to touch a ny a qu a tic lif e.
The oce a n is not a p etting zoo, refr a in from touching a ny a qu a tic lif e, it could hurt you
or you could do p erm a ne nt d a m a g e to it.
Do not collect a ny shells und er w a ter, they m ay a p p e a r d e a d but c a n still serve as
housing for und er w a ter cre a tures.
Do not bre a k off a ny cor a ls, if it should h a p p e n uninte ntion a lly le ave the pieces where
they a re. Possession of cor a ls is a crimin a l off e nse in m a ny p a rts of the world.
Alw ays try to minimize your im p a ct on the und erw a ter world a nd the e nvironm e nt.
Take nothing but pictures…

Leave nothing but air bubbles!
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Ch a pter 7- Knowle dg e revie w

When do onshore currents usually occur?
A Alw a ys in th e a ft e rnoo n.
B B e tw e e n 8 a n d 10 a m.
C D urin g inco m in g ti d e.
D In th e eve nin gs.
What is useful for natural navigation?

A Grooves in th e s a n d o n th e b otto m.
B Fish a n d th e ir loc a tio ns.
C Th e p ositio n of th e su n.
D Answ e rs A a n d C a r e b oth corr e ct.
What drives the tides?

A U n d e r w a t e r volc a nic a ctivity.
B Se a q u a k es.
C Gr a vit a tio n a l f orc es fro m th e m oo n a n d t h e su n.
D Win d a n d w a ves.
Why would you use a compass under water?

A To d e t e rm in e th e dir e ctio n.
B To loc a t e your dive p a rtn e r a ft e r you’ve b e e n se p a r a t e d.
C To f ollo w a se t course.
D Answ e rs A a n d C a r e corr e ct.
Touching and petting aquatic life under water…

A c a n so m e ti m es b e n e c ess a ry.
B shoul d b e a voi d e d a t a ll ti m es.
C is i m p ort a nt f or th e a ni m a ls‘ w e ll - b e in g.
D N o a nsw e r is corr e ct.
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7. Problem management
Know the most important points to avoid problems
Name the most common causes for problems when diving
Know the most common problems that could occur on the surface and how to react
to them
Know the most common problems that could occur under water and how to react to
them
Know how to deal with a diver in distress and how help him
Know what to do when a diver is in panic
Know what to do when a diver is unconscious
Be familiar with first aid for near drowning victims
Kow how to treat injuries causes by aquatic life
Problems and diving

H ow c a n I avoid probl ems?
Do not overestim a te your a bilities
Ta ke tim e to prop erly pl a n a nd pre p a re for your dive
Check your e quipm e nt b efore e ntering the w a ter
Alw ays dive within your limits
Monitor your g a ug es const a ntly during the dive
Dive in a te a m
What are the most common causes for problems?

Overestim a ting ones a bilities
Wrong eva lu a tion of the conditions
Group pressure
N ot prop erly checke d e quipm e nt
U nd erestim a ting pote nti a l risks
proble m stress exh a ustion loss of control p a nic a ccid ent
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How to react to the most common problems that can occur on the
surface:
N ot e nough positive buoya ncy
Infl a te your j a cket, either or a lly or using the infl a tor hose
Ditch your w eights
Currents
Sign a l for help
Try to g et out of the curre nt by swimming l a ter a lly to the curre nt
Infl a te your sign a l buoy
St ay tog ether with your dive te a m
Use a coustic a nd visu a l sign a ling d evices
Ke e p c a lm
Cra m ping
Sign a l your p a rtner for help
Stretch out the a ff ecte d a re a trying to relive the cr a m ping
Exh a ustion
Sign a l for help e a rly
Conserve e nergy a nd try to rel a x
Ke e p c a lm
W aves
Ke e p your m ask on your f a ce
Ke e p your re gul a tor in your mouth
Turn your b a ck into the w aves
Sign a l for help
Infl a te your sign a l buoy
The most common problems under water and how to react to them:
Exh a ustion
Stop
Find a st a ble position, holding on to som ething or lying on the bottom
Control a nd c a lm down your bre a thing
Sign a l your p a rtner for assist a nce
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Enta nglem ent

Ke e p c a lm.
W a it for your p a rtner.
If necessa ry t a ke off your j a cket to fre e yourself a nd put your j a cket b a ck on. Do not
t a ke the re gul a tor out of your mouth.
Do not try to struggle fre e.
Be very c a reful using your dive knif e. Do not cut a nything th a t you c a nnot se e.
G etting sep a ra ted from your p a rtn er

Se a rch und er w a ter for up to one min. (in o ptim a l condition, otherwise less th a n 1 min).
Slowly swim to the surf a ce a nd w a it there to reunite with your dive p a rtner.
Out of air situation - different possibl e sce n a rios a nd how to re a ct to th em.

You notice you a re a bout to run out of a ir:
Im m e di a tely st a rt your asce nd
Do not re move a ny e quipm e nt or w eights.
Do not m a ke a sa f ety stop
St ay within the m a ximum sp e e d whe n asce nding
Infl a te your j a cket once you a re a t the surf a ce a nd w a it for your p a rtner
You r a n out of a ir but your p a rtner is close by:

Sign a l your p a rtner “I’m out of a ir”
Loc a te your p a rtner’s octopus a nd pull it tow a rds you
Switch your own re gul a tor for the octopus
Cle a r the w a ter from the octopus a nd st a rt bre a thing
Est a blish physic a l cont a ct with your p a rtner, holding on to him or his j a cket
Sign a l e a ch other “ O K” a nd “St a rt asce nding”
If you h ave e nough a ir for the two of you, c a rry out a sa f ety stop
O nce you h ave re a che d the surf a ce, return the octopus to your p a rtner a nd or a lly infl a te
your j a cket
You r a n out of a ir a nd you a re closer to the surf a ce th a n to your p a rtner:

You do a controlle d swim ming e m erg e ncy asce nd
Do not re move a ny e quipm e nt or w eights, ke e p the re gul a tor in your mouth
St a rt swim ming tow a rds the surf ace. Try to st ay within the m a ximum sp e e d if possible
M a int a in control of your a irw ays a nd a llow exp a nding a ir to esc a p e from your lungs
Overexte nd your he a d a n d either whistle or hum
Do not m a ke a sa f ety stop
O nce you h ave re a che d the surf ace, or a lly infl a te your j a cket
W a it for your p a rtner
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You r a n out of a ir, you c a nnot se e your p a rtner a nd a re too d e e p for a controlle d
swim ming e m erg e ncy asce nd:
You h ave to do a n e m erg e ncy asce nd
Cre a te positive buoya ncy by drop ping your w eights
St a rt swim ming h a rd to the surf a ce
M a int a in control of your a irw ays a nd a llow exp a nding a ir to esc a p e
Infl a te your j a cket on the surf a ce
Im m e di a tely sign a l for help
Bre a ther pure oxyg e n for a t le ast 20 min
Monitor a ny sym ptom ps for the next 6 hours for a potenti a l DCS or lung overexp a nsion
Im m e di a tely se ek m e dic a l tre a tm e nt should you show a ny sym ptoms
Do not dive for 24 hours
Currents
If possible try to g et out of the curre nt by swim ming l a ter a lly to the curre nt.
Swim close to the bottom where curre nts a re g e ner a lly less strong.
If you’re diving a long a w a ll, st ay close to the w a ll to protect you from the curre nt.
If you a re st a rting to f e el exh a uste d, find a spot th a t is protecte d from the curre nt a nd
rest. If you h ave to hold o n the som ething try to cre a te as little d a m a g e as possible.
Set a curre nt a nker if you h ave one.
Your p erson a l sa f ety com es b efore protecting the und erw a ter e nvironm e nt.
If the curre nts is too strong a nd there is a pote nti a l d a ng er of you g etting sw e pt a w ay,
a bort the dive, infl a te your sign a l buoy a nd surf a ce.
Distressed diver
There a re m a ny f a ctors th a t c a n le a d to a diver in distress:
Difficulties m a int a ining neutr a l buoya ncy

Incre ase d a ir consum ption
Exh a ustion
H aving lost your orie nt a tion
Being se p a r a te d from your dive p a rtner
Proble ms with your diving e quipm e nt
Actu a l or im a gine d thre a ts pose d by a qu a tic lif e
Signs of Stress a re:

Acceler a te d bre a thing
Atte ntion d eficit
U ncoordin a te d motions
N ot responding to sign a ls
Wid e eyes
Ultim a tely it does not m a tter wh a t c a use d the stress, wh a t m a tters is th a t you a re a ble
to re a ct quickly a nd a p propri a tely to avoid a ny stress pote nti a lly le a ding to p a nic. Stress
is our body’s n a tur a l re a ction to a pote nti a lly d a ng erous situ a tion. Adre n a line is
rele ase d, our blood pressure is incre ase d, he a rt r a te a nd bre a thing a re a cceler a te d to
incre ase our p erform a nce pote nti a l. O ur bra in will a lso b e more a ctive a nd a ll this
incre ase d a ctivity c a n le a d to p a nic, if the ca use of the stress is not elimin a te d. Pa nic is
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a st a te where w e a re no long er in control of our a ctions a nd instinct t a kes over,
which should b e avoid e d. If w e f ell distresse d, w e h ave to loc a te d a nd elimin a te
the c a using f a ctors. If w e e ncounter a nother diver showing signs of stress w e should try
to h ave a c a lming eff ect on him a nd com m unic a te to him th a t you are here to help.
Very ofte n this will a lre a dy b e e nough to re duce the stress level a nd e n a ble the p erson
to re g a in control of the situ a tion. Ea ch individu a l situ a tion a nd p erson will re quire a
diff ere nt a p pro a ch to relieve stress a nd elimin a te the c a using f a ctors.
In a ny situ a tion, a lw ays: STOP – CONTROL YOUR BREATHING – THINK – ACT
Panicked diver
Stress c a n le a d to p a nic a nd results in f e a r c a using us to lose control of our a ctions. O ur
br a in will shut down our conscious d ecision m a king a bility a nd instinct will t ake over to
h ave incre ase d reflexes in pote nti a l d a ng erous situ a tions. A st a te of p a nic c a n b e either
p assive or a ctive but a ny p erson move b etw e e n these two st a g es. In a diving situ a tion, a
p a nicke d diver a lw ays poses pote nti a l d a ng ers to rescuers. D e aling with a p a nicke d
diver either on the surf a ce or und er w a ter is difficult a nd re quires exte nsive tr a ining
a nd exp erie nce. The Rescue Diver Course will help you d evelop the necessa ry skills to
help other divers a nd yourself in such situ a tions. Your p erson a l sa f ety a lw ays com es
first, only a tte m pt to help som eone if you f eel sa f e. A p a nicke d diver will likely try to
gr a b a hold of you, putting you in d a ng er. You should avoid this by not a p pro a ching a
p a nicke d diver from the front.
Unresponsive diver – on the surf a ce

An unrespo nsive diver on the surf a ce who is unconscious h as to b e tr a nsporte d out of
the w a ter as quick as possible. Do not w aste tim e checking his vit a l signs. D e p e nding on
how f a r you h ave to tr a nsport the diver you m ay w a nt to consid er re moving your a nd
the victim’s w eights a nd j a ckets b efore tr a nsporting him to the shore or a bo a t. If you
h ave b e e n prop erly tr a ine d you c a n a dminister mouth to mouth re bre a thing while you
dr a g the diver to the shore or to a bo a t. O nce out of the w a ter im m e di a tely cont a ct
e m erg e ncy services a nd the n st a rt CPR.
– und er w a ter
If w e e ncounter a n unresponsive diver u nd e r w a ter who is unconscious, it is im port a nt to
bring the victim to the surf a ce as quick as possible. Whe n asce nding tog ether with the
unconscious diver, m a ke sure you st ay within the m a ximum sp e e d to avoid putting
yourself a t risk. Ra ther let go of the unconscious diver th a n asce nding too f ast, if he is
b eing pulle d to the surf a ce by exp a nding a ir in his j a cket. Tr a nsport the unconscious
diver from b e hind, ke e ping one a rm a rou n d his w a ist a nd one o n his chin, so you a re
a ble to overexte nd his he a d. This will e nsure th a t exp a nding a ir from his lungs c a n
esc a p e a nd will not c a use a d dition a l d a m a g e. This will a lso e n a ble you to kick your legs
to st a rt swim ming tow a rds the surf a ce. Try to use the victim’s j acket to control buoya ncy
by letting out a ir as you asce nd. If the unconscious diver still h as the re gul a tor in his
mouth, m a ke sure it st ays there by pinning it down with your h a nd on his chin. If he h as
lost his re gul a tor, do not w aste a ny tim e trying to re pl a ce it. O nce you h ave re a che d th e
surf a ce, m a ke sure you a re both positively buoya nt. Proce e d as you would with a n
unconscious diver on the surf a ce.
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Near drowning
If a p erson h as inh a le d l a rg er qu a ntities of w a ter, they a re consid ere d “ne a r drowning
victims”. Such a p erson might a p p e a r to b e f e eling fine but should nevertheless b e
monitore d a nd not b e left a lone, as his st a te could le a d to a so c a lle d “ dry drowning”.
Dirt p a rticles or sa ltw ater m ay h ave b e e n inh a le d a nd re m a in in the lungs, c a using our
org a nism to produce fluids to w ash a w ay these p a rticles, which c a n result in proble ms
bre a thing a nd eve n respir a tory a rrest. Im m e di a tely find a doctor or a hospit a l should
proble ms bre a thing occur following a ne a r drowning incid e nt.
Injuries inflicted by aquatic life

a re very r a re a nd in most c ases a re c a use d by d ef e nsive a ctions a nd not by a tt a cks.
W e diff ere nti ate thre e diff ere nt typ es of injuries:
Bites
Puncture or st a b wounds
Burns
Bites
c a n le a d to b a cteri a e ntering the wound e d a re a a nd c a use he avy inf ections. It is
im port a nt to cle a n a nd to disinf ect the wound a nd put a sterile b a nd a g e over it. Should
the a ff ecte d a re show signs of inf ections like re dness, sw elling, loc a lize d p a in, consult a
doctor im m e di a tely.
Puncture or sta b wounds

c a n b e inflicte d by a qu a tic lif e possessing spines a nd thorns, ofte n poisonous for
protection (i.e. the dr a gonfish, the stonefish or the stingr ay). These spines or thorns do
not only c a use puncture or st a b wounds but a lso tr a nsmit proteins which c a n b e
extre m ely d a ng erous, in som e c ases eve n leth a l for the hum a n body. Sh a rp p a in, he avy
sw elling a nd color ch a ng es in the a ff ecte d a re as a re first signs. As first a id, expose the
a ff ecte d a re as to hot w a ter (50 C ) for as long as it is b e a r a ble. The he a t c a n bre a k
down the protein. Im m e di a tely go to a doctor or hospit a l should you exp erie nce a f ever
or tissue color ch a ng es
Burns
a re c a use d through skin cont a ct with cert a in jellyfish a nd stinging pl a nkton. Very f e w
jellyfish sp ecies a re c a p a ble of inflicting d a ng erous stings, most will c a use skin
irrit a tions a nd re dness with skin itching. Tre a t a ff ecte d are as by rinsing the m with w a rm
sa lt w a ter. Should there still b e te nt a cles on your skin, either re move the m c a refully with
a cre dit c a rd or with gloves or a w et tow el. Refr a in from rub bing or scr a tching which
could result in so f a r und a m a g e d stinging cells to c a use further burns. Also do not use
vine g a r or urine to tre a t the a ff ecte d a re as. Urine does not help a t a ll a n d vine g a r o nly
helps with cert a in sp ecies a nd c a n m a ke th e injuries worse for other sp ecies. In c ases of
strong skin irrit a tion, n a use a or difficulties bre a thing, se e a doctor im m e di a tely.
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How can you avoid problems when scuba diving?
A By e a tin g h e a lthy.
B St a y within your li m its.
C Ch e ck your e q ui p m e nt b e f or e eve ry dive.
D Answ e rs B a n d C a r e corr e ct.
What are the most common causes for problems?

A O ve r esti m a tin g your o w n a biliti es.
B Grou p pr essur e
C Wro n g ev a lu a tio n of th e co n ditio ns (i. e. curr e nts).
D All a nsw e rs a r e corr e ct.
What factors can lead to a distressed diver?

A Eq ui p m e nt pro bl e ms
B Fr e q u e nt m o nitorin g of th e dive g a u g es.
C O ve r e x e rtio n
D Both a nsw e rs A a n d C a r e corr e ct.
Which dangerous situation could result from a near drowning incident?

A D e co m pr essio n sick e nss
B C a rb o n m o noxi d e p oiso nin g
C Dry dro w nin g
D Stro n g fl a tul e nc e
Injuries cause by aquatic life are generally a result of…

A b or e d o m.
B a n u n p rovok e d a tt a ck.
C a d e f e nsive r e a ctio n.
D th e a ni m a ls d esir e to pl a y.
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8. Skills requirements
In this ch a pter w e will t a lk a bout the exercises w e use to te a ch you the pr a ctic a l skills
which a re necessa ry to pr a ctice scub a diving sa f ely. You will do these exercises in the
pool a nd a p ply the skills during the op e n w a ter tr a ining dives. The following is sim ply
a n overvie w of a ll these skills. Your PDA instructor will expl ain a nd d e monstr a te these
skills to you b efore you st a rt pr a cticing them. O nce you h ave m astere d these skill you
will a p ply the m in the op e n w a ter dives.
Assem bling a nd insp ecting your scub a equipm ent

Att a ch the t a nk to the j a cket
Att a ch the re gul a tor to the t a nk
Connect the infl a tor hose with the infl a tor
Turn on the a ir by op e ning the va lve
Check your a ir pressure
Check th a t your j a cket infl a tes prop erly
Check your j a ckets overpressure va lves a nd quick rele ases
Insp ect your re gul a tor a nd the a ltern a tive a ir source
Check the re m a ining pieces of e quipm e nt (suit, boots, fins, m ask a nd snorkel a nd dive
com puter)
G e a ring up your equip m e nt

Put on your dive suit
Put on your boots
Put on your dive com puter
If you a re using one, put on your w eight b elt
Put on your scub a g e a r (j a cket, t a nk a nd re gul a tors) with the help of your dive p a rtner
H ave your m ask, snorkel a nd fins in your h a nds
Bud dy Check – check the equipm ent of your g e a red up dive p a rtn er
Buoya ncy control d evice
Str a ps
W eights
Air sup ply a nd instrum e nts
M ask, snorkel a nd fins
Different techniqu es to enter th e w a ter:

La rg e forw a rd ste p
B a ckw a rds roll
Entering sh a llow w a ter
Weight check
You should sink in to a bout your nose with a n e m pty j a cke d a nd re gul a r bre a thing
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Prop er tech niqu e for d escen ding

Five points d esce nd
Techniques for e qu a lizing pressure
Ta king the regul a tor out of your mouth a nd putting it b a ck in und er w a ter
Cle a r the w a ter from your re gul a tor by exh a ling
Cle a r your re gul a tor by pushing the purg e button
Recovering your regul a tor

Sw e e p a nd recover
Re a ch a nd recover
Flod ding a nd cl e a ring your m ask

Pa rti a lly flood your m ask a nd cle a r it
Com pletely flood your m ask a nd cle a r it
Ta ke your m ask off, put it b a ck on a nd cle a r it
Ta ke off your j a cket a nd put it b a ck on

U nd er w a ter
At the surf a ce
Using your p a rtn er’s a ltern a te a ir source

St a tion a ry octopus bre a thing
Swim ming octopus bre a thing
Using one re gul a tor with a ltern a te bre a thing
Controlle d swimming em erg ency asc end

Simul a te d controlle d e m erg e ncy asce nd from a d e pth of 10 m eters m a x.
Buoya ncy control – neutr a l buoya ncy

Pivoting on your fins
H overing
Using your lungs as a buoya ncy control d evice
Removing your w eight system a nd putting it b a ck

U nd er w a ter
At the surf a ce
Using the quck rele ase syste m of your w eights a t the surf a ce
O ut of a ir situ a tion
Bre a the from a re gul a tor in a simul a te d out of a ir situ ation
Fre e flowing regul a tor

Bre a thing from a fre e flowing re gul a tor
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OPEN WATER DIVER

Version 2015 Copyright Arno Schrittwieser

Welcome to your PDA Open Water diver course.

Who or what is PDA?

Requirements for certification

Complete and sign course sign-up

Pay course fee

Determine course scedule and dates

Complete and sign release form

Complete medical statement or hand in doctor’s physical

Fill out equipment record file

Set up record file

Requirements for certification and issuing of PDA dive ID card:

Participation in all knowledge development classes

Mastering all the practical scuba diving skills in the pool

Passing the final exam

Course fee paid in full

Completed certification application including a passport picture

Completed and signed release form

Completed medical statement or a current doctor’s physical

Let’s get started…

1. Water and Air 4 5. Dive planning and dive management 40

1. Water and air

Explain how pressure changes under water

Determine the absolute pressure for any given depth

Explain how to equalize

Know what to do if you’re unable to equalize

Explain what a reverse block is

Explain the relationship between volume and pressure of gases

Name the parts of a scuba diving breathing regulator

Name the most common materials used for dive tanks

Equalizing pressure - Equ a liz a tion techniqu es

Wh a t could prevent you from b eing a ble to equ a lize?

Medic a tio n a nd equ a liz a tio n

Reverse block - Wh a t is it?

Diving with e a r plugs?

Rupture of the eardrum (perforated eardrum)

Air- Pressure - Volume- Density relationships

Breathing and scuba diving - Bre a thing a ir a t surrounding pressure

Wh a t is th e correct bre a thing m ethod und er w a ter?

Th e most im porta nt rule of scub a diving:

Bre a th e continuously, n ever hold your bre a th!

Do es pressure und er w a ter a ff ect the a ir in our lungs?

Bre a thing a nd overexertion

Stop - Breathe - Think - Act

Stop the stre nuous a ctivity th a t le d to overexertion, ca lm yourself down a nd t a ke control

Correl a tion b etw e e n d epth a nd a ir consum ption

The lungs - The functioning of th e lun gs

Which m ech a nism regul a tes our bre a thing?

Lung overextension injuries

Wh a t should I look for in a regul a tor?

Dive tanks or cylinders

C a rbon – Com posite m a teri a ls

Filling your ta nks

Ch a pter 1 knowle dg e revie w

The pressure under water increases by 1 bar every …..

How high is the surrounding pressure at a depth of 30 meters?

What should you do if you are unable to equalize?

Which is the most important rule of scuba diving?

2. See – Feel – Hear

Understand how light is absorbed by water and the consequences

Know the most important feature of a dive mask