Topic(A) - Ground water level survey

Topic (B) - Hydraulic conductivity (K) measurement:

laboratory measurement

Topic (C) - Urban drainage for waste water drainage

using separate system

Student name:Ahmed moayad jameel

Course:2

Instructor:Sayran Ahmed Ibrahim

Date:6/7/2020

Table of contant :
Topic(A) – Groun water level survey:
Topic (B) - Hydraulic conductivity (K) measurement: laboratory measurement :

What is hydraulic conductivity (k) or Permeability of Soil:

Soil permeability, or hydraulic conductivity, is the rate of the flow of water

through soil materials, and it is an essential characteristic across a broad
spectrum of engineering and earth-science disciplines. Geotechnical and civil
engineers, hydrogeologists, soil, and environmental scientists all use this
information for projects such as structural foundations, embankments,
earthen dams, flood management, effluent infiltration, and more. It’s no
surprise that porosity and permeability of soils are related or it is a property
of vascular plants, soils and rocks, that describes the ease with which a fluid (usually water) can
move through pore spaces or fractures. It depends on the intrinsic permeability of the material, the
degree of saturation, and on the density and viscosity of the fluid. It is one of the most important
soil properties of interest to geotechnical engineers

Factors that Affect Soil Permeability

Soil voids create an easy path for the movement of water, but other factors
like hydraulic gradient, soil type, texture, and particle size distribution also
affect permeability, Effective stress, Degree of saturation, Chemistry of permeation liquid „
,Volume of flow

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES:
The objectives of the laboratory practical were to determine the absolute permeability of sand
in porous media, and to determine the relative permeability of multi-phase flow (water and oil)using d
arcy and corey equationsThis experiment was important because knowledge of it would show how
well a porous mediaallows fluids to flow through it, and as petroleum engineers, one of the interest in
reservoir rocksis how easily petroleum will flow through them to the wellbore from where they are
transportedto the surface.

Darcy’s law, The hydraulic conductivity, k, is a product of Darcy’s Law. And In 1856, Darcy
established an empirical relationship for the flow of water through porous media known as
Darcy’s Law which dictates all results from soil permeability tests, is an
equation describing the movement of fluids through a porous medium. This
equation defines the coefficient of permeability or hydraulic conductivity of
soils, a ratio of fluid velocity through the soil matrix to the hydraulic
gradient.
q = kiA
q = flow rate (cm3 /s)
k = coefficient of permeability (cm/s)
A = cross-sectional Area (cm2 )
h
i = hydraulic gradient where; I =
l
 Figure (1) darcy law explain

Coefficient of Permeability:
Hydraulic Conductivity, k, is a measure of soil permeability and k is determined in the lab using two
methods: Constant-Head Test and Falling-Head Test  K is usually expressed in cm/sec and The
coefficient of permeability (K) is the velocity in meters or centimeters per
second of water through soils. Fine-grained soils such as clays might have
values of around 10-8meters/sec or lower, or a sand and gravel formation
could be 10-4meters/sec or higher.
Soil permeability can be estimated using empirical methods like soil survey
mapping, soil texture, or particle size distribution. However, a variety of
different laboratory and field test methods make it just as easy to measure
these properties directly. The soil type and purpose of the test, accuracy
required, and specimen type influence the selected test method.
This blog will be your guide in selecting equipment to meet the test method
requirements and match to the soil type. Hydraulic conductivity of soils
depends onfactors:

 Fluid viscosity
 Pore size distribution
 Grain size distribution
 Void ratio
 Degree of soil saturation

Challenges with Hydraulic Conductivity Measurement:

Hydraulic conductivity of soil/rock varies over a very large range

„ Both very high and very low hydraulic conductivity values are difficult to be measured

„ Homogeneity and anisotropy have huge influence

Table (1) Ranges of Hydraulic Conductivity

Laboratory Hydraulic Conductivity Tests:

Types of permeameters

…Flexible-wall permeameter

…Rigid-wall permeameter

„ Compaction mold

„ Thin-wall tube
 …Consolidation cell

How is Soil Permeability Measured

Soil Permeability tests take place under either constant head or falling head
conditions:
 Constant Head Test refers to an apparatus where the same relative
elevation of the top of the water column (head pressure) remains over the
sample throughout the test. It is a valid test for soils with a high rate of flow
like sands and gravels, but also some clay soils. And The constant head test is used
primarily for coarse-grained soils , This test is based on the assumption of laminar flow where k is
independent of i (low values of i) ,ASTM D 2434 ,This test applies a constant head of water to each end
of a soil in a “permeameter .

Procedure (Constant head)

1.Setup screens on the permeameter

2. Measurements for permeameter, (D), (L), H1
3. Take 1000 g passing No.4 soil (M1)
4. Take a sample for M.C.
5. Assemble the permeameter – make sure seals are air-tight
6. Fill the mold in several layers and compact it as prescribed.
7. Put top porous stone and measure H2
8. Weigh remainder of soil (M2)
9. Complete assembling the permeameter. (keep outlet valve closed)
10. Connect Manometer tubes, but keep the valves closed.
11. Apply vacuum to remove air for 15 minutes (through inlet tube at top)
12. Run the Test (follow instructions in the lab manual) …..
13. Take readings
1 Manometer heads h1 & h2
2 Collect water at the outlet, Q ml at time t = 60 sec

Calculation (Constant head)

 Determine the unit weight
 Calculate the void ratio of the compacted specimen

 Calculate k as

Calculate
 Falling Head Test allows the head to decrease as water infiltrates the
sample, diminishing the pressure over the course of the test. Falling head
methods are generally limited to fine-grained soils

Same procedure in constant head test

except:
 Record initial head difference, h1 at t = 0
 Allow water to flow through the soil specimen
 Record the final head difference, h2 at time
t = t2
 Collect water at the outlet, Q ml at time t = 60 sec

Calculation (Falling head)

Calculate k as

Where;
a = inside cross sectional area of the water tank
h1 = distance to bottom of the beaker before the test
h2 = distance to bottom of the beaker after the test

Calculate
figure (2) Constant-Head Method figure(3) Falling Head Method

Topic(C) Urban drainage for waste water drainage using

separate system

Urban drainage systems handle two types of flow: wastewater and stormwater. An important stage in
the history of urban drainage was the connection of wastewater to ditches and natural streams whose
original function had been to carry stormwater. The relationship between the conveyance of
wastewater and stormwater has remained a complex one; indeed, there are very few systems in which
it is simple or ideal. Piped systems consist of drains carrying flow from individual properties, and sewers
carrying flow from groups of properties or larger areas. The word sewerage refers to the whole
infrastructure system: pipes, manholes, structures, pumping stations and so on. There are basically two
types of conventional sewerage system: a combined system in which wastewater and stormwater flow
together in the same pipe, and a separate system in which wastewater and stormwater are kept in
separate pipes. Some towns include hybrid systems, for example a ‘partially-separate’ system, in which
wastewater is mixed with some stormwater, while the majority of stormwater is conveyed by a separate
pipe. Many other towns have hybrid systems for more accidental reasons: for example, because a new
town drained by a separate system includes a small old part drained by a combined system, or because
wrong connections resulting from ignorance or malpractice have caused unintended mixing of the two
types of flow. We will now consider the characteristics of the two main types of sewerage system

Wastewater, or sewage, is one of the two major urban water-based flows that form the basis of concern
for the drainage engineer. The other, stormwater, is described in Chapter 6. Wastewater is the main
liquid waste of the community. Safe and efficient drainage of wastewater is particularly important to
maintain public health (because of the high levels of potentially disease-forming micro-organisms in
wastewater) and to protect the receiving water environment (due to large amounts of
oxygenconsuming organic material and other pollutants in wastewater). This chapter provides
background information and summary data on wastewater

The basic sources of wastewater are summarised in Fig. 4 and consist of:

• domestic

• non-domestic (commercial and industrial)

• infiltration/inflow.
 Figure (4) Sources of wastewater

Wastewater

In practice, the relative importance of the components will vary with a

number of factors, including:

• location (climatic conditions, the availability of water and its

characteristics, and individual domestic water consumption)

• diet of the population

• presence of industrial and trade effluents

• the type of collection system (i.e. separate or combined)

• condition of the collection system

Water–wastewater relationship:

As mentioned earlier, there is a strong link between water usage and

wastewater disposal, with relatively little supplied water being ‘consumed’

or taken out of the system. On a daily basis we can simply say:

G'=xG

G water consumption per person (l/hd.d)

G' wastewater generated per person (l/hd.d)

X return factor, given in Table 4.2 (–)

Figur (5) Variation of per
capita water consumption (based on Russac et al. [1991] with permission of the Chartered Institution of
Water and Environmental Management, London)

Table (2) Percentage of water discharged as wastewater

It is estimated that, in the UK, about 95% of water used is returned to the sewer network
(DoE, 1992). The other 5% is made up of water used externally (watering the garden and washing the
car, for example) and to miscellaneous losses within the household. In hotter climates with low rainfall,
this proportion can be up to 40%. Fig. (5) shows a comparison made throughout the day between
water use and wastewater flow in a catchment. In general, water use exceeds wastewater flow,
especially in the early evening when gardens are being watered. At night this situation is reversed due to
sewer infiltration flows

Separate system
 Most sewerage systems constructed in the UK since 1945 are separate (about 30%, by total length). Fig.
6 but this time sewered using the separate system. Wastewater and stormwater are carried in separate
pipes, usually laid side-by-side. Wastewater flows vary during the day, but the pipes are designed to
carry the maximum flow all the way to the wastewater treatment plant. The stormwater is not mixed
with wastewater and can be discharged to the watercourse at a convenient point. The first obvious
advantage of the separate system is that CSOs, and the pollution associated with them, are avoided. An
obvious disadvantage might be cost. It is true that the pipework in separate systems is more expensive
to construct, but constructing two pipes instead of one does not cost twice as much. The pipes are
usually constructed together in the same excavation. The stormwater pipe (the larger of the two) may
be about the same size as the equivalent combined sewer, and the wastewater pipe will be smaller. So
the additional costs are due to a slightly wider excavation and an additional, relatively small pipe
Separate systems do have drawbacks of their own, and we must consider them now. The drawbacks
relate to the fact that perfect separation is effectively impossible to achieve. First, it is difficult to ensure
that polluted flow is carried only in the wastewater pipe. Stormwater can be polluted for many reasons,
including the washing-off of pollutants from the catchment surface. This will be considered in more
detail in Chapter 6. Second, it is very hard to ensure that no rainwater finds its way into the wastewater
pipe. Rainwater enters the wastewater pipe by two main mechanisms: infiltration and direct inflow.
 Figure (6)

Infiltration

Infiltration to a pipe takes place when groundwater seeps in via imperfections: for example,
cracks or damage from tree-roots or poor joints. It can take place in all types of sewer but is likely to
cause the most problems in the wastewater pipe of a separate system because the extra water will have
the most impact on the remaining pipe capacity. (Exfiltration, the leaking of liquid out of a sewer, can
also be a problem, particularly in areas of sensitive groundwater
 Advantage Disadvantages

1. No CSOs – potentially less pollution of

watercourses. 1. Extra cost of two pipes. .

2. Smaller wastewater treatment works 2. Additional space occupied in narrow

3. Stormwater pumped only if
necessary.
4. Wastewater and storm sewers may
follow own optimum line and depth
(for example, stormwater to nearby
outfall).
streets in built-up areas.
3. More house drains, with risk of wrong
connections.
4. No flushing of deposited wastewater
solids by stormwater.

5. Wastewater sewer small, and greater 5. No treatment of stormwater

velocities maintained at low flows.

6. Less variation in flow and strength of

wastewater.

7. No road grit in wastewater sewers.

8. Any flooding will be by stormwater

only.