Power Associations With
Running Speed
N. Travis Triplett, PhD, FNSCA, CSCS*D, Travis M. Erickson, MS, CSCS,
and Jeffrey M. McBride, PhD, FNSCA, CSCS
Department of Health, Leisure and Exercise Science, Appalachian State University, Boone, North Carolina
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SUMMARY
SPEED IN SPORT IS MOST COM-
MONLY DESCRIBED AS THE ABIL-
ITY TO MOVE THE BODY OVER A
SET DISTANCE IN THE SHORTEST
POSSIBLE TIME. RUNNING SPEED
IS A COMMON BASE SKILL FOR
MANY SPORTS. THERE ARE SEV-
ERAL COMPONENTS TO SPEED
THAT ARE RELATED TO POWER
PRODUCTION, INCLUDING THE
AMOUNT OF TIME SPENT ACCEL-
ERATING, MAXIMUM FORCE
CAPABILITY, STRIDE LENGTH AND
RATE, AND RUNNING MECHANICS
IN GENERAL. TRAINING TO
IMPROVE SPEED SHOULD
ADDRESS EACH OF THESE COM-
PONENTS.
INTRODUCTION
he basic definition of speed
T states that it is the shortest time
that is required to move along
a set distance, which is basically the
same as velocity without any indica-
tion of direction (2). With the human
body, speed is not constant over the
entire distance and is divided into
stages (8) once the body is in motion.
These stages include acceleration and
maximum speed. Acceleration can be
defined as the rate of change in speed
up to the point where maximum speed
is reached. Acceleration will be cov-
ered more extensively in another arti-
cle in this issue. In the maximum speed
stage, the top speed is maintained as
Copyright Ó National Strength and Conditioning Association
long as possible for the remainder of
the distance. With shorter distances,
this is not a problem; however, decel-
eration can occur if the distance is long
enough, usually with distances greater
than 60 m. The actual length of these
stages can vary depending on total dis-
tance covered and the athlete’s level of
ability and training. For example, the
acceleration distance for a 40 m sprint
is approximately 10 m and the acceler-
ation distance for a 100 m sprint is
approximately 30–40 m. However,
a novice runner will only accelerate
for 20–30 m, whereas an elite runner
may accelerate for 40–50 m in the
100 m sprint (8), which would typically
result in a greater maximum speed and
potentially less deceleration.
All sports, even endurance sports, rely
on some type of speed for the perfor-
mance of selected movements or in
specific situations. The most common
movement in sport where speed is
important is running. The body reaches
top running speed through the combi-
nation of force and power production in
the lower body, which translates into
stride length and stride rate. Although
these components of the stride can
be influenced by an individual’s body
dimensions, they can also be trained
to be optimized for a particular individ-
ual. Faster runners typically have higher
stride rates and stride lengths (14); so,
training to improve running speed often
involves trying to improve one or both
of these components. However, simply
increasing stride length and/or rate may
Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-scj.com
not be the most effective method for
improving running speed. It is possible
to overstride or to have a stride rate that
does not result in a faster movement
velocity because stride length may be
shortened as a result. Therefore, the best
approach to maximizing speed is to
determine the optimal stride length
and stride rate based on an individual’s
physical dimensions and force/power
capabilities. Because force capabilities
are related to maximum strength,
strength is a major factor that should
also be considered when attempting to
improve maximum speed (14).
FORCE, POWER, AND IMPULSE
Strength is a physical quantity that is
defined in physics terms as force (F),
and in the case of athletic perfor-
mance, peak force. Power is the
amount of force exerted through a cer-
tain distance (or displacement) per
unit of time (t), which is really the rate
at which one can perform work. Power
is also often described using the rate
of force development (RFD) (5,6).
In addition, these variables can be
expressed as a function of impulse
(F 3 t), or the average force exerted
over a given unit of time, which is
equal to the change in momentum
(mv2 2 mv1) (Figure 1). Momentum
is calculated as the product of the mass
of an object and its velocity, so changes
KEY WORDS:
speed; power; force; strength; stride
length; stride rate; sprint
29
Power Associations With Running Speed

in terms of vertical (dV) and horizontal

(dH) displacement can be defined (4).
Impulse, which is thought to be of great
importance when determining sprint-
ing performance, is related to trajectory
because impulse defines the velocity
change of an object (via momentum).
It has been observed that elite sprinters
generate an impulse of approximately
276 N-s in comparison with well-
trained sprinters with an impulse of
215 N-s (12). Figure 2 depicts how aver-
age force applied to the ground at
a given angle (78) determines the flight
path of the runner’s center of mass. This
is important because the largest per-
centage of a runner’s stride length/step
Figure 1. Force-time curve for a foot strike in running identifying peak force, rate of length (DSL) is determined by force
force development (RFD), and impulse. application to the ground; DSL is calcu-
lated as shown in Figure 2a. If the force
applied is increased, then a correspond-
in momentum are most often the result 9.81 m/s2 for vertical motion and the ing increase in dF and thus stride
of changes in velocity because the mass horizontal acceleration rate (for a slow length/step length would be observed.
of an object (i.e., a runner) is not chang- moving object) is 0 m/s2. Using the Salo et al. (10) clearly showed that aver-
ing. These concepts in physics are the equations for trajectory, the flight path age stride length/step length quite
basic tenants that determine athletic
performance, including activities such
as running. If the body is treated as an
object with some mass, then the force
applied to it determines its acceleration
rate and then this body reacts as a pro-
jectile with a trajectory defined by
Newton’s laws of motion. The impulse
and change in momentum relationship
is simply a reorganized equation based
on Newton’s second law (F 5 ma).
Athletic performance must fall under
these relationships, which do not
change because the object happens to
be a human body. Peak force, power,
and impulse, in particular, thus define
the essence of sprinting capabilities in
that the function of these abilities is to
move the body as fast as possible in the
horizontal direction (5,15,17).
Unlike walking, running involves put-
ting the body into flight where it loses
contact with the ground, which falls
under the definition of a projectile.
Projectile motion involves an object
with some trajectory or flight path
based on its velocity and angle of pro-
jection when it leaves the ground. Figure 2. (A) Calculation of horizontal displacement of a projectile (runner) using the
According to Newton’s laws, accelera- impulse-momentum relationship and Newton’s laws regarding accelera-
tion as a result of gravity is constant at tion. (B) Relationship between step (stride) length and 100 m sprint time.

30 VOLUME 34 | NUMBER 6 | DECEMBER 2012

effectively determines 100 m time and hip as the landing is cushioned,
(Figure 2b). In practical terms, if then extension of both joints and pro-
strength is increased, there would be pulsion of the body up and forward as
an increase in force for a given time the foot leaves the ground surface (sup-
period, and running velocity would port phase). In the recovery phase, the
show a corresponding increase. Studies knee flexes first, followed by the hip.
consistently show that force, RFD, The toe is also dorsiflexed throughout
power, and impulse determine sprinting in preparation for another footstrike.
capabilities (Table 1) (1,3,6,7,13,15,16). At the beginning of the support phase,
the body is nearly vertical and only the
RUNNING TECHNIQUE forefoot is touching the ground. This
To optimize stride length and rate, it is contact should be brief; elite sprinters
essential that proper running technique can generate peak ground reaction
is used. Proper running mechanics can forces in approximately 0.4 seconds
be described as a sequence of body po- (11). The end of the support phase is
sitions for optimal force and power where the body moves forward, and
output. These are often split into the the hip, knee, and ankle extend and
support and recovery phases (9). If propel the body off the ground (triple
a stride begins with the footstrike, there extension). This push-off angle is typi-
is rapid but slight flexion of the knee cally in the 50–558 range (11). The
Table 1
Studies examining relationship between force (1RM), power (RFD), impulse,
and sprinting ability
Investigation Variables Correlation
Wisloff et al. (15) 1RM squat
10 m sprint 0.94
30 m sprint 0.71
Nimphius et al. (6) 1RM/BM squat
1 base sprint 0.84
2 base sprint 0.84
Parchmann and McBride (7) 1RM/BM squat
10 m sprint 0.81
20 m sprint 0.87
Young et al. (16) CMJ power/BM
Maximum sprinting velocity 0.65
Bissas and Havenetidis (1) Leg extension RFD
Maximum sprinting velocity 0.73
Kawamori et al. (3) Foot strike impulse
10 m sprint 0.66
Sleivert and Taingahue (13) Jump squat peak power
5 m sprint 0.68
All correlations are significant at p # 0.05.
BM 5 body mass; CMJ 5 countermovement jump; RFD 5 rate of force development; RM 5
repetition maximum.
Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-scj.com
recovery phase begins with the knee
flexing fully and the hip extending fully.
Although these movements are not
active (i.e., they are in reality eccentric
knee extension and eccentric hip flex-
ion), the end result is the heel nearly
touching the buttocks. This shortens
the lever so that rotation of the leg back
via hip flexion to the position required
for the support phase can be accom-
plished more quickly. The hip is rapidly
flexed and then extended, and the knee
extended and foot positioned to touch
the ground in a “pawing” motion. This
contact should ideally occur directly
under the center of gravity (8).
Although most sprinting descriptions
are focused on the lower body, the
position of the upper body is also vital
for optimizing running speed (9). The
shoulders should be firmly positioned,
so that the elbows can remain flexed at
a 908 angle and kept close to the sides
during the running motion. The arms
should be moving explosively, and arm
drive ranges from a position where the
hand is close to the ear with the upper
arm perpendicular to the body to
where the hand is close to the hip
and the upper arm is about 458 behind
the body. The neck and facial muscles
should remain as relaxed as possible
throughout.
TRAINING TO IMPROVE RUNNING
SPEED
Aside from a general repetitive sprint
regimen that serves to condition the
body, there are technique drills and
strengthening and power exercises that
are also necessary to improving speed.
The drills focus on improving and
maintaining running mechanics and
include the following: A-march,
A-skip, B-march, B-skip, fast leg-left
every third step, fast leg-right every
third step, fast leg-left every step,
fast leg-right every step, fast leg-each
foot into a sprint, claw/paw-right,
claw/paw-left. Proper form for these
drills is depicted in the videos labeled
Supplemental Digital Content. The
A-march and A-skip drills can be
seen in Supplemental Digital Content
1 (http://links.lww.com/SCJ/A72);
B-march and B-skip drills can be seen
31
Power Associations With Running Speed

Table 2
Generalized program design for improving running speed

Day 1 Day 2 Day 3

General warm-up (3–5 min) General warm-up (3–5 min) General warm-up (3–5 min)
Dynamic warm-up (4–5 drills) Dynamic warm-up (4–5 drills) Dynamic warm-up (4–5 drills)
Claw/paw, 1 3 5 each leg Claw/paw, 1 3 5 each leg Claw/paw, 1 3 5 each leg
A-march, 2 3 10–20 m B-march, 2 3 10–20 m A-march, 2 3 10–20 m
A-skip, 2 3 10–20 m B-skip, 2 3 10–20 m A-skip, 2 3 10–20 m
Fast leg, 2 3 10–20 m each leg Fast leg, 2 3 10–20 m each leg 3rd step; Fast leg, 2 3 10–20 m each leg 3rd step;
3rd step; 1 each leg 1 each leg 1 each leg
Fast leg, 2 3 10–20 m every step; Fast leg, 2 3 10–20 m every step; Fast leg, 2 3 10–20 m every step;
1 each leg 1 each leg 1 each leg
Fast leg, 2 3 10–20 m to sprint Fast leg, 2 3 10–20 m to sprint Fast leg, 2 3 10–20 m to sprint
Sprints, 6 3 20 m; 2 sets of 3 Flying sprints, 10 3 10 m Sprints 5 3 40 m
Cool down Cool down Cool down
Power clean Jump squat Power clean
Back squat Leg press Front squat

in Supplemental Digital Content 2
(http://links.lww.com/SCJ/A73); the
fast leg every third step and fast
leg every step drills can be seen in
Supplemental Digital Content 3
(http://links.lww.com/SCJ/A74); the
fast leg into a sprint and claw/paw drills
can be seen in Supplemental Digital
Content 4 (http://links.lww.com/SCJ/
A75). These drills are typically performed
in the workout after the dynamic
warm-up, but before conditioning or
resistance training, and the rest peri-
ods are similar to those in the
dynamic warm-up. Because the main
purpose of the drills is for running
technique, these drills do not have
to be periodized like the conditioning
or resistance training and are typi-
cally performed daily for track ath-
letes and 1–3 times per week for
other sports.
The other main component of sprint
speed is force output that contributes
to both power and impulse. Improv-
ing force output during running is
done via increasing peak strength,
especially in the lower body. Multiple
joint exercises that can be loaded
more heavily are best for increasing Training programs can be designed to
lower-body strength, such as the address all these characteristics.
squat and leg press. Power output
should also be addressed directly
through the use of explosive exercises N. Travis
across a spectrum of loads. These Triplett is a pro-
exercises include jump squats and fessor and pro-
power cleans or power snatches. gram director of
Power training is important because the Exercise Sci-
it more specifically addresses the tri- ence program in
ple extension of the running tech- the Department
nique and the velocity components of Health, Lei-
of power and impulse. All these exer- sure and Exer-
cises should be periodized based on cise Science at
sport training and competitive sea- Appalachian
sons, and serve as an adjunct to State University.
the primary sport training. A sample
program design for general speed
improvements is provided in Table 2. Travis M.
Erickson is
a lecturer in the
SUMMARY Exercise Science
Speed is an important component of program in the
most sports and running speed is vital Department of
in both team and individual sports. Health, Leisure
Maximal running speed is dependent and Exercise
on running technique, stride length Science at
and rate, force capabilities, and Appalachian
production of power and impulse. State University.

32 VOLUME 34 | NUMBER 6 | DECEMBER 2012


Jeffrey M.
McBride is a pro-
fessor and gradu-
ate program
director of the
Exercise Science
program in the
Department of
Health, Leisure
and Exercise Sci-
ence at Appalachian State University.
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