WHAT IS SOCIAL MOBILITY?

Social mobility refers to the shift in an individual’s social status from one status to another. The
shift can either be higher, lower, inter-generational, or intra-generational, and it cannot
necessarily be determined if the change is for good or bad.

ORIGIN OF THE SOCIAL MOBILITY CONCEPT

Russian-born American sociologist and political activist Pitirim Sorokin first introduced the
concept of social mobility in his book “Social and Cultural Mobility.” He states that there is no
society that is completely open (such as the class system) and no society that is completely
closed (like the caste system in India). According to Sorokin, no two societies are the same in
terms of movement allowed and discouraged, and that the speed of social mobility can change
from one time period to the next. It depends on how developed the society is. Such a societal
shift can happen over time as individuals move from one position to another due to various social
interactions. Mobility, more or less, provides people with benefits as they are motivated by
different factors in society and work to reach new roles that offer them a better standard of living
and greater rewards. People compete and cooperate with others in society to move up the social
mobility ladder.

FORMS/ TYPES OF SOCIAL MOBILITY

Social mobility can take different forms, and people can experience different types of mobility in
different stages of their lives. The types of mobilities are independent of one another and can
often overlap. They are only distinguished for the purpose of analysis.

1. Horizontal mobility

This occurs when a person changes their occupation but their overall social standing remains
unchanged. For example, if a doctor goes from practicing medicine to teaching in a medical
school, the occupation’s changed but their prestige and social standing likely remain the same.
Sorokin describes horizontal mobility as a change in religious, territorial, political, or other
horizontal shifts with no change in the vertical position.

2. Vertical mobility

This refers to a change in the occupational, political, or religious status of a person that causes a
change in their societal position. An individual moves from one social stratum to another.
Vertical mobility can be ascending or descending. Ascending involves an individual moving
from a group in a lower stratum to a higher one or the creation of a similar group with a higher
societal position, instead of side by side with its existing group. Descending mobility occurs, for
example, when a businessman incurs losses in his business and is forced to declare bankruptcy,
resulting in a move to a lower stratum of society.
3. Upward mobility

This is when a person moves from a lower position in society to a higher one. It can also include
people occupying higher positions in the same societal group. However, upward mobility, while
seen as a good thing, can also come at a cost for individuals. When a person moves upward, they
often need to leave behind familiar surroundings such as family and places. They may also need
to change their way of thinking and behavior. The individual will need to adapt to the new
environment as a result of their upward movement and adopt different behaviors in the new
society.

4. Downward mobility

Downward mobility takes place when a person moves from a higher position in society to a
lower one. It can occur when someone is caught performing a wrongful act that can result in the
loss of the position they currently hold. Downward mobility can be extremely stressful for
people who face a rapid decline in their social status. They may find it hard to adapt to the new
environment, as it is not similar to the standard of living they are used to. Downward mobility is
an example of the extent to which a society values equal opportunity and structure.

5. Inter-generational mobility

Inter-generational mobility happens when the social position changes from one generation to
another. The change can be upward or downward. For example, a father worked in a factory
while his son received an education that allowed him to become a lawyer or a doctor. Such
societal change also causes the generation to adopt a new way of living and thinking. Inter-
generational mobility is affected by the differences in the parents’ and their offspring’s
upbringing, changes in population, and changes in occupation.

6. Intra-generational mobility

The intra-generational change in societal position occurs during the lifespan of a single
generation. It can also refer to a change in position between siblings. One way is when a person
climbs up the corporate ladder in their career. For example, an individual starts their career as a
clerk and through their life moves on to a senior position such as a director. One sibling may also
achieve a higher position in society than their brother or sister.
FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR SOCIAL MOBILITY:

1. Motivation:

Each individual has a desire not only to have a better way of living but also wants to improve
upon his social stand. In open system it is possible to achieve any status. This openness
motivates people to work hard and improve upon the skills so that one can attain higher social
status. Without such motivation and efforts on the part of the individual social mobility is
impossible.

2. Achievements and Failures:

Achievement here refers to extra ordinary, usually unexpected performance, which attracts the
attention of a wider public to the abilities of a person. Not all achievements will result in social
mobility. Achievements affect status only if they are remarkable. For example, a poor man who
has acquired wealth or an unknown writer who has won a literary prize will improve his status.
Failures and misdeeds have a similar effect on downward mobility. 

3. Education:

Education not only helps an individual to acquire knowledge but is also a passport for
occupational position for higher prestige. To become a doctor one has to have education in
science subjects. Similarly, to appear in a competitive examination, one has to be at least
graduate. It is only after acquiring minimum formal education that individual can aspire to
occupy higher positions. It is through education that in modern country the members of
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes are not only able to change their traditional occupation
but have also started occupying jobs of higher prestige.

4. Skills and Training:

Each society makes provision to impart skill and training to the younger generation. Society not
only assigns higher social status but also gives higher economic rewards and other privileges to
those persons who have these training. Keeping in view these incentives people undergo these
training with a hope to move up in the social ladder. In other words, skills and training facilitate
in improvement of the position, this leading to social mobility.

5. Migration:

Migration also facilitates social mobility. People migrate from one place to another either due to
pull or push factors. A particular place may not have opportunities and facilities to improve
upon. Hence, people are forced to migrate to other places to earn their livelihood. At new places,
where they migrate, may have different openings and opportunities.
6. Industrialization:

Industrial Revolution ushered in a new social system in which people are given status according
to their ability and training. Industrialization resulted in mass production at cheaper rate. This
forced the artisans out of their work. In search of jobs they migrated to industrial towns. They
acquired new vocational training and got jobs in industries. With experience and training they
moved up in the social ladder. In the industrial society, the statuses are achieved, whereas in the
traditional society the statuses are ascribed according to birth. Hence industrialization facilitates
greater social mobility.

7. Urbanization:

In the cities there are more people, they have formal relations. People do not know each other
intimately. Urban centres are marked by anonymity. People are close to their friends and
relatives only. Urban settlements provide secrecy to individual’s caste and background.
Individual’s position is largely dependent upon his education, occupation and income rather than
his background. If an individual has higher education, income and is engaged in occupation of
higher prestige, he occupies high social status irrespective of his caste. Urbanization facilitates
social mobility by removing those factors which hinder social mobility.

10. Modernization:

The process of modernization involves use of scientific knowledge and modern technology. It
also refers to rationality and secular way of life. With the improvement in technology, people
engaged in occupations of low prestige like scavengers discard their traditional occupations and
take up occupations which are not dirty and have no polluting effects. In this way, they change
their position upward. Similarly, the level of development of a country also facilitates or hinders
social mobility. The less developed and traditional societies continue with old system of
stratification and with accretive statuses.
SOCIAL MOBILITY IN PAKISTAN (AS OF 2020)

Pakistan performed poorly when it comes to social mobility, after a report published by the
World Economic Forum (WEF) placed Pakistan at 79th place out of 82 countries on its ‘Global
Social Mobility Index 2020 rankings.’

As per WEF latest report titled, The Global Social Mobility Report 2020 Equality, Opportunity
and a New Economic Imperative, Pakistan managed to score only 36.7 points on the index, with
only three countries sitting below Pakistan namely: Cameroon, Senegal and Côte d'Ivoire with
36.0, 36.0 and 34.5 points, respectively.

“Social mobility can be understood as the movement in personal circumstances either ‘upwards’
or ‘downwards’ of an individual in relation to those of their parents. In absolute terms, it is the
ability of a child to experience a better life than their parents. On the other hand, relative social
mobility is an assessment of the impact of socio-economic background on an individual’s
outcomes in life,” states WEF.

Meanwhile, Scandinavian countries emerged as best performers. Denmark tops the rankings with
a social mobility score of 85.2, closely followed by Finland (83.6), Norway (83.6), Sweden
(83.5) and Iceland (82.7).

As per the report, Pakistan performance was dismal on all indicators including Health,
Education, Technology, Work and Resilience & Institutions.

On health front, Pakistan scored 48.3 points and was place 77 on the index, with Cyprus being
the best performer. The country also remain far behind when it comes to providing education,
after it was ranked the worst performer on Education Quality and Equity scoring only 15.7
points.

As per the report, Pakistan didn’t fare well on Technology Access indicator, after the country
managed to score only 36.3 points and was placed 81among 82 countries.

The report urged that governments must play the role of equalizer, levelling the playing field for
all citizens, regardless of their socio-economic background. Suggesting the creation of a new
financing model for social mobility; improving tax progressivity on personal income; policies
that address wealth concentration and broadly re-balancing the sources of taxation can support
the social mobility agenda.

The report also urged the businesses to promote a culture of meritocracy in hiring, providing
vocational education, reskilling and upskilling as well as by paying fair wages. This includes
industry and sector-specific plans to address historic inequalities within and between sectors.