Beta-alanine is a non-proteinogenic amino acid

that is produced endogenously in the liver.

Humans also consume beta-alanine through
foods such as poultry, beef, pork, and fish. The
ergogenic properties of beta-alanine are limited;
however, beta-alanine has been identified as the
rate-limiting precursor to carnosine synthesis
(39) and has been consistently shown to increase
levels of carnosine in human skeletal muscle.
Carnosine is a metabolic buffer within skeletal
muscle and plays a direct role in maintaining pH
during high-intensity exercise. Beta-alanine has
become a universal ingredient, found in a variety
of sport nutrition products. However, it is commonly used ineffectively with only one dose. It
must be consumed daily (4-6 g in divided doses)
for about four weeks.
Though the science supports beta-alanine as an
effective ingredient for improving performance in
a variety of populations, establishing its benefits
requires further research. Theoretically, increasing skeletal muscle carnosine levels through
chronic training or beta-alanine supplementation
would improve the ability to buffer hydrogen ions
and maintain pH, thereby improving anaerobic
performance. In addition, like creatine, described
later, individual responses to beta-alanine supplementation vary widely. High responders may
increase muscle carnosine by 55% and wash it out
at 3.5% per week, with a relatively complete washout at 14.6 weeks (3). In contrast, low responders
only increase muscle carnosine by 15% and washout at 2.5% per week, with a complete washout
in 6.5 weeks. Thus, the impact of beta-alanine
when consumed daily for about four weeks varies
from person to person. Theoretically, increasing
Ergogenic Aids 123
skeletal muscle carnosine levels through chronic
training or beta-alanine supplementation should
improve the ability to buffer hydrogen ions and
maintain pH, thereby improving anaerobic performance.
A variety of studies have evaluated the performance effects of beta-alanine in a range of athletes,
including tactical groups. Research demonstrates
that daily supplementation of 4 to 6 g of beta-alanine for two to four weeks may improve exercise
performance lasting 1 to 4 minutes (105). Betaalanine supplementation may be advantageous in
tactical athletes, potentially attenuating fatigue,
enhancing neuromuscular performance, and
reducing oxidative stress (90-93). The use of betaalanine has been evaluated in military personnel,
demonstrating improvements in peak power and
marksmanship, as well as a limited and variable
response to cognitive performance (44). On the
other hand, an expert panel that reviewed the use
of beta-alanine in military personnel concluded
that there was insufficient evidence to recommend
its use by military personnel (55). More research is
needed to determine which tasks are consistently
improved with supplementation.
Most importantly, the risk of beta-alanine
supplementation is low and the benefit is moderate (105). Paresthesia (tingling), typically in the
face, neck, and back of hands, is the most widely
known side effect of beta-alanine and is commonly experienced when large single boluses
(>800 mg) are consumed. These larger doses
are often found in multi-ingredient supplements
and result in greater excretion rates. Additionally, using a sustained-release formula, which is
now the most common form of beta-alanine on
the market (CarnoSyn), reduces the tingling side
effects. To date, there is no evidence to suggest
that this tingling is harmful. Although not all
individuals will experience paresthesia, it is typically dose dependent, with higher doses resulting
in greater side effects. Currently, no safety data
exist on the long-term use of beta-alanine (i.e.,
>1 year).
In conclusion, beta-alanine supplementation
(3.2-6.4 g per day) for at least 28 days appears
to significantly elevate intramuscular carnosine
levels and enhance performance in both trained
and untrained people by maintaining the intramuscular pH. The most recent data suggest that,
when combined with high-intensity training,
beta-alanine may enhance training volume and
quality, leading to improvements in both aerobic
and anaerobic performance. More notably, betaalanine may help improve marksmanship, peak
power, 50 m (55 yd) casualty carry, and lean body
mass under periods of intense training; however,
more tactical-specific research is needed.
Beta-Hydroxy-Beta-Methylbutyrate
Beta-hydroxy-beta-methylbutyrate (HMB) is a
natural metabolite of the essential amino acid
leucine and may play an important role in the
prevention of protein breakdown and upregulation of protein synthesis, especially in stressful
physiologic situations (70, 73). Specifically, HMB
may regulate enzymes responsible for muscle
tissue breakdown. A meta-analysis substantiated
the use of HMB as an effective sport supplement,
detailing its effect on improved strength and lean
mass in anaerobic and aerobic training. It was further reported to spare muscle protein catabolism
and to speed recovery (70, 73).
HMB has demonstrated a positive effect on lean
body mass during resistance training in untrained
people, especially under periods of stress (e.g.,
untrained, lack of calories, high training volume)
(76, 77). Though HMB has been shown to be an
effective anti-catabolic supplement, its use in
trained people has yet to demonstrate any consistent benefits (58). It has been proposed that
trained people may need a higher dose to demonstrate the anti-catabolic effect, but more research
with this population is necessary (70). In tactical
environments with high energy expenditure; heat,
cold, or altitude exposure; and low-calorie intake,
HMB may provide benefits by reducing muscle
breakdown and augmenting protein synthesis.
In summary, HMB supplementation appears to
work best for those who are untrained or in the
process of altering their training program and
want to lessen the associated muscle soreness
and damage. Based on the available evidence, 3 g
per day is recommended for three to five weeks
when starting a new program or under periods
of stress (70, 73). To date, there are no reported
side effects from using HMB. However, due to the
cost it would likely not be beneficial for everyday
124 NSCA’s Essentials of Tactical Strength and Conditioning
training in a very fit population. Instead, the riskto-benefit ratio would be more appropriate during
periods of high volume or high stress (low sleep,
low calories, high training volume). More work is
required in tactical environments.
Caffeine
Caffeine is one of the most widely used supplements in the world, especially among tactical
groups (see the box titled “Key Points About
Caffeine”). It is a central nervous system (CNS)
and metabolic stimulant used to reduce feelings
of fatigue and to restore mental acuity (48). Many
studies have demonstrated the exercise performance–enhancing effects of caffeine (52). The
traditional hypothesis is that caffeine increases
the levels of fight-or-flight chemical messengers,
including epinephrine and norepinephrine, which
promote fat utilization and result in the sparing
of intramuscular glycogen. Furthermore, there
are strong data to support the use of caffeine for
enhancing mood, vigilance and focus, energy,
and marksmanship—all important components
of tactical performance (64, 102).
The benefits of caffeine have been repeatedly
shown, especially in military personnel. The
Committee on Military Nutrition Research and
the Food and Nutrition Board have accepted that
150 mg of caffeine will increase endurance and
physical performance among military personnel.
Additionally, a dose of 200 mg has been shown
to improve focus and vigilance during a shooting
task, despite 72 hours of continuous sleep deprivation (102). Also, successive caffeine intake (four
200 mg doses over 24 hours) in the late evening
and early morning aided in maintaining cognitive
function over a three-day period with minimal
sleep (51). In addition, caffeine may help tactical
athletes by positively influencing their psyc