A Path Goal Theory of Leader Effectiveness

Author(s): Robert J. House

Source: Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol. 16, No. 3 (Sep., 1971), pp. 321-339
Published by: Sage Publications, Inc. on behalf of the Johnson Graduate School of
Management, Cornell University
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/2391905
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Robert J. House

A Path Goal Theory of Leader Effectiveness

An explanation of the effects of leader behavior on subordinate satisfaction,

motivation, and performance is presented. The explanation is derived from a
path-goal theory of motivation. Dimensions of leader behavior such as leader
initiating structure, consideration, authoritarianism, hierarchical influence, and
closeness of supervision are analyzed in terms of path-goal variables such as
valence and instrumentality. The theory specifies some of the situational mod-
erators on which the effects of specific leader behaviors are contingent. A set of
general propositions are advanced which integrate and explain earlier fragmen-
tary research findings. Several specific predictions are made to illustrate how the
general propositions can be operationalized. The usefulness of the theory is dem-
onstrated by showing how several seemingly unrelated prior research findings
could have been deduced from its general propositions and by applying it to
reconcile what appear to be contradictory findings from prior studies. Results
of two empirical studies are reported that provide support for seven of eight
hypotheses derived directly from the general propositions of the theory. A third
study designed to test three of the original eight hypotheses is also reported. Two
of these three hypotheses are successfully replicated. In the light of these results
and the integrative power of the theory, it is argued that the theory shows prom-
ise and should be further tested with experimentallas well as correlational meth-
ods.

INTRODUCTION logical support, warmth, friendliness, and

Two major behavioral dimensions that
have emerged from leadership research are
those which sociologists have termed instru-
mental and social-emotional, or expressive,
leadership behavior. Psychologists who have
studied leadership have independently dis-
covered these dimensions (Korman, 1966).
The terms most frequently used to describe
these behaviors are initiating structure and
consideration. Leader initiating structure is
used to describe the degree to which the
leader initiates psychological structure for
subordinates by doing such things as assign-
ing particular tasks, specifying procedures to
be followed, clarifying his expectations of
subordinates, and scheduling work to be
done. This dimension of leader behavior de-
scribes leaders who are similar to those pre-
scribed by classical management theorists,
that is, leaders who plan, organize, direct,
and control. Leader consideration is used to
describe the degree to which the leader
creates a supportive environment of psycho-
321
helpfulness by doing such things as being
friendly and approachable, looking out for
the personal welfare of the group, doing little
things for subordinates, and giving advance
notice of change.
Research has indicated that leaders who
initiate structure for subordinates are gen-
erally rated highly by superiors and have
higher producing work groups than leaders
who are low on initiating structure; and that
leaders who are considerate of subordinates
have more satisfied employees (Filley and
House, 1969); however the evidence with
respect to the relationship between initiating
structure and satisfaction of subordinates is
very mixed. Several studies have shown that
initiating structure is frequently resented by
unskilled and semiskilled employees and is a
source of dissatisfaction (Filley and House,
1969), grievances, and turnover (Fleishman
and Harris, 1962). However, employees in
large groups have been found either to pre-
fer initiating structure more or to dislike

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322 ADMINISTRATIVE SCIENCE QUARTERLY

it less than employees in smaller groups estimate of the probability that his behavior
(Hemphill, 1950; Mass, 19,50; Vroom and will indeed result in the outcomes. Vroom
Mann, 1960). And, Oaklander and Fleish- (1964) formalized one perspective of expec-
man (1964) found initiating structure to be tancy motivation theory mathematically, and
negatively correlated with intergroup con- Galbraith and Cummings (1967) extended
flict. Recent studies have shown that among his formulation by pointing out that some
high-level employees, initiating structure is of the valences associated with a specific be-
positively related to satisfaction (House et havior are intrinsic to the behavior itself and
al., 1971a, 1971b), performance (House et some are the extrinsic consequences of that
al., 1971b), and perceptions of organizational behavior. To the extent that behavior is
effectiveness, but negatively related to role intrinsically valent it is also intrinsically
conflict and ambiguity (Rizzo et al., 1970). motivational because the behavior is highly
This paper presents a theory of leader instrumental to the outcome of satisfaction.
behavior that attempts to reconcile and in- A person will be motivated to engage in such
tegrate the conflicting results of previous behavior because his expectancy that satis-
studies under a set of general propositions faction will follow is nearly unity. That is, if
from which they could have been deduced, the outcomes were contingent on an external
and reports three studies designed to test rewarder-any significant other-the expec-
eight hypotheses derived from the theory.' tancy would be less that unity because the
behavior might not be observed or recog-
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND nized by the rewarder. However, when the
reward is essentially self-administering, ex-
The theory advanced here is derived from
pectancy approaches unity.
the path-goal hypothesis advanced by Geor-
gopoulos et al. (1957), and from previous The theory may be further extended and
research supporting the broad class of ex- broken down into parts that have specific
relevance for leadership using the concept
pectancy theory of motivation (Atkinson,
1958; Vroom, 1964; Porter and Lawler, of path instrumentality advanced by Evans
1967; Galbraith and Cummings, 1967; Graen, (1968: 14): "This is the cognition of the
degree to which following a particular path
1969; Lawler, 1968). The central concept of
expectancy theories is that the force on an (behavior) will lead to a particular outcome,
individual to engage in a specific behavior is it is akin to (but not identical to) the con-
a function of (1) his expectations that the cept of 'expectancy' introduced by Vroom."
behavior will result in a specific outcome; Evans (1968) has also advanced an extension
and (2) the sum of the valences, that is, of Vroom's (1964) theory and a path-goal
personal utilities or satisfactions, that he de- theory of leadership. His theory is different
rives from the outcome. The research find- from the one presented here in that its pre-
ings indicate that the function is a nonlinear, dictions are not contingent on situational
monotonically increasing product of expec- variables, and it is not an attempt to account
tations and valences. Thus, according to this for the conflicting findings just reviewed.
theory of motivation, an individual chooses According to the formulation advanced
the behaviors he engages in on the basis of here, the individual makes probability esti-
(1) the valences he perceives to be asso- mates with respect to two linking points
ciated with the outcomes of the behavior connecting behavior with its outcomes, and
under consideration; and (2) his subjective subjectively places values on the outcomes.
The magnitude of these probability estimates
1 This paper is based on a presentation made at indicates the degree of path instrumentality
the Southern Illinois University Symposium on Con- of his behavior for work-goal accomplish-
temporary Development in the Study of Leader- ment and valence. This formulation can be
ship in Carbondale on April 30, 1971. The author expressed in the following formula:
is indebted to Larry L. Cummings for his critical
comments and suggestions which resulted in signifi-
cant improvement of an earlier version of this paper,
and to Thomas H. Stone for his editorial suggestions M = IVb + P[IVa + (P2iEVj)
which helped clarify the discussion of the probabili-
ties associated with intrinsically motivated behavior. i= 1,..., n,

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 House: LEADER EFFECTIVENESS 323

where: mient, P2. If he is consistent in his decision

M = motivation to work;
!Vb = intrinsic valence associated with goal-
directed behavior;
IVa= intrinsic valence associated with work-
goal accomplishment;
EVi = extrinsic valences associated with
work-goal accomplishment;
P1 = path instrumentality of behavior for
work-goal attainment;
P2i = path instrumentalities of work goal for
extrinsic valences.
In wA ork situations the individual estimates influences the intrinsic valences associated
the path instrumentality, P1, of his behavior
for the accomplishment of some work goal.
Here he considers such factors as his ability
to behave in an appropriate and effective
manner as well as the barriers to work-goal
accomplishment in the environment, and the
support he will receive from others to ac-
complish the work goal. In addition, he esti-
maates the path instrumentality, P2, of the
work goal for attaining personal outcomes
that have valence for him. For example, he
estimates the probability that his superiors
will recognize his goal accomplishment and
reward him accordingly. He also considers,
and places subjective values on the intrinsic
valence associated with the behavior re-
quired to achieve the work goal, IVb, the
intrinsic valence associated with the achieve-
ment of the work goal, IVa, and the extrinsic The above interpretation of motivation
valences associated with the personal out-
comes that he accrues as a result of achieve-
ing the work goal, EVA.
The behavior of the leader is clearly rele- are to increase the net positive valences asso-
vant to all of the independent variables in
this formulation. The leader, at least in part, the net positive valences associated with the
determines what extrinsic rewards should be
associated with work-goal accomplishment,
EVi. For example, he has some influence over
the extent to which work-goal accomplish-
ment will be recognized as a contribution
and whether it will be rewarded with finan-
cial increases, promotion, assignment of more
interesting tasks or opportunities for personal ships, his subjective probability estimates
growth and development. Consequently, he
influences the magnitude of the sum of the
personal outcomes available. Second, the
leader, through his interaction with the sub-
ordinate, can increase the subordinate's path
instrumentality concerning the rewards forth-
coming as a result of work-goal accomplish-
making with respect to recognizing and
rewarding work-goal achievement, he will
clarify the linkage between work-goal
achievement and rewards. Thus, if he con-
sistently rewards achievement, this will most
probably increase the subordinate's path in-
strumentality, P2, for valent personal out-
comes. Third, through his own behavior he
can provide support for the subordinate's
efforts and thereby influence the probability
that this effort will result in work-goal
achievement, that is P1. Fourth, the leader
with goal accomplishment, IVa, by the way
he delegates and assigns tasks to subordi-
nates, which determines the amount of in-
fluence the subordinate has in goal setting
and the amount of control he is allowed in
the task-directed effort. The greater the sub-
ordinate's opportunity to influence the goal
and exercise control, the more intrinsically
valent the work-goal accomplishment. Fi-
nally, the leader can increase the net intrinsic
valence associated with goal-directed behav-
ior, IVb, by reducing frustrating barriers, be-
ing supportive in times of stress, permitting
involvement in a wide variety of tasks, and
being considerate of subordinate's needs.
PROPOSITIONS
theory as applied to leadership suggests the
following general propositions:
1. The motivation functions of a leader
ciated with work-goal attainment, increase
path-behavior-to work-goal attainment,
and increase the subordinate's path instru-
mentality with respect to work-goal attain-
ment for personal outcomes and the behavior
required for work-goal attainment. This state-
ment assumes that when the subordinate is
working under ambiguous path-goal relation-
that his behavior will affect the valences he
receives are less than the objective probabili-
ties that his behavior will affect the valences
he receives. When this assumption does not
hold, that is, when under conditions of role
ambiguity, his subjective probability esti-
mates exceed the objective probabilities, then

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 324 ADMINISTRATIVE SCIENCE QUARTERLY
clarification of path-goal relationships will
result in reduced motivation.
Stated less formally, the motivational func-
tions of the leader consist of increasing per-
sonal pay-offs to subordinates for work-goal
attainment, and making the path to these
pay-offs easier to travel by clarifying it, re-
ducing road blocks and pitfalls, and increas-
ing the opportunities for personal satisfaction
en route. The function of making the path
easier and more satisfying to follow has been
dealt with only implicitly in the leadership
literature and, as will be shown, has signifi-
cant implications for leader's behavior.
2. In increasing path instrumentality by
clarifying path-goal relationships, the lead-
er's behavior will have positive motivational
effects to the extent that it reduces role am-
biguity or makes possible the exercise of ex-
ternally imposed controls. Reduction of role
ambiguity results in increased motivation
because role ambiguity is both negatively
valent to subordinates (Rizzo et al., 1970),
and because it is usually associated with low
path instrumentality. Externally imposed
controls are motivational because they make
possible the allocation of valences con-
tingent on desirable behavior. Externally im-
posed control results in improved perfor-
mance only to the extent that the rewards
that are under the control of the leader are
positively valent to the subordinates; punish-
ments that are under the control of the leader satisfying to the subordinate, and whether
are negatively valent to the subordinates;
rewards and punishments are contingent on
performance; and the contingency is clearly
perceived by the subordinates. Whether per-
formance motivated by external controls is
satisfying to the subordinate, depends on his
unconscious needs, conscious values, and
perceptions of equity in the exchange of ef-
fort for rewards.
3. Where leader attempts to clarify path-
goal relationships are redundant with existing
conditions, that is, where path-goal relation-
ships are apparent because of the routine of
the tasks or objective system-fixed controls,
attempts by the leader to clarify path-goal
relationships will result in increased exter-
nally imposed control and will be seen by
subordinates as redundant. Although such
control may increase performance, it will also
result in decreased satisfaction.
4. Leader behavior directed at need satis-
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faction of subordinates will result in in-
creased performance to the extent that such
satisfaction increases the net positive valence
associated with goal-directed effort.
HYPOTHESES
From the above general propositions, sev-
eral specific hypotheses concerning leader
consideration, initiating structure, closeness
of supervision, hierarchical influence, and
authoritarianism can be derived. These hy-
potheses are consistent with empirical find-
ings and thus illustrate how these prior find-
ings could have been deduced from the
general propositions of the theory. These hy-
potheses do not constitute an exhaustive list
of relationships between the variables, but
rather, serve to illustrate how the general
propositions can be operationalized.
1. Leader initiating structure increases
the path instrumentality for subordinates
whose roles have nonroutine task demands
by decreasing role ambiguity (Rizzo et al.,
1970).
2. Informal leaders high in structure in-
fluence positively the subjective probabilities
other group members assign to positively
valent outcomes (Rim, 1965).
3. Leader initiating structure and consid-
eration will have differential effects, depend-
ing on whether the task is satisfying or un-
the task-role demands are clear or ambigu-
ous.
The more satisfying the task, the less
tive the relationship between consideration
and subordinate satisfaction and perfor-
mance (Fleishman, 1971: 13-14). These cor-
relations will vary from insignificant to
positive, depending on task satisfaction. For
unsatisfying tasks, consideration will tend to
offset dissatisfaction associated with the task;
for satisfying tasks, consideration will be less
important.
The less satisfying the task the more nega-
tive will be the relationship between struc-
ture and satisfaction and the more positive
will be the relationship between structure
and performance (Fleishman, 1971: 19-20).
For unsatisfying tasks, structure will be
viewed as an imposition of external control
and, therefore dissatisfying, but will also be
required to motivate subordinate effort to-
 House: LEADER EFFECTIVENESS 325
ward goal achievement (Fleishman, 1971:
19-20).
The more ambiguous the task the more
positive the relationship between leader ini-
tiating structure and subordinate satisfaction
and performance. Structure serves to reduce
role ambiguity and clarify path-goal relation-
ships for ambiguous tasks but is viewed as
unnecessary and redundant for nonambigu-
ous tasks.
When task demands are self-evident due
to a high degree of routinization, or where
roles are clearly defined by such factors as
mechanization, legal constraints, contracts,
professional ethics, or group norms, initiating
structure will not result in role clarification
and will be unsatisfying to subordinates.
4. Where the follower's tasks are varied
and interdependent and where teamwork
norms are not developed within the group,
initiating structure and close supervision will
regulate and clarify path-goal relationships.
Therefore, structure and close supervision
will result in increased coordination, satis-
faction, and performance (Patchen, 1962;
Mass, 1950; Hemphill, 1950; Fleishman,
1971: 26).
5. Where tasks are interdependent,
varied, and ambiguous, consideration will
result in social support, friendliness among
group members, increased cohesiveness, and
team effort. These social outcomes will be
positively valent to the members and thus
increase the net sum of the positive valences
associated with interdependent jobs requir-
ing cooperation and team spirit (Oaklander
and Fleishman, 1964; Fleishman, 1971: 13-
14).
6. Where tasks and/or environment are
frustrating and stress inducing, considera-
tion wlll result in increased social support
for followers and thus reduce negative val-
ence associated with task-oriented behavior
(Fiedler, 1967; Rim, 1965; Fleishman, 1971;
12-13.
7. Where stress is from sources external
to the work unit and tasks are ambiguous,
structure will result in increased ego pro-
tection, security, and satisfaction (Oaklander
and Fleishman, 1964). In this instance, struc-
ture serves as an umbrella which protects
followers from externally imposed stress.
8. Among hierarchically dependent em-
ployees under leaders with high upward in-
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fluence, consideration will be positively re-
lated to satisfaction and performance of
subordinates (Pelz, 1952). Among indepen-
dent employees, or under leaders with low
upward influence, consideration will have a
lower positive relationship to subordinate
satisfaction and performance (Wager, 1965;
House et al., 1971a; 1971b). Leader influence
permits the leader to have more control over
rewards for subordinates and thereby per-
mits the leader to make subordinate valences
contingent on performance and to make the
outcomes of work-goal attainment more val-
ent or less valent.
9. Under conditions of authoritarian or
punitive leadership, both leader initiating
structure and leader hierarchical influence
will be negatively related to subordinate
satisfaction. Under such conditions, both
structure and influence will be seen as bases
of authoritarian power by subordinates.
RECONCILIATION OF PRIOR
FINDINGS
The usefulness of the theory can be illus-
trated by showing how it can be applied to
reconcile what appear to be conflicting re-
sults of prior research cited earlier.
Fleishman and Harris (1962) found that
when the leader's consideration toward sub-
ordinates' needs was used as a moderating
variable-that is, when separate correlations
are computed for high-considerate, medium-
considerate, and low-considerate leaders-
the relationship between leader structure and
grievances and turnover varied. Specifically
they found that there was no relationship
between structure and grievances or turn-
over for highly considerate leaders; but for
leaders with low consideration, the relation-
ship was positive and significant.
House et al. (1971b) attempted to conduct
a replication of the findings of Fleishman
and Harris (1962), using the same scales
for the predictor and moderator variables
and eight measures of satisfaction with sub-
ordinate role expectations as criterion vari-
ables. The populations studied were salaried
engineers, scientists, and technicians in three
large research, design and development or-
ganizations. Unexpectedly, the data not only
failed to replicate Fleishman and Harris'
(1962) findings but suggested their opposite.
Specifically it was found that leader initiating
 326 ADMINISTRATIVE SCIENCE QUARTERLY

structure had a significant linear-unmoder- ductivity by preventing soldiering, work re-

ated-positive relationship to half the satis-
faction measures in two of the three com-
panies, and significant positive correlations,
> .36, p < .05, with satisfaction with the
company management in all three com-
panies studied. Furthermore, in one com-
pany under conditions of high leader
consideration, leader initiating structure
had significant positive curvilinear rela-
tionships to measures of satisfaction with
job freedom, advancement, security, and
family attitudes toward the respondent's job,
with the eta correlation ranging from .36 to
.50.
In a subsequent study of 192 nontechnical
corporate office employees of a chemical
manufacturing company, House et al. (1970)
failed to replicate the findings of Fleishman
and Harris (1962) and showed significant
positive relationships between leader initiat-
ing structure and six measures of satisfaction. ture and satisfaction.
The following three hypotheses derived
from the theory serve to reconcile these
findings.
Leader initiating structure can be hypoth-
esized to clarify path-goal relationships for
higher occupational level jobs which are
frequently ambiguously defined. Such clari-
fication reduces role ambiguity and increases
the employee's perceived instrumentality of
effort toward goal attainment. That is, it in- subsequently discovered to account for the
creases his subjective probability estimates
that his efforts will result in goal attainment.pressure for output. If it can be assumed
Thus, the path-goal theory advanced here
offers an explanation for the positive corre-
lations between leader initiating structure
and satisfaction among the high occupational
level groups studied by House et al. (1970,
1971a, 1971b). The theory also explains the
negative relationships found at lower occu-
pational levels by Fleishman and Harris
(1962). If it can be assumed that lower level
jobs are generally more routine, that their
path-goal relationships are usually self-evi-
dent, and that the job itself is frequently not ferential relationship found across types of
intrinsically satisfying, then it can be hy-
pothesized that leader initiating structure
would be viewed by subordinates as an im-
position of external control that does little to ences. This explanation is directly deducible
clarify path-goal relationships and is viewed
by subordinates as being directed at keeping
them working at unsatisfying activities. Al-
though such control is likely to increase pro-
striction, or slowdowns, it is also a source of
dissatisfaction to employees.
Another hypothesis derived from path-goal
theory explains the findings concerning the
moderating effect of consideration in some
studies and not in others. Where the path is
not viewed as satisfying, that is, for lower
level jobs, it can be hypothesized that con-
sideration serves as a source of extrinsic so-
cial satisfaction and support to the employee,
thus making the path easier to travel. Conse-
quently, for Fleishman and Harris' (1962)
blue-collar workers, leader consideration
moderated the unsatisfying effects of leader
structure; whereas, for higher level jobs,
where the path was intrinsically satisfying,
the need for such support was lower and
consequently consideration would be ex-
pected to have little or no moderating effect
on the relationship between initiating struc-
Similarly in the International Harvester
study reviewed by Fleishman (1971: 19-20),
high leader initiating structure was found to
be related to foremen ratings of proficiency,
but also higher grievances; high leader con-
sideration was found to be related to lower
proficiency ratings, a tendency more pro-
nounced in production than in other de-
partments. The specific variable that was
differential relations across departments was
that the tasks in the production departments
were less satisfying, then it follows that under
conditions of high pressure for output, leader
initiating structure would be viewed as an
externally imposed form of control. Such
control would be more acceptable to higher
managers, but resented by the subordinates
on whom it was imposed. Leader considera-
tion is more likely to serve as a stress reducer
as tasks become more unsatisfying and
pressure for output increases. Thus the dif-
departments can be explained in terms of
differences in task satisfaction, that is, path
valence and pressure for production differ-
from the path-goal theory presented here and
again illustrates the ability of the theory to
accommodate and explain otherwise con
fusing empiric findings.

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 House: LEADER EFFECTIVENESS 327

Three studies were conducted in which the larger research project from which these
eight hypotheses specifically derived from the data were taken.
theory were tested, and three of these hy- In the satisfaction and role-ambiguity
potheses were retested. scales, the respondents were asked to indi-
cate the degree to which descriptive state-
STUDY NUMBER 1 ments were true or false on a 7-point scale
ranging from 1, very false, to 7, very true.
Method
One sample item for each of the satisfaction
The first study was based on an analysis of scales follows:
data collected as part of a larger ongoing
research project. The scale means, standard Satisfaction category
deviations, and intercorrelations were re- Advancement opportunity
ported by Rizzo et al. (1970). Job autonomy
Sample. The sample for the study consisted Intrinsic job rewards
of 199 office employees of a heavy equipment Job security
Pay
manufacturing company. All respondents
Recognition
were salaried and performed either profes-
Social environment
sional, administrative, or somewhat admin-
istrative-clerical tasks. The sample was Sample item
randomly selected and constituted 35 percent
Chances for advancing at a reasonable rate
of the total population of salaried employees
The opportunity for independent thought
at the corporate offices and main plant of The feeling of worthwhile accomplishment at
the company, excluding first-level produc- work
tion foremen. Chances of keeping this job as long as I want it
Hypotheses. The following hypotheses The pay I receive for my work
were tested: The awareness that others have of my perfor-
Hypothesis 1. Leader initiating structure mance when I perform well
will be positively related to subordinate sat- The dignity with which I am treated
isfaction.
The items in the role ambiguity scales
Hypothesis 2. Leader initiating structure were:
will be negatively related to subordinate role
ambiguity. I feel certain about how much authority I have.
Hypothesis 3. The variance in role am- Clear, planned goals and objectives for my job.
biguity will account for the relationship I know that I have divided my time properly.
I know what my responsibilities are.
between leader initiating structure and sub-
I know exactly what is expected of me.
ordinate satisfaction.
Explanation is clear of what has to be done.
The rationale for these hypotheses is as
follows. Since the sample consisted primarily Scale validities. The leader initiating struc-
of employees doing quasi-professional or ture scale was shown by Halpin (1957) to
quasi-administrative work, it seemed likely have concurrent criteria validity and by
that much of their time would be devoted to Stogdill (1969) to have experimental criteria
ambiguously defined tasks, for which the validity. The role ambiguity measure has
path to goal achievement was not clear; been construct validated (Rizzo et al., 1970)
consequently, initiating structure by the against measures of organization practices,
leader would be expected to reduce am- leader behavior, and satisfaction. Although
biguity and therefore increase the clarity of not validated, the reliabilities of the satisfac-
path-goal relationships and increase satis- tion measure are moderately high and ade-
faction. quate for research purposes. The reliabilities
Measures. The scales used were the leader- for all measures are reported in Table 1.
initiating-structure scale taken from the Ohio Statistical procedure. Hypotheses 1 and 2
State Leader Behavior Description Ques- were tested by simple product-moment cor-
tionnaire (Stogdill, 1965a) and measures of relations; hypothesis 3 by comparing the
satisfaction and role ambiguity derived by zero-order correlations between structure
factor analysis and developed specifically forand satisfaction with partial correlations be-

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328 ADMINISTRATIVE SCIENCE QUARTERLY
TABLE 1. ZERO-ORDER AND PARTIAL CORRE-
LATIONS BETWEEN LEADER INITIATING STRUC-
TVRE AND SUBORDINATE SATISFACTION WITH
AND WITHOUT AMBIGUITY HELD
CONSTANT
Correla-
tions
Zero- with role Re-
order ambiguity lia-
correla- held bili-
Variables tions constant ties
Satisfaction with
Advancement
opportunity .20** .09 .83
Job autonomy .10 -.05 .82
Intrinsic
job rewards .17* .03 .92
Job security .03 -.06 .70
Pay .05 -.01 .86
Recognition .16* -.06 .85
Social
environment .21** .04 .78
Role ambiguity -.41** .78
Initiating
structure .65
N = 199
* p < .05.
p < .01.
tween the same variables, with role ambigu-
ity held constant.
Findings
The results of the analysis, reported in Ta-
ble 1, indicate support of all the hypotheses.
Four of the relationships between initiating
structure and satisfaction are significant, as
is the relationship between structure and role
ambiguity. It can also be seen that when the
effect of role ambiguity is partialled out, thetion.
four significant correlations are no longer
significant.
The zero-order correlations, while signifi- ship between leader initiating structure and
cant and in the hypothesized direction, are
very low, but not inconsistent with the theo-
retical interpretation, since a significant pro-stronger than for autonomous jobs.
portion of the sample were probably doing
relatively routine work and for which the
path-goal relationships were relatively clear
regardless of the amount of structure initi-
ated by the leader.
Conclusion
Although the above findings support all
three hypotheses, inability to control for thethe leader for resources, assistance, or guid-
characteristics of the sample studied and the
magnitude of the correlations require the
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interpretation that the theory is not discon-
firmed, but only weakly tested and sup-
ported. A more sensitive test of the same hy-
potheses would require careful selection of
a sample of employees known to be per-
forming primarily ambiguous but also satis-
fying tasks.
STUDY NUMBER 2
Method
The second study tested hypotheses about
the moderating effect of task characteristics
on the relationships between leader initiat-
ing structure and consideration, and subordi-
nate satisfaction and performance.
Sample. The sample was that used by
House et al. (1970); however, two additional
measures were used to stratify the popula-
tion according to task autonomy and job
scope, thus permitting tests of specific hy-
potheses derived from the theory.
Hypotheses. The following hypotheses
were tested:
Hypothesis 1. Job autonomy will have a
positive moderating effect on the relation-
ship between leader initiating structure and
subordinate job satisfaction; that is the re-
lationship will be stronger under high job
autonomy than under low job autonomy.
This hypothesis was based on the expecta-
tion that for autonomous tasks the role de-
mands are likely to be more ambiguous than
for nonautonomous tasks. Thus, under auto-
nomous tasks, leader structure will serve to
reduce role ambiguity, clarify path-goal re-
lationships, and thereby increase satisfac-
Hypothesis 2. Job autonomy will have a
negative moderating effect on the relation-
subordinate performance; that is, for non-
autonomous jobs the relationship will be
This hypothesis is based on the expecta-
tion that for nonautonomous tasks, role de-
mands are more likely to be dissatisfying, so
that initiating structure will control behavior
and ensure higher performance. For sub-
ordinates with autonomous jobs, initiating
structure will be irrelevant to performance,
since the subordinate is less dependent on
ance.
Hypothesis 3. Job autonomy will have a
 House: LEADER EFFECTIVENESS 329

negative moderating effect on the relation- This hypothesis is based on the assump-
ship between leader consideration and sub- tion that a wide variety of tasks is more
ordinate satisfaction; that is, the relationship likely to be satisfying and, therefore, subor-
will be weaker for autonomous jobs than for dinates with varied tasks have less need for
nonautonomous jobs. social support, that is, consideration from
Hypothesis 4. Job autonomy will have a their leaders; whereas for highly routine
negative moderating effect on the relation- jobs, leader consideration is a source of
ship between leader consideration and sub- support to the employee, thus making the
ordinate performance. path easier to travel.
Hypotheses 3 and 4 are based on the as- Measures. The measures used were the
sumption that under high job autonomy, the
leader-consideration and initiating-structure
role demands are more likely to be satisfy-
scales taken from the Ohio State question-
ing and, consequently, leader behavior will
naire, the Ohio State job-description scale
be less relevant to the needs or performance
and job-expectation scales (Stogdill, 1965b),
of subordinates than under low job auton-
omy. multimethod-multitrait ratings of individual
Hypothesis 5. Job scope will have a neg- performance, a job-scope and a task-auton-
omy scale.
ative moderating effect on the relationship
between leader consideration and subordi- The job-scope scale developed by Wigdor
(1969), consisted of five questions designed
nate satisfaction and performance; that is,
to measure the extent to which the subject
the wider the variety of tasks performed by
subordinates, the weaker the correlations performs various tasks, sees projects through
between leader consideration and subordi- to completion, and determines job objectives
nate satisfaction and performance. and methods. The questions were:

How often are you required to perform tasks which previously had not been part of your job
responsibility?
5. very often 4. often 3. sometimes 2. occasionally 1. rarely
How often do you see projects through to completion?
1. rarely 2. occasionally 3. sometimes 4. often 5. very often

To what extent do you set objectives, goals and procedures for your job rather than
rections or established procedures?
5. very large 4. large 3. somewhat 2. little 1. almost never

To what extent do you participate in decisions concerning the methods to be used in

your job?
1. almost never 2. occasionally 3. frequently 4. usually 5. almost always
To what extent are you able to allocate a portion of your time to tasks related to corpor
tives but not specifically assigned to you?
S. very large 4. large 3. sometimes 2. little 1. almost never

The task-autonomy scale also developed for financial resources, nonfinanc

by Wigdor (1969) consisted of 16 items in- and directions; independently sc
tended to reflect the degree to which the planned his activities; and innovated inde-
respondent was able to perform his job with- pendently of others. Three sample questions
out depending upon his superior or others and response choices follow:
To what extent are you able to act independently of your superior in performing your job function?
1. hardly ever 2. seldom 3. occasionally 4. frequently 5. almost always
When someone else in the company requests you to perform a task for them, how freq
you seek advice from your superiors?
1. almost always 2. very often 3. often 4. occasionally 5. rarely
To what extent are you able to schedule and plan your task requirements independent
the organization?
1. hardly ever 2. seldom 3. occasionally 4. frequently 5. almost always

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 330 ADMINISTRATIVE SCIENCE QUARTERLY
The job-description questionnaire essen-
tially measured employees' attitudes toward
the company and its management. Factor
analysis by Stogdill (1965b) of a previous
satisfaction scale yielded a single factor with
high loadings for the 12 items of the job-de-
scription questionnaire, which were related
to satisfaction with the company, manage-
ment, and with recognition.
The job-expectation questionnaire mea-
sured employee satisfaction with role expec-
tation with respect to work, advancement,
the prestige of the respondent's job as com-
pared with the jobs of others, pay, freedom,
family attitudes toward the respondent's job,
and job security. Respondents were asked
to indicate the degree to which each charac-
teristic of the job met their expectations.
Each class of expectation was measured by
averaging the scores of the questions.
In the present study the items pertaining
to advancement, pay, and prestige expecta-
tions were combined to provide a single mea-
sure-extrinsic job satisfaction.
The performance scale used for this study
was a multitrait-multirater scale. Lawler
(1968: 370), in a review of methods for
measuring performance, indicated that the
multitrait-multirater method provides many
of the advantages of both the more objective
and more subjective measures, and added:
"Moreover, with this approach it is possible
to assess the criterion by determining its con- Although no validity data are available, the
vergent and discriminant validity, and it is
not necessary to depend on an objective in-
dicator such as sales or profits that may miss Reliabilities of all multiple-item scales are
the essence of the job."
The index of performance was the average
of the ratings given the subject when rated
by one peer and one superior. The obvious
constraint in the choice of the raters was that and Fiske (1959). Of the following criteria,
they had to be familiar with the aspects of
the individual's performance that they were
to rate, otherwise, the ratings tend to be af-
fected by the halo tendency (Bescoe and
Lawshe, 1959). To ensure the choice of
knowledgeable raters, the subject was asked
to indicate the names of his superiors and
two peers who knew his performance best.
The choice of which superior and which peercorrelation between any one rating of that
ratings was used was made randomly by the trait and any other trait rated by the other
investigator.
Scale validities and reliabilities. Kuder
Richardson reliabilities for the leader con-
sideration and leader initiating structure
scales, corrected with the Spearman-Brown
prophesy formula, were .86 and .90 respec-
tively.
The job-autonomy scale was validated by
Wigdor (1969) on two samples assumed to
be significantly different on job autonomy
because of their occupational level. Wigdor
(1969) found that the scale discriminated,
as predicted, between a sample of 33 cor-
porate vice presidents and a sample of white-
collar trainees and secretaries. The difference
in the distribution of the two samples were
in the predicted direction and significant at
the .0001 level, Mann-Whitney U = 801,
Z = 6.10. A similar result was found when
18 college professors with tenure were used
in place of the vice presidents, p < .0001;
U = 421; Z = 4.97. This scale had a .90
reliability for the present sample.
The job-scope scale was also validated by
Wigdor (1969) who compared 30 employees
at a high organizational level making a wide
variety of decisions and performing a large
number of functions, with 30 employees who
were low on these characteristics, and found
a difference in responses significant at the
.0001 level, Mann-Whitney U = 861, Z =
6.08, in the hypothesized direction. This scale
has a .70 reliability for the present sample.
The satisfaction scales were based on fac-
tor analyses reported by Stogdill (1965b).
reliabilities of these scales are moderately
high and adequate for research purposes.
given in Table 2.
The performance measures were tested for
convergent and discriminant validity accord-
ing to the criteria suggested by Campbell
the first shows convergent validity and the
rest discriminant validity.
1. There should be high and significant
interrater agreement, that is, correlation,
among measures of the same traits.
2. The correlations among two ratings
of a single trait should be greater than the
rater.
3. The correlation between two ratings
of a single trait should be greater than the

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 House: LEADER EFFECTIVENESS 331

TABLE 2. CORRELATIONS BETWEEN LEADER INITIATING STRUCTURE AND SUBORDINATE SATISFAC-

TION AND PERFORMANCE MODERATED BY JOB AUTONOMY

Study Number 2

Job autonomy Differences in

correlations-
Low Medium High low versus
Variables (N = 61) (N = 68) (N = 62) high group Reliabilities

Satisfaction with
Company and management 3544 4504 4744 .90
Intrinsic job rewards 30 16 20 .64
Extrinsic job rewards 11 26* 5144 .01 .72
Family attitude
toward job -9 14 15* .72
Security 14 17 25* .61
Job freedom 3744 7 3644 .70
Average satisfaction 19 21 33
Performance ratings
Quality 33** 22 6
Ability 34** 8 12
Effort 43** 20 20
Initiative 4644 13 27*
Ability without
guidance 36** 27* 23
Quantity 55** 17 18 .05
Average performance 47 18 18

*P p .05.
V V p .01.

correlation between any one rating of that
trait and any other trait rated by the same
rater.
4. There should be the same pattern of
trait interrelationships in all the multitrait
triangles of the multirater-multitrait correla-
tion matrix.
The validity tests, using Spearman rank-
order correlations, are summarized in Ta-
ble 3.
The sample used to test the validity of the
performance ratings consisted of a subsam-
ple of 172 subjects of the 192 used to test
the hypotheses. The subsample of 172 con-
sists of all subjects for whom self-, superior,
and peer ratings were obtained. As can be
seen from Table 3, for study number 2, the
superior-peer correlations indicated substan-
tially higher convergent and discriminant
validity than the self-superior or the self-
peer correlations. For this reason the self-
ratings were discarded and the superior and
peer ratings for each subject were averaged
to arrive at a measure of performance for
this study.
All ratings meet the requirement of con-
vergent validity and the third test of dis-
criminant validity. Four of the six ratings
meet the first requirement of discriminant
validity and two were marginally significant
(p = .055), but none of the ratings meet the
second. Sign tests were used for the first two
tests of discriminant validity, and the W
coefficient of concordance for the third.
These tests were first used for this purpose
by Evans (1969) and are explained by Siegel
(1956). There is also indicated a high level
of halo. The W test of concordance indicated
that this halo was common among all four
multitrait triangles of the multitrait-multi-
rater matrix, thus indicating not only inter-
rater agreement on individual scales but
also a similarity of rater response sets, that
is, halo. These findings suggest that any tests
of the hypotheses based on these perfor-
mance scales are susceptible to a type one
error; that is, an error in which data might
result in rejecting a true hypothesis because
the measure of the dependent variable, per-
formance, included a large halo and had only
moderate-to-low discriminant validity. Thus,
use of the average of peer-superior ratings

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332 ADMINISTRATIVE SCIENCE QUARTERLY

TABLE 3. SUMMARY OF TESTS OF CONVERGENT AND DISCRIMINANT VALIDITY FOR

MEASURES OF PERFORMANCE

Study Number 2, N = 172

Ratings 1 2 3 4 5 6

Peer-superior ratings
Convergent validity, p = .01 .01 .01 .01 .01 .01
Discriminant validity
Test 1, p = .001 .055 .001 .001 .055 .001
Test 2, p = N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S.
Test 3, overall test, w = .8Q
X2 = 44.8
p .001
Peer-self ratings
Convergent validity, p .025 N.S. .01 .05 N.S. .05
Discriminant validity
Test 1, p = .001 N.S. .055 N.S. N.S. N.S.
Test 2, p = N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S.
Test 3, overall test, w = .55
X2= 30.8
p ? .01
Self-superior ratings
Convergent validity, p = .Q1 .05 .01 .025 .10 .025
Discriminant validity
Test 1, p = .001 N.S. .055 N.S. N.S. N.S.
Test 2, p = N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S.
Test 3, overall test, w = .56
X2= 31.4
p .01

Study Number 3, N = 122

Ratings 1 2 3 4 5 6

Peer-superior ratings
Convergent validity, p= .01 .01 .01 .01 .01 .01
Discriminant validity,
Test 1, p = N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S.
Test 2, p = .055 .828 .001 .01 .001 .172
Test 3, overall test, w .61
X2= 34.1
p .01

constitute conservative tests of the hypoth- Findings

eses.
Statistical procedure. The sample was di-
vided into respondents with low-, medium-,
and high-task autonomy. The medium group
consisted of the third closest to the mean of
the total population and included all tied
subjects at the borderlines. Correlations were
computed for the relationship between leader
consideration and subordinate satisfaction
and performance. The same procedure was
repeated using job scope as the moderating
variable.
Table 2, showing the findings relevant to
hypothesis 1, indicates that the average cor-
relation and four of the individual correla-
tions between initiating structure and satis-
faction increase monotonically with increases
in job autonomy, and that the correlation
between extrinsic job satisfaction and initiat-
ing structure is significantly higher for groups
with high autonomy than for groups with
low or medium autonomy. These findings,
while in the predicted direction for four of
the classes of satisfaction and for the average

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 House: LEADER EFFECTIVENESS 333

correlations, are only clearly and strongly between leader consideration and perfor-
supportive, that is, differences in correlationsmance is rather profound. The average cor-
are large and significant for hypothesis 1, relation decreases from .52 for the low job-
with respect to extrinsic satisfaction. scope group to .02 and .09 for the medium
Table 2 also presents the findings relevant and high job-scope groups respectively. Five
to hypothesis 2. Again, the average of the of the six correlations between leader con-
correlations between leader initiating struc- sideration and performance in the low job-
ture and subordinate performance decrease scope group are significantly higher than
in the predicted direction from .47 for the their respective correlations in the medium
low-autonomy group to .18 for the medium- or high job-scope groups. Finally, all of the
and high-autonomy groups. Three of the correlations in the low job-scope group are
correlations decrease monotonically in the significant while none in either the medium
predicted direction and all 6 of the correla- or high job-scope groups are.
tions in the low-autonomy group are signifi-
cant at the .01 level, whereas only one in theConclusion
high-autonomy group is significant. Finally, Although the tests were conservative be-
the correlation between initiating structure cause of measurement error in the perfor-
and quantity of subordinate performance is mance ratings, that is halo, the findings from
significantly higher for the low-autonomy this study provide rather strong support for
group than for either the medium- or high- the hypotheses derived from the theory.
autonomy group.
Table 4 presents the findings relevant to STUDY NUMBER 3
hypotheses 3 and 4. For hypothesis 3, while
Method
none of the correlations between leader con-
sideration and subordinate satisfaction in the This study consisted of replications of hy-
group with low job autonomy are signifi- potheses 3, 4 and 5 of study number 2. The
cantly higher than those in the groups with data for this study were collected as part of
medium or high autonomy, both the average a larger study. Unfortunately, the leader-
correlations and three of the individual cor-initiating-structure scale was not included
relations decrease monotonically in the pre- in the larger study, thus precluding the pos-
dicted direction. sibility of replicating hypotheses 6 and 7.
For hypothesis 4, four of the correlations Sample. The sample for this study con-
between leader consideration and subordi- sisted of 122 employees, that is, 97 percent
nate performance are significantly higher forof the employees of a chemical manufactur-
the low-autonomy group than for the med- ing plant. Those not included were absent on
ium- or the high-autonomy group. All six the day the questionnaire was administered,
correlations in the low-autonomy group are so that the final sample consisted of 13 man-
significant at the .01 level, while none are agers, 8 technicians, 2 secretaries, and 99
significant in the medium- or high-autonomy hourly production workers. The sample was
groups, and the average of the correlations not divided by occupational level because
decreases monotonically from .42 to .11 to this would have restricted the vaiiance in
.08 with increases in job autonomy. task autonomy and job scope and would have
Table 4 also presents the findings relevant precluded a test of the hypotheses.
to hypothesis 5. The differences in the corre- Scale validity and reliability. The scales
lations between leader consideration and used in this study are the same as those used
subordinate satisfaction are neither signifi-in study number 2, with the exclusion of the
cant nor consistently in the hypothesized initiating-structure scale.
direction. Evidently, consideration has a per- The performance measures were based on
vasive effect and when not controlled for multitrait-multirater scales completed by the
subordinate autonomy the relationship be- subject's peers and immediate superiors, with
tween leader consideration and subordinate tests of discriminant and convergent validity
satisfaction remains constant, regardless of based on those subjects for whom peer and
subordinate job scope. However, the mod- superior ratings were available. The same
erating effect of job scope on the relationshipstatistical tests were applied to these data

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334 ADMINISTRATIVE SCIENCE QUARTERLY

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 House: LEADER EFFECTIVENESS 335

as were applied to the performance data in significantly higher than their correlations
the second study. As shown in Table 3, the with the groups with high job scope.
results of these tests are very similar to those
Conclusion
of Lawler (1966) and the results of the sec-
ond study. Specifically, all of the peer-supe- The findings about the moderating effect
rior correlations met the requirement of con- of job scope replicated the findings of the
vergent validity. Four of the correlations met second study and thus provide rather strong
the second test of discriminant validity and support for the hypothesis. However, the
the overall pattern of concordance was sig- findings about the moderating effect of job
nificant at the .01 level. As in the second autonomy only partially replicated those of
study, the ratings had a large amount of halo, the second study, possibly because the popu-
which accounted for the failure to pass the lation for the third study consisted primarily
first test of discriminant validity. The relia- of blue-collar workers who were probably
bilities for the job-scope, job-autonomy, and quite dependent on their superiors, even
consideration scales were .64, .88, and .87 when they scored in the upper third of the
respectively. job-autonomy scale. The job-autonomy scale
Statistical procedure. The sample was di- means for the sample in the second study
vided into approximately equal thirds on the were 2.9, 3.4, and 4.0 for the low, medium,
basis of scores on job scope and job auton- and high groups and 2.6, 3.3, and 3.8, respec-
omy, using the same procedure as described tively, for the third study. The finding that
in study number 2. The medium group was consideration has a significant and positive
slightly larger because boarderline ties were relationship to satisfaction for groups with
placed in this group. For each group, cor- both low and high job autonomy is consis-
relations were computed for the relation- tent with the interpretation that all respon-
ships between leader consideration and sub- dents were probably dependent on their su-
ordinate satisfaction and performance. periors for satisfaction, regardless of their
response to the job-autonomy scale. Thus,
Findings this study provides moderate support for the
hypothesis with respect to the influence of
From Table 5 it can be seen that the cor- job scope and ambiguous results with respect
relations between consideration and satis- to the influence of job autonomy.
faction with intrinsic job rewards decreases
from .61 to .24 to .10 for those in jobs with CONCLUSION
low, medium, and high autonomy, and that The theory advanced here has been sho
the correlation for the low-autonomy group to reconcile apparently conflicting findi
is significantly less than for the high-auton-
from previous research. It has also been
omy group. Other differences between shown to provide an integrated explanation
groups appear to be negligible. Thus, hy- of the results of findings about authoritarian-
potheses 3 is replicated only with respect to ism in leader hierarchical influence, closeness
intrinsic job satisfaction, and hypothesis 4 of supervision, initiating structure, and con-
is not supported. sideration.
Table 5 also presents the data relevant to The theory was tested by correlational tests
hypothesis 5. The average correlations be- of 8 hypotheses derived from general propo-
tween consideration and satisfaction de- sitions. The tests are somewhat weak in that
crease from .38 to .24 to .18 for the groups the theoretical constructs, such as intrinsic
with low, medium and high job scope. Two task satisfaction and ambiguity of task-role
of the correlations for low job scope are demands, were inferred from situational mea-
significantly higher than their respective sures
cor- of task autonomy and job scope and
relations for the groups with medium or high from occupational characteristics of the pop-
job scope. ulations studied. These inferences make the
The average correlations between leader tests susceptible to the error of rejecting a
consideration and performance decrease valid hypothesis, so that the tests are con-
from .33 to .18 to -.04 as predicted. Two servative ones. A further limitation is inher-
of the correlations with low job scope are ent in cross-sectional survey research, which

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336 ADMINISTRATIVE SCIENCE QUARTERLY

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 House: LEADER EFFECTIVENESS 337
can rule out invalid hypotheses, but cannot
establish causal relationships among the vari-
ables.
The findings, when viewed collectively,
generally support the theory. Among high-
occupational groups, leader initiating struc-
ture was generally positively related to sub-
ordinate satisfaction and performance. This
relationship was accounted for in terms of
variance in subordinate role ambiguity,
which was shown to have a negative cor-
relation with initiating structure. The rela-
tionships between leader structure and
subordinate role ambiguity, and satisfac-
tion, although significant and in the theo-
retically predicted direction, were quite
low, probably because it was not pos-
sible to control for contaminating variables
that would be expected to suppress these
relationships. The relationships between ini-
tiating structure and consideration, and sub-
ordinate satisfaction and performance varied
significantly and widely in the directions pre-
dicted when moderated by job scope. When
moderated by task autonomy the theoretical
predictions were supported by one sample
and not supported by another which raised
a question about the appropriateness of task
autonomy as an indicator of ambiguity of
task-role demands and satisfaction among
blue-collar workers as well as a question
about the validity of the general proposition
from which the hypothesis was derived.
On balance, the ability of the theory to re- 1962 "Patterns of leadership behavior re-
concile and integrate earlier findings, to-
gether with moderate-to-strong support, for
seven of the eight hypotheses tested, two of
which were replicated in a second study,
suggests that the theory shows promise and
warrants further testing with more direct
measurement of the theoretical constructs
using experimental as well as correlational
methods.
Robert J. House is a professor of manage-
ment at the Bernard M. Baruch College of
the City University of New York.
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1958 "Towards experimental analysis of hu-
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Atkinson (ed.), Motives in Fantasy,
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Nostrand.
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1959 "Foreman leadership as perceived by
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Campbell, Donald T., and Donald W. Fiske
1959 "Convergent and discriminant valida-
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matrix." Psychological Bulletin, 56:
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Evans, Martin G.
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The Pink Dismissal Slip by Philip Evergood

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