CHAPTER 4 : SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SUMMARY

4.1 INTRODUCTION
The production methods of acetone and the chemical itself both directly impact the environment.
The plants that produce acetone create by-products which, in turn, affect the environment; as
well, the chemical can be released into the ecosystem at the end of its lifecycle as a consumer
product, thus also affecting the environment. Therefore, safety is of paramount importance in
Acetone production. The designer must be aware of these hazards, and ensure, through the
application of sound engineering practice, that the risks are minimized to acceptable levels
(CDC, 2015). Safety and loss prevention in process design can under identification and
assessment of the hazards, control of the hazards, and control of the process and limitation of the
loss.

Safety and loss prevention in process design can be considered under the following broad
headings:

1. Preliminary hazard identification and assessment.

2. Hazard control
3. Automated process control systems with alarms and interlocks
4. Loss minimization in the occurrence of incidents e.g. fire-fighting equipment in place

The environment assessment aims particularly at pinpointing the possible impacts

associated with the construction of a plant to local environment. During site selection,
construction and operation, several factors need to be considered. These include the flora
and fauna, air emissions, impact on local inhabitants, adjacent land use and occupational
health standards.

After the acetone has been produced, it is used mainly as a solvent and intermediate in chemical
production. A major source of acetone atmospheric emissions occur from consumer products
including nail polish removers, some paint removers, etc. It is also released in the form of
exhaust from automobile, diesel and turbine engines. As well, acetone is released into the natural
aquatic environment in wastewater effluents from a wide range of manufacturing processes and
industries, such as paper, plastic, pharmaceuticals, etc, and also energy-related industries, such as
coal-gasification and oil shale processing. Other human sources of acetone release into soil
include disposal of agricultural and food waste, household septic tank effluents, chemical waste
disposal sites and leaching from industrial and municipal landfills. Acetone released to the
atmosphere is degraded by a combination of photolysis and reaction with hydroxyl radicals. The
average half-life for acetone in the atmosphere is approximately 30 days. Acetone in soil and
water is readily biodegradable, and it is a volatile compound that will evaporate from dry
surfaces. Since it is miscible in water, it can leach readily in most types of soil and
biodegradation can occurs fast enough to reduce the effects of leaching.

Atmospheric emissions occur from consumer products including nail polish removers, particle
board, carpet backing, some paint removers, and liquid/paste waxes or polishes. Certain
detergents/cleansers, adhesives, automobile carburetor and choke cleaners also contain acetone.
Acetone is released into surface water in wastewater effluents from a wide range of
manufacturing processes and industries, such as paper, plastic, pharmaceuticals, specialty
cleaning and polishing products, paint and allied products, gum and wood chemicals, cyclic
intermediates, industrial organic chemicals, gypsum products, paperboard products, and energy-
related industries, such as coal-gasification and oil shale processing. Sources of acetone release
into soil include disposal of agricultural and food waste, animal waste, atmospheric wet
deposition, household septic tank effluents and chemical waste disposal sites.

As a result of all the above factors listed which combine to reduce the overall effect of acetone
on the environment, it is considered one of the least toxic industrial solvents manufactured.

Sources of human and environmental exposure

Acetone is commonly found in air, water, soil and biological samples, and these background
levels can be from both human-made and natural sources. Acetone occurs naturally in trees,
plants, forest fires and volcanic gases. When animals and humans catabolize body fat, acetone is
exhaled and metabolized. Human-made sources include tobacco smoke, combustive engine
exhaust and waste incineration. The exchange of carbonyl compounds (including acetone)
between air and natural waters is governed by the appropriate partition coefficients, in addition
to production and loss processes in both media.

Natural occurrence:

Acetone occurs as a metabolic component in blood, urine and human breath. Because
endogenous acetone formation is so closely linked with the utilization of stored fats as a source
of energy, background levels can fluctuate depending on an individual's health, nutrition, and
level of activity. The acetone level in the human body at any instant is reflective of acetoacetate
production and ketogenesis. It occurs naturally as a biodegradation product of sewage, solid
wastes and alcohols and as an oxidation product of humic substances. Acetone has been detected
in a variety of plants and foods, including onions, grapes, cauliflower, tomatoes, morning
glories, wild mustard, milk, beans, peas, cheese and chicken breast.

Natural emissions from a variety of tree species contain acetone vapor and another source is
direct emission from the ocean.

Anthropogenic sources:

There are many anthropogenic sources of acetone, with various levels a concentrations that cover
a broad range. Human sources of emissions to the aquatic environment include wastewater
discharges from many industries and leaching from industrial and municipal landfills. A major
source of emission to the air is from evaporation of acetone solvent from coating products such
as paints, cleaners, varnishes and inks. Acetone is an emission product from the combustion of
wood,refuse and plastics), and is emitted in exhaust from automobile, diesel and turbine engines.

Other important anthropogenic sources of acetone in the air are chemical manufacture, tobacco
smoke, wood burning and pulping), polyethylene burning, refuse combustion, petroleum
production, and certain landfill sites. Acetone is formed in the atmosphere from the
photochemical oxidation of propane and possibly from propylene oxide and epichlorohydrin.

Environmental levels and human exposure

Exposure to acetone results from both natural and anthropogenic sources. Acetone also occurs as
a metabolic component in blood, urine and human breath. It occurs as a biodegradation product
of sewage, solid wastes and alcohols, and as an oxidation product of humic substances. Acetone
has been detected in a variety of plants and foods including onions, grapes, cauliflower,
tomatoes, morning glory, wild mustard, milk, beans, peas, cheese and chicken breast. Natural
emissions from a variety of tree species contain acetone vapor. Human sources of emissions to
the aquatic environment include waste-water discharges from many industries and leaching from
industrial and municipal landfills. A major source of human emission to air is evaporation of
acetone solvent from coating products such as paints, cleaners, varnishes and inks. Acetone is an
emission product from the combustion of wood, refuse and plastics. It is also emitted in exhaust
from automobile, diesel and turbine engines. Concentrations of acetone monitored in the
atmosphere range from 0.5 to 125.4 µg/m3 (0.2-52.9 ppb).

10.4.1 Effects on humans:

Acetone is relatively less toxic than many other industrial solvents; however, at high
concentrations, acetone vapor can cause CNS depression, cardio respiratory failure and death.
Acute exposures of humans to atmospheric concentrations as high as approx. 4750
mg/m3(approx. 2000 ppm) have been reported to produce either no gross toxic effects or minor
transient effects, such as eye irritation.

More severe transient effects (including vomiting and fainting) were reported for workers
exposed to acetone vapor concentrations >25 500mg/m3 (>12 000 ppm) for approx. 4 h. Acute
exposures to acetone have also been reported to alter performance in neurobehavioral tests in
humans at 595 mg/m3 (250 ppm). Females exposed to atmospheric concentrations of 2370
mg/m3 (1000 ppm) were reported to suffer menstrual irregularities.

Evaluation of human health risks and effects on the environment:

Evaluation of human health effects:

Acetone is of a low order of acute toxicity. However a significant number of poisonings have
occurred in humans following accidental or intentional misuse. Acetone can produce
neurobehavioral and other changes, including headache, dizziness, confusion and, at high vapor
concentrations, CNS depression and narcosis. Exposures to acetone vapor will cause irritation of
eyes, nose and throat. Continuous exposure to vapor can lead to adaptation to the odour. Liquid
acetone is an eye irritant and repeated exposure of skin will cause defatting, drying and cracking.
It is considered that acetone is neither a skin nor a respiratory tract sensitizer.

Acetone is formed endogenously from fatty acid oxidation and is uniformly distributed
throughout the body among non-adipose tissues. It is rapidly cleared from the body by
metabolism and excretion, mainly through the lungs. Acetone induces the hepatic mixed-
function oxidase enzymes that bring about its own metabolism, and so the body has a
homeostatic mechanism that has evolved to maintain acetone levels in the body at a "baseline"
level. Induction of hepatic mixed-function oxidase enzymes can potentiate (and in some
instances antagonise) the effects of other chemicals. People at most risk to potentiation include
diabetics, alcoholics and those undergoing prolonged fasting. In common with other chemicals,
metabolism of acetone may be reduced in neonates, the elderly and in hepatic diseases.

Evaluation of effects on the environment

Acetone is of low toxicity to both aquatic and terrestrial organisms. It

is readily biodegraded in the environment and does not bioaccumulate or magnify

through the food chain. Even if acetone is spilt in water, it is unlikely to have a major

or lasting effect on the ecosystem. Owing to evaporation and dispersal, spills on land

are likewise not expected to have any major or lasting effects on terrestrial organisms.

4.2 ENVIRONMENTAL LINKAGE

At conceptualization stage, population patterns, utilities availability and socio-economic
impact of the plant are looked into environmental effect on air and water quality, resulting
impacts on flora and fauna are investigated. Alternative orientations of the plant are then
considered in order to minimize its effects keeping into mind the local or regional
development strategies set by the government for that area.

4.3 OPERATIONS
Impacts on the environment that are a direct consequence of plant operations are
considered. These include land and water depositions, their characteristics, quantities and
mitigation strategies. Upon release of contaminants the impact on biological life should be
clearly known. The downwind impact on the local area has to be anticipated with respect
to inhabitants, agriculture and wildlife. Scenic and archeological value of the location has
to be assessed as well.

4.4 SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPACT

The alteration of the nearby villagers’ day to day activities has to be taken into consideration
and the changes that are as a result of the construction and operation of the processing plant.
Their agricultural activities may be affected as a result of the industry’s emissions, water
pollutants, employment patterns and blockages to access ways. Construction of
recreational facilities e.g the plant’s club may change the leisure preferences of
employees.

4.5 HEALTH IMPACTS

A study of diseases that are prevalent within the area needs to be done so as to assess any
new health problems that may originate from the plant’s construction. Air emission
dosages and water disposal techniques are assessed to characterize disease bearing micro-
organisms before and after plant erection. Sexual patterns are assessed in order to
introduce reproductive health education to reduce STIs’ impacts.

4.6 WASTE MANAGEMENT

Even at low concentration, a hazardous waste has the potential to produce harmful effects
on the surroundings and on people posing ignitable, corrosive and toxic characteristics
resulting in contamination of groundwater and explosions. There need to be proper
handling, disposal methods and storage of waste. Danger can also result from improper
handling, storage and disposal practices. To identify and reduce major risk, the plant will
properly manage hazardous waste through risk assessment and management i.e. selection
of the course of action. Conduct a waste audit. Other wastes can be in form of spillages,
washings, blow-down oils and emissions. Management of waste may be through
minimization, exchange, recycling and treatment.

4.6.1 Source control reduction

In order to achieve this, waste should be purified, diluted and substituted. Procedural changes
are also to be enforced at the plant. Good operational practices include good procedures,
waste segregation, material handling improvement and loss prevention. Production process
will be optimized to minimize waste.

4.7 ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING STRATEGIES

4.7.1 Life cycle assessment
An important tool in the monitoring and designing of environmental programs is Life
Cycle Assessment (LCA). It is a compilation and evaluation of feed, products and their
potential environmental impacts throughout their life cycle. Environmental data is
provided for and potential environmental improvements are identified. LCA identifies
how polluted a material is, the heat emission levels and the nature of waste and product
stream in the process’ life cycle. Fine detailing permits the realization of the limited
resources as well as products that are sustainable.

LCA comprises of basically four distinct stages as stated below:

1. Goal Definition and Scope

2. Life Cycle Inventory Analysis (LCI)
3. Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA)
4. Life Cycle Interpretation

4.7.2 Goal Scope and Definition

This stage brings out the study purpose, system function and the aimed audience. There is
comparison of the product/service with alternatives.
4.7.3 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis (LCI)
Outputs and inputs are accounted for over the life cycle i.e. the quantification of feed material
and energy requirement as well as generated waste, focusing on impacts of the first generation.

4.7.4 Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA)

Outputs and inputs are connected to actual pressing environmental concerns such global
warming. The quantified emissions, raw materials and products becoming indicators. This
controversial stage involves the assessment of ‘potential’ impacts on the environment.

4.7.5 Life Cycle Interpretation

This stage concludes from above stages. Results are checked if they are bringing solutions
stated within the scope. Sensitivity and completeness checks are carried out but however
this stage lacks adequate clarified definition.

4.8 DATA REQUIREMENT

An LCA is an extensive practice and the time consuming step is data collection. There is need
for clear step system boundaries it is a challenge to find appropriate and transparent data. Data
sources are;

• Production of energy, extraction of raw materials and conveyance of raw materials data.
• Management of waste, distribution and the production process
Specific data is however favoured to generic one. Issues on the technology, geography and
time needed should be part of the data. Methods used should be reproducible and
consistent to give precise results. Sources of data, their statistical validity and their
uncertainty of the information are also variable that should be established.

4.9 WASTE MINIMIZATION

A waste management is aimed at the reduction of point source emissions and fugitive
emissions through strict operational procedures. Equipment maintenance and waste
recycling is done at the point of emission. The hierarchy is based on waste avoidance,
minimization and/or resource recovery as well as waste treatment.

4.11 INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC SAFETY

There are intrinsically safe and those that require extrinsic or engineered safety. An
intrinsically safe process is one in which safe operation is inherent in the nature of the process;
a process which causes no danger, or negligible danger, under all foreseeable circumstances.
Engineered safety covers the provision of control systems, alarms, trips, pressure-relief
devices, firefighting equipment, and so on.

Given that it shows practicality and economic viability, an essentially safe process should
be selected by the designer. In most processes, processes aren’t safe and hence dangerous
consequences result. Most of safety precautions required for the various sub-processes of
the lithium ore processing plant are explained in the process control commentary. Material
safety data sheets (MSDS) for the various chemicals encountered in the processing facility
have been provided in the annexes section of the report. This wraps up the engineered
safety precautions of the plant.

4.12 OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH

Hazard Operability study (HAZOP) or Hazard Identification study (HAZID) are reputable
methodologies for carrying out risk assessment or job safety analysis that identifies
hazards encountered at work. Management planning for safety and health includes
systematically and structurally controlling biological, chemical and physical safety and
health hazards.

The most significant occupational health and safety acetone processing facility and basically
include:

1. Chemical hazards
2. Heat hazards
3. Ergonomic hazards
4. Fire and explosions
5. Pressure
6. Dust exposure
7. Process Safety
8. Electrocutions
9. Noise
10. Mechanical dangers
11. Lightning protection
12. Prevention of ground and surface water leakages
 13. Avoidance of pollutants release during waste disposal
14. Flooding safety
4.12.1 Chemical hazards
Potential inhalation exposures to chemicals emissions during routine plant operations
should be managed based on results of a job safety analysis and industrial hygiene survey.
Exposure to chemicals in the acetone column section is the most dominant type of
chemical hazards encountered in the processing facility. Hygiene surveys and analysis of
job safety within the plant should be put in place to monitor workers’ inhalation of
chemicals .Protection measures include worker training, work permit systems, use of
personal protective equipment (PPE), and toxic gas detection systems with alarms. The
effect of exposure can be long term or short term depending on the toxicity of the material.

4.12.2 Physical hazards

4.12.2.1 Heat
A significant amount of heat is released at the furnace station and has the potential to
result in burns due to exposure or direct contact with hot surfaces as well as heat
exhaustion. The recommended safety precautions include:

1. Insulating, marking and regularly inspecting steam and hot fluid pipes.
2. Directing steam vents and pressure release valves from areas where workers have access.

4.12.2.2 Noise
Permanent damage to hearing might result from long exposure to high noise levels. Noise
is defined to be disturbing sound, at lower levels it is said to be distracting and causes
fatigue. A noise level above 90 dB causes permanent damage to hearing and hence it is
normal to provide ear plugs in areas that exceed 80 bB Any location where sound does not
cause disturbance, even it is very loud, does not incur restrictions.

‘Noise limit values in residential and recreational areas, in dwellings and public buildings and
methods to measure noise level’ (category III – mixed area; equivalent level of industrial
companies in a new planned area: during daytime 55 dB, at night 45 dB). The following
questions facilitate the evaluation of noise protection measures:

1) Do all workers and operators wear ear protection correctly?

 2) Is the area of comminution marked by an appropriate sign?
3) Are all pipes and piping break-through insulated against noise?
4) Does the plant stand well away from residential areas?

4.12.3 Ergonomic hazards

Manual handling of waste especially during shutdowns’ housekeeping exposes the
employees to heavy workloads which results in cumulative trauma disorders. This
disabling disease is the most common type in industry. Most industries make use of shift
work system which means they open 24/7. There is general sluggishness associated with
shift work as workers are on duty for long hours. Sleeping irregularities and low reasoning
are also a result of such hours.

4.12.4 Fire and heat explosions

This includes the accidental release of gases which are mainly oxygen, carbon dioxide
gases under pressure which causes jet fires or Vapor Cloud Explosion, flash fires or
fireballs depending on the quantity of flammable material escaped as well as the degree of
confinement of the cloud. Exceeding the auto-ignition temperatures of these gases, means
that they can ignite even in the absence of ignition sources. Provided that the flammable
material spilled is liquid, pool fires may arise. Preventive measures to control fire and
explosion risks from process are as follows;

• Avoid potential sources of ignition by avoiding spillages overheated pipes and rotating
machinery
• Monitor the pressure of fluid transporting systems and provide for heat detection
• Provide for safe rooms, isolation of explosive material and storage areas through good
design in line with international standards
• To cater for accidental escape of flammables, provide for proper fire-fighting equipment
and fire zones

• Installation of blast walls

4.12.5 Pressure
One of the most serious hazard in a plant is pressure exceeding design pressure and
this can result in vessel failure. Pressure relief devices are therefore installed in order
to avert such potential disasters i.e. to release over-pressure in a controlled manner
4.12.7 Process safety
Process safety programs should be implemented due to industry-specific
characteristics, including complex chemistry reactions, use of hazardous materials and
multistep reactions. Process safety management includes the following;

i. Worker training
ii. Daily Safety Talk
iii. Hazard analysis studies to review the process chemistry and engineering
practices including thermodynamics and kinetics; and
iv. Physical hazard testing of materials and reactions.
4.13 ACCIDENT AND FATALITY RATES
It is the aim of this endeavour to try to reduce the number accidents that lead to loss of lives of
employees, loss of production time or permanent injuries on workers, need to be minimized to
zero tolerance.
4.14 REMEDIATION
Cleaning up can commence upon finishing up the contamination and ground conditions.

Methods used for treating contaminated groundwater include closed loop systems, where
groundwater is pumped to the surface, treated and then returned to the subsurface via
wells. Surface treatment of the groundwater can include separation, air stripping, addition
of oxidizing chemicals and bioreactors.