Theoretical Cosmology and Astrophysics

Lecture notes - Chapter 7

∗
A. Refregier
April 24, 2017

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7 Cosmological Perturbations
In this chapter, we will consider perturbations to the FRW smooth model of the
universe. For simplicity, we will consider the flat FRW spacetime.

7.1 Metric perturbations

Let us consider perturbations hµν to the FRW metric defined through

gµν = ḡµν + hµν , (1)

where  
−1 0 0 0
0 a2 (t) 0 0 
ḡµν (x) =  , (2)
0 0 a2 (t) 0 
0 0 0 a2 (t)
denotes the flat, unperturbed FRW metric. We further require that hµν  ḡµν ,
i.e. that the perturbations are small.
In order to decompose the metric perturbation hµν , recall that we can decom-
pose any vector field ~v (~x) in 3-dimensional Euclidean space into a parallel and
perpendicular part as
~v (~x) = ~vk (~x) + ~v⊥ (~x), (3)

where ∇~ · ~v⊥ = ∇
~ × ~vk = 0. We can further write these two parts as ~vk = ∇v
~
~ ~ ~
and ~v⊥ = ∇ × A, where v is a scalar and A is a vector. We can check that
~ × ~vk = ∇
these indeed satisfy the conditions specified above: ∇ ~ × (∇v)
~ = 0 and
~ · (∇
∇ ~ × A)
~ = 0.
Note that the fields v and A ~ are not uniquely defined by these relations. We
can indeed add the quantities

v → v + const. (4)
~→A
A ~ + ∇f,
~ (5)
∗ Notes
taken by A. Nicola.
1 See
chapter 5 in Dodelson, S., Modern Cosmology, 2003, Academic Press and chapter 5
in Weinberg, S., Cosmology, 2008, Oxford University Press.

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where f is a scalar, without affecting either ~vk or ~v⊥ . This property is called
gauge freedom.
Similarily we can decompose the metric perturbation hµν (x) into

h00 = −E,
 
∂F
hi0 = a + Gi , (6)
∂xi
∂2B
 
∂Ci ∂Cj
hij = a2 Aδij + + + + D ij ,
∂xi ∂xj ∂xj ∂xi

where A = A(x), B = B(x), etc. and

A, B, E, F are scalars
Ci , Gi are divergenceless vectors
Dij is a traceless, symmetric and divergenceless tensor,

and the perturbations satisfy the conditions

∂Ci ∂Gi ∂Dij
= = 0, = 0, Dii = 0, Dij = Dji . (7)
∂xi ∂xi ∂xi
Since hµν is a symmetric 4 × 4 tensor, it has 10 independent degrees of freedom.
It is easy to check that the new perturbation fields amount to the same number
of degrees of freedom:

no. of components divergenceless

A, B, E, F 4×1=4
Ci , Gi 2×3=6 2 × (−1)
Dij 9-3-1=5 -3
15 -5 = 10

The decomposition theorem states that scalar, vector and tensor perturbation
modes do not couple to first order, i.e. they evolve independently. This means
that Einstein’s field equations can be solved for each perturbation mode sep-
arately. It can be shown that the amplitude of the vector modes decays as a
function of time. The tensor modes correspond to gravitational waves, which
are only important for CMB polarisation. Here, we will only consider scalar
modes.

7.2 Gauge transformations

Let us consider the spacetime coordinate transformation (see Fig.1)
0
xµ → x µ = xµ + µ (x), (8)

where µ (x) is small, just as hµν is small compared to ḡµν . Under such a
coordinate transformation, the metric transforms as

0 0 ∂xλ ∂xκ
gµν (x ) = gλκ (x) . (9)
∂x0 µ ∂x0 ν

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Inserting Eq. 8 into Eq. 9 leads to

∂λ ∂κ
  
0 0
gµν (x ) = δµλ − δν
κ
− gλκ (x). (10)
∂xµ ∂xν

Writing gλκ (x) = ḡλκ (x) + hλκ (x) and expanding to first order finally leads to

0 0 ∂λ ∂κ
gµν (x ) ' ḡµν (x) + hµν (x) − ḡλν (x) − ḡµκ (x). (11)
∂xµ ∂xν

0
xµ xµ

Figure 1: Illustration of coordinate transformations.

Such a coordinate transformation affects the coordinates and unperturbed fields

as well as the perturbations to the fields. In order to derive the transformations
to the perturbed fields which leave the physics invariant we consider gauge
transformations. Under a gauge transformation, the metric transforms as
0
gµν (x) → gµν (x). (12)

From the generic metric transformation law given by Eq. 9 we get to first order
in (x) and hµν (x)
0 0
0 0 0 ∂gµν (x ) λ
0
gµν (x ) = gµν (x + ) = gµν (x) +  . (13)
∂xλ
0 0 0
Solving for gµν (x) and expressing gµν (x ) in terms of gµν (x) = ḡµν (x) + hµν (x)
through Eq. 9, gives us
0 0
0 0 ∂gµν (x ) λ
0
gµν (x) = gµν (x ) − 
∂xλ
∂λ ∂κ ∂ḡµν (x) λ
= ḡµν (x) + hµν (x) − µ
ḡλν (x) − ḡµκ (x) −  , (14)
∂x ∂xν ∂xλ
0 0 0
Letting gµν (x) = ḡµν (x) + hµν (x) and hµν (x) = hµν (x) + ∆hµν (x) finally gives
us
0 ∂λ ∂κ ∂ḡµν (x) λ
∆hµν (x) = hµν (x) − hµν (x) = − µ
ḡλν (x) − ν
ḡµκ (x) −  . (15)
∂x ∂x ∂xλ
We thus see that gauge transformations correspond to changes in the metric
perturbations.

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The FRW metric is given by
 
−1 0 0 0
0 a2 (t) 0 0 
ḡµν (x) = 
0 2
. (16)
0 a (t) 0 
0 0 0 a2 (t)

Therefore we obtain
∂0
∆h00 = 2 ,
∂t
∂i 2 ∂0
∆hi0 = − a + , (17)
∂t ∂xi
∂i ∂j 2 da
∆hij = − j a2 − i
a − 2a δij 0 .
∂x ∂x dt
We can simplify these equations by noting that µ = gµν ν = (ḡµν + hµν )ν '
ḡµν ν . Therefore we can use the smooth FRW metric to raise and lower indices
on ν , i.e. 0 = −0 and i = a2 i , and we obtain the transformations of the
metric perturbations under gauge transformations:
∂0
∆h00 = −2 ,
∂t
∂i 2 da ∂0
∆hi0 = − + i − , (18)
∂t a dt ∂xi
∂i ∂j da
∆hij = − j − i
+ 2a δij 0 .
∂x ∂x dt
In order to study how the scalar-vector-tensor components of the metric trans-
form under a gauge transformation, we decompose the spatial part of the 4-
vector µ into the gradient of a scalar plus a divergenceless vector

∂S V ∂Vi
i = +  i , with = 0. (19)
∂xi ∂xi
Inserting this decomposition into Eq. 18, using Eq. 6 and considering only scalar
modes gives us
2 da
∆A = 0 ,
a dt
2
∆B = − 2 S ,
a
d0
∆E = 2 , (20)
dt
dS
 
1 2 da S
∆F = −0 − +  .
a dt a dt

Similar identities hold for the vector and tensor perturbations.

7.2.1 The choice of gauge

For the Newtonian gauge we choose S such that B = 0 and 0 such that F = 0.
We are therefore left with the scalar perturbations A and E, which are relabelled

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as

E = 2Ψ, (21)
A = 2Φ. (22)

The perturbed metric in Newtonian gauge then becomes, keeping only scalar
perturbations

g00 = −1 − 2Ψ, g0i = 0, gij = a2 δij [1 + 2Φ]. (23)

For the synchronous gauge we choose 0 such that E = 0 and S such that
F = 0. The perturbed metric in synchronous gauge then becomes, keeping only
scalar perturbations
∂2B
 
2
g00 = −1, g0i = 0, gij = a (1 + A)δij + . (24)
∂xi ∂xj
There are other possible gauge choices. An example for a further gauge choice
would be the co-moving gauge. It is also possible to perform cosmological per-
turbation theory solely in terms of gauge-invariant variables; this is the so-called
gauge-invariant perturbation theory.
In the following, we will choose the Newtonian gauge, which has the advantage
that it is the easiest to relate to the Newtonian limit.

2
7.2.2 Geometrical interpretation of gauge transformations
To define perturbations, we need to compare two manifolds to each other (see
Fig. 2):
M : perturbed spacetime manifold with metric gµν
M̄ : background (unperturbed) spacetime manifold with metric ḡµν .
For this purpose, we need a mapping (diffeomorphism) φ between M and M̄ .
Then we can define the metric perturbation hµν as

hµν = (φ−1 g)µν − ḡµν , (25)

where everything is defined on M̄ . Gauge freedom arises because there are many
permissible (i.e. when perturbations are small) mappings φ betwen M̄ and M .

M̄ M

ḡµ⌫ gµ⌫

Figure 2: Illustration of mapping φ between manifolds M and M̄ .

For example, consider a mapping Λ of M̄ onto itself, induced by a vector field

µ on M̄ , i.e. xµ → xµ + µ (x) in a given coordinate system; as illustrated in
2 See chapter 7.1 in Carroll, S. M., Spacetime and Geometry: An Introduction to General

Relativity, 2004, Addison Wesley.

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Fig. 3. Then (φ ◦ Λ )−1 = Λ−1
 ◦φ
−1
is a new mapping between M to M̄ , which
induces new metric perturbations
−1
h()
µν = [(φ ◦ Λ ) g]µν − ḡµν = [Λ−1
 (φ
−1
g)]µν − ḡµν . (26)

All possible infinitesimal Λ ’s correspond to the gauge transformations we con-

sidered above (see Eq. 12).

M̄ M
✏
⇤✏

Figure 3: Illustration of gauge freedom.

7.2.3 Number of degrees of freedom

The metric gµν is a symmetric rank 2 tensor, i.e. it has 10 independent compo-
nents. However, we saw above that there is gauge freedom with gauge transfor-
mations generated by vector fields µ which have 4 components. Therefore the
number of physical degrees of freedom in GR is 10 − 4 = 6.

7.3 Einstein equations

Recall that in Newtonian gauge, the flat perturbed FRW metric, keeping only
scalar perturbations, is given by

g00 = −1 − 2Ψ, g0i = 0, gij = a2 δij [1 + 2Φ]. (27)

Let us compute the Christoffel symbols for this metric. In general, the Christof-
fel symbols are defined as

g µν ∂gαν
 
∂gβγ ∂gαβ
Γµαβ = + − . (28)
2 ∂xβ ∂xα ∂xν

The Christoffel symbols for the perturbed FRW metric in Newtonian gauge are
therefore given by

Γ000 = Ψ,0 ,
Γ00i = Γ0i0 = Ψ,i ,
Γ0ij = δij a2 [H + 2H(Φ − Ψ) − Φ,0 ] ,
1
Γi00 = 2 Ψ,i , (29)
a
Γi0j = Γij0 = δij (H + Φ,0 ),
Γijk = δij Φ,k + δik Φ,j − δjk Φ,i ,

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where H = a1 da
dt denotes the Hubble parameter.
We can check that we recover the smooth universe results when we only look at
the 0th order terms in the Christoffel symbols:

Γ000 = Γ00i = Γ0i0 = 0,

da
Γ0ij = δij a2 H = δij a ,
dt
Γi00 = Γijk = 0, (30)
1 da
Γi0j = Γij0 = δij .
a dt
From the Christoffel symbols we can calculate the Ricci tensor for the perturbed
FRW metric. The Ricci tensor is given by

Rµν = Γα α α β α β
µν,α − Γµα,ν + Γβα Γµν − Γβν Γµα . (31)

For the perturbed FRW metric we therefore obtain

1 d2 a 1
R00 = −3 + 2 Ψ,ii − 3Φ,00 + 3H(Ψ,0 − 2Φ,0 ),
a dt2 a
d2 a
 
Rij = δij 2a2 H 2 + a 2 (1 + 2Φ − 2Ψ) + a2 H(6Φ,0 − Ψ,0 ) (32)
dt
2

+ a Φ,00 − Φ,ii − (Φ,ij + Ψij ).

We can again check the 0th order terms

1 d2 a
R00 = −3 ,
a dt2 "   #
2
d2 a d2 a
 
2 2 da
Rij = δij 2a H + a 2 = δij 2 +a 2 . (33)
dt dt dt

Note that we will not need R0i , because the perturbed FRW metric is diagonal.
The Ricci scalar is given by
R = g µν Rµν . (34)
Inserting the explicit components of both the metric and the Ricci tensor there-
fore leads to
1 d2 a
 
2 2 4
R=6 H + (1−2Ψ)− 2 Ψ,ii +6Φ,00 −6H(Ψ,0 −4Φ,0 )− 2 Φ,ii . (35)
a dt2 a a

We can again check that the 0th order term agrees with that for the FRW metric

1 d2 a
 
2
R=6 H + . (36)
a dt2

Using the Ricci tensor and the Ricci scalar we can finally compute the Einstein
tensor, which is given by
1
Gµν = Rµν − gµν R. (37)
2

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It is more convenient to work with the Einstein tensor with one index raised,
i.e.
1
Gµν = g µρ Gρν = Rµν − g µν R. (38)
2
For the perturbed FRW metric we therefore obtain the time-time component of
the Einstein tensor as
"  2 #  2 2
1 d2 a

0 1 da da 1 da 1 da 2
G0 =3 − + 3 − 6 Φ ,0 + 6 Ψ + 2 Φ,ii .
a dt2 a2 dt dt a dt a dt a
(39)
We can again check the 0th order component
"  2 #
0 00 1 d2 a 1 da
G 0 = ḡ G00 = −3 − 2 . (40)
a dt2 a dt

The space-space component of the Einstein tensor is given by

1
Gij = Aδij − (Φ,ij + Ψ,ij ), (41)
a2
where A contains almost a dozen terms which are all proportional to δij and
therefore contribute only to the trace of Gij . Since we will only need to consider
the longitudinal and traceless part of the Einstein tensor, we will not need to
compute the explicit form of A.
Einstein’s field equations are then given by

Gµν = 8πGT µν . (42)

Decomposing the metric into the background and the perturbations, we can
write these equations as

Ḡµν + ∆Gµν = 8πG T̄ µν + ∆T µν .

(43)

In order to compute the equations governing the evolution of perturbations in

the universe, we therefore need to compute the traceless part of T µν from the
Boltzmann equations.