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Theoretical Cosmology and Astrophysics PDF
Theoretical Cosmology and Astrophysics PDF
Theoretical Cosmology and Astrophysics PDF
1
7 Cosmological Perturbations
In this chapter, we will consider perturbations to the FRW smooth model of the
universe. For simplicity, we will consider the flat FRW spacetime.
where
−1 0 0 0
0 a2 (t) 0 0
ḡµν (x) = , (2)
0 0 a2 (t) 0
0 0 0 a2 (t)
denotes the flat, unperturbed FRW metric. We further require that hµν ḡµν ,
i.e. that the perturbations are small.
In order to decompose the metric perturbation hµν , recall that we can decom-
pose any vector field ~v (~x) in 3-dimensional Euclidean space into a parallel and
perpendicular part as
~v (~x) = ~vk (~x) + ~v⊥ (~x), (3)
where ∇~ · ~v⊥ = ∇
~ × ~vk = 0. We can further write these two parts as ~vk = ∇v
~
~ ~ ~
and ~v⊥ = ∇ × A, where v is a scalar and A is a vector. We can check that
~ × ~vk = ∇
these indeed satisfy the conditions specified above: ∇ ~ × (∇v)
~ = 0 and
~ · (∇
∇ ~ × A)
~ = 0.
Note that the fields v and A ~ are not uniquely defined by these relations. We
can indeed add the quantities
v → v + const. (4)
~→A
A ~ + ∇f,
~ (5)
∗ Notes
taken by A. Nicola.
1 See
chapter 5 in Dodelson, S., Modern Cosmology, 2003, Academic Press and chapter 5
in Weinberg, S., Cosmology, 2008, Oxford University Press.
1
where f is a scalar, without affecting either ~vk or ~v⊥ . This property is called
gauge freedom.
Similarily we can decompose the metric perturbation hµν (x) into
h00 = −E,
∂F
hi0 = a + Gi , (6)
∂xi
∂2B
∂Ci ∂Cj
hij = a2 Aδij + + + + D ij ,
∂xi ∂xj ∂xj ∂xi
A, B, E, F are scalars
Ci , Gi are divergenceless vectors
Dij is a traceless, symmetric and divergenceless tensor,
The decomposition theorem states that scalar, vector and tensor perturbation
modes do not couple to first order, i.e. they evolve independently. This means
that Einstein’s field equations can be solved for each perturbation mode sep-
arately. It can be shown that the amplitude of the vector modes decays as a
function of time. The tensor modes correspond to gravitational waves, which
are only important for CMB polarisation. Here, we will only consider scalar
modes.
where µ (x) is small, just as hµν is small compared to ḡµν . Under such a
coordinate transformation, the metric transforms as
0 0 ∂xλ ∂xκ
gµν (x ) = gλκ (x) . (9)
∂x0 µ ∂x0 ν
2
Inserting Eq. 8 into Eq. 9 leads to
∂λ ∂κ
0 0
gµν (x ) = δµλ − δν
κ
− gλκ (x). (10)
∂xµ ∂xν
Writing gλκ (x) = ḡλκ (x) + hλκ (x) and expanding to first order finally leads to
0 0 ∂λ ∂κ
gµν (x ) ' ḡµν (x) + hµν (x) − ḡλν (x) − ḡµκ (x). (11)
∂xµ ∂xν
0
xµ xµ
From the generic metric transformation law given by Eq. 9 we get to first order
in (x) and hµν (x)
0 0
0 0 0 ∂gµν (x ) λ
0
gµν (x ) = gµν (x + ) = gµν (x) + . (13)
∂xλ
0 0 0
Solving for gµν (x) and expressing gµν (x ) in terms of gµν (x) = ḡµν (x) + hµν (x)
through Eq. 9, gives us
0 0
0 0 ∂gµν (x ) λ
0
gµν (x) = gµν (x ) −
∂xλ
∂λ ∂κ ∂ḡµν (x) λ
= ḡµν (x) + hµν (x) − µ
ḡλν (x) − ḡµκ (x) − , (14)
∂x ∂xν ∂xλ
0 0 0
Letting gµν (x) = ḡµν (x) + hµν (x) and hµν (x) = hµν (x) + ∆hµν (x) finally gives
us
0 ∂λ ∂κ ∂ḡµν (x) λ
∆hµν (x) = hµν (x) − hµν (x) = − µ
ḡλν (x) − ν
ḡµκ (x) − . (15)
∂x ∂x ∂xλ
We thus see that gauge transformations correspond to changes in the metric
perturbations.
3
The FRW metric is given by
−1 0 0 0
0 a2 (t) 0 0
ḡµν (x) =
0 2
. (16)
0 a (t) 0
0 0 0 a2 (t)
Therefore we obtain
∂0
∆h00 = 2 ,
∂t
∂i 2 ∂0
∆hi0 = − a + , (17)
∂t ∂xi
∂i ∂j 2 da
∆hij = − j a2 − i
a − 2a δij 0 .
∂x ∂x dt
We can simplify these equations by noting that µ = gµν ν = (ḡµν + hµν )ν '
ḡµν ν . Therefore we can use the smooth FRW metric to raise and lower indices
on ν , i.e. 0 = −0 and i = a2 i , and we obtain the transformations of the
metric perturbations under gauge transformations:
∂0
∆h00 = −2 ,
∂t
∂i 2 da ∂0
∆hi0 = − + i − , (18)
∂t a dt ∂xi
∂i ∂j da
∆hij = − j − i
+ 2a δij 0 .
∂x ∂x dt
In order to study how the scalar-vector-tensor components of the metric trans-
form under a gauge transformation, we decompose the spatial part of the 4-
vector µ into the gradient of a scalar plus a divergenceless vector
∂S V ∂Vi
i = + i , with = 0. (19)
∂xi ∂xi
Inserting this decomposition into Eq. 18, using Eq. 6 and considering only scalar
modes gives us
2 da
∆A = 0 ,
a dt
2
∆B = − 2 S ,
a
d0
∆E = 2 , (20)
dt
dS
1 2 da S
∆F = −0 − + .
a dt a dt
4
as
E = 2Ψ, (21)
A = 2Φ. (22)
The perturbed metric in Newtonian gauge then becomes, keeping only scalar
perturbations
For the synchronous gauge we choose 0 such that E = 0 and S such that
F = 0. The perturbed metric in synchronous gauge then becomes, keeping only
scalar perturbations
∂2B
2
g00 = −1, g0i = 0, gij = a (1 + A)δij + . (24)
∂xi ∂xj
There are other possible gauge choices. An example for a further gauge choice
would be the co-moving gauge. It is also possible to perform cosmological per-
turbation theory solely in terms of gauge-invariant variables; this is the so-called
gauge-invariant perturbation theory.
In the following, we will choose the Newtonian gauge, which has the advantage
that it is the easiest to relate to the Newtonian limit.
2
7.2.2 Geometrical interpretation of gauge transformations
To define perturbations, we need to compare two manifolds to each other (see
Fig. 2):
M : perturbed spacetime manifold with metric gµν
M̄ : background (unperturbed) spacetime manifold with metric ḡµν .
For this purpose, we need a mapping (diffeomorphism) φ between M and M̄ .
Then we can define the metric perturbation hµν as
where everything is defined on M̄ . Gauge freedom arises because there are many
permissible (i.e. when perturbations are small) mappings φ betwen M̄ and M .
M̄ M
ḡµ⌫ gµ⌫
5
Fig. 3. Then (φ ◦ Λ )−1 = Λ−1
◦φ
−1
is a new mapping between M to M̄ , which
induces new metric perturbations
−1
h()
µν = [(φ ◦ Λ ) g]µν − ḡµν = [Λ−1
(φ
−1
g)]µν − ḡµν . (26)
M̄ M
✏
⇤✏
Let us compute the Christoffel symbols for this metric. In general, the Christof-
fel symbols are defined as
g µν ∂gαν
∂gβγ ∂gαβ
Γµαβ = + − . (28)
2 ∂xβ ∂xα ∂xν
The Christoffel symbols for the perturbed FRW metric in Newtonian gauge are
therefore given by
Γ000 = Ψ,0 ,
Γ00i = Γ0i0 = Ψ,i ,
Γ0ij = δij a2 [H + 2H(Φ − Ψ) − Φ,0 ] ,
1
Γi00 = 2 Ψ,i , (29)
a
Γi0j = Γij0 = δij (H + Φ,0 ),
Γijk = δij Φ,k + δik Φ,j − δjk Φ,i ,
6
where H = a1 da
dt denotes the Hubble parameter.
We can check that we recover the smooth universe results when we only look at
the 0th order terms in the Christoffel symbols:
Rµν = Γα α α β α β
µν,α − Γµα,ν + Γβα Γµν − Γβν Γµα . (31)
1 d2 a 1
R00 = −3 + 2 Ψ,ii − 3Φ,00 + 3H(Ψ,0 − 2Φ,0 ),
a dt2 a
d2 a
Rij = δij 2a2 H 2 + a 2 (1 + 2Φ − 2Ψ) + a2 H(6Φ,0 − Ψ,0 ) (32)
dt
2
+ a Φ,00 − Φ,ii − (Φ,ij + Ψij ).
1 d2 a
R00 = −3 ,
a dt2 " #
2
d2 a d2 a
2 2 da
Rij = δij 2a H + a 2 = δij 2 +a 2 . (33)
dt dt dt
Note that we will not need R0i , because the perturbed FRW metric is diagonal.
The Ricci scalar is given by
R = g µν Rµν . (34)
Inserting the explicit components of both the metric and the Ricci tensor there-
fore leads to
1 d2 a
2 2 4
R=6 H + (1−2Ψ)− 2 Ψ,ii +6Φ,00 −6H(Ψ,0 −4Φ,0 )− 2 Φ,ii . (35)
a dt2 a a
We can again check that the 0th order term agrees with that for the FRW metric
1 d2 a
2
R=6 H + . (36)
a dt2
Using the Ricci tensor and the Ricci scalar we can finally compute the Einstein
tensor, which is given by
1
Gµν = Rµν − gµν R. (37)
2
7
It is more convenient to work with the Einstein tensor with one index raised,
i.e.
1
Gµν = g µρ Gρν = Rµν − g µν R. (38)
2
For the perturbed FRW metric we therefore obtain the time-time component of
the Einstein tensor as
" 2 # 2 2
1 d2 a
0 1 da da 1 da 1 da 2
G0 =3 − + 3 − 6 Φ ,0 + 6 Ψ + 2 Φ,ii .
a dt2 a2 dt dt a dt a dt a
(39)
We can again check the 0th order component
" 2 #
0 00 1 d2 a 1 da
G 0 = ḡ G00 = −3 − 2 . (40)
a dt2 a dt
Decomposing the metric into the background and the perturbations, we can
write these equations as