3

Level

INTRODUCTION TO COACHING CYCLISTS

USA Cycling Coaching Education

Introductionto
CoachingCyclists
 EDITED BY USA CYCLIN G STAFF

Introduction to Coaching Cyclists

USA Cycling retains all rights to the materials in this manual. Except for use in review, the
reproduction or utilization of this work in any form or by any electronic, mechanical or other
means, now known or hereafter invented, including xerography, photocopying, and
recording, and in any information storage and retrieval system, is forbidden without the
express written consent of USA Cycling, Inc.

 USA Cycling
210 USA Cycling Point • Suite 100
Colorado Springs, CO 80919
Phone 719.434.4200 • Fax 719.434.4324

i
Table of Contents
Chapter 1 - USA Cycling Coaching Certification Program .................................... 1
Chapter 2 -Being a Coach .................................................................................... 5
Chapter 3 - Cycling Disciplines .......................................................................... 11
Chapter 4 - Para-Cycling .................................................................................... 23
Chapter 5 - Health Issues .................................................................................. 37
Chapter 6 - Long Term Athlete Development Movement ................................. 59
Chapter 7 - Sport Physiology ............................................................................. 74
Chapter 8 - Human Anatomy ............................................................................ 83
Chapter 9 - Nutrition and Hydration ................................................................. 92
Chapter 10 - Sport Psychology ........................................................................ 129
Chapter 11 - General Principles of Training ..................................................... 159
Chapter 12 - Overtraining ............................................................................... 190
Chapter 13 - Performance Enhancement Team .............................................. 201
Chapter 14 - Doping Control ........................................................................... 204
 1
Chapter

USA Cycling Coaching

Certification Program

T
he “Introduction to Coaching Cyclists” manual was created to assist
those preparing to take the USA Cycling Level 3 Coaching exam or who
just want to learn more about coaching. This manual was designed to
give the prospective coach information on cycling disciplines, the coaching code of
conduct, long-term athlete development, sport physiology, human anatomy, nutrition and
hydration, sports psychology, general principles of training, overtraining, performance
management team, and doping control. Some of the information may seem very basic to a
person with a long history in cycling; however, USA Cycling works from the assumption that
the person reading this manual has little to no experience with cycling.

Certification Exam
This manual is the first step in becoming a coach. When you are ready, you may access the
level 3 exam from your USA Cycling account page available at www.usacycling.org. The
exam questions are multiple-choice and are based on the content contained within this
manual as well as material from the USA Cycling rulebook, UCI rulebook and from the US
Anti-Doping Agency (USADA). These rulebooks are available online from
www.usacycling.org, www.uci.ch, and www.usada.org. Please read the test instructions
carefully. A score of 80% or higher is passing.

Passing the certification exam counts towards your USA Cycling continuing education units
(CEU). The course value, as well as other approved CEU programs, can be found on the
USA Cycling Coaching CEU policy page on the USA Cycling website.

Coaching is a Study this manual, use it as a reference but also keep in mind that
lifelong process. coaching should be a lifelong learning process. As a successful coach,
it is important to stay abreast of current trends.

SafeSport Requirement
It is an unfortunate truth our world has become increasingly risky for our nation’s
youth. Whereas most individuals involved with youth and youth sports have altruistic
intentions, unfortunately, some individuals have very harmful intentions. These ill-
intentioned individuals frequently seek out environments grant them access to youth, such

1
as after school activities, mentoring programs, and sports. Therefore, it is incumbent upon
youth-serving organizations to take a proactive approach to protecting youth from these
harmful people. Parents also deserve reassurance when their children are under the
supervision of another adult, the organization responsible for the adult has taken reasonable
steps to determine the individual is worthy of those responsibilities.

Providing a safe environment and protecting youth engaged in cycling activities is of the
utmost importance to USA Cycling. USA Cycling, its Local Associations (LAs), clubs, and
other affiliates not only have a professional and moral responsibility to provide a safe
environment for its members during sanctioned activities, but also a legal
responsibility. State and federal courts have determined associations and clubs can be held
liable for misconduct or abuse which can be connected to coaches and/or sanctioned events.
For the aforementioned reasons, USA Cycling adopted a criminal background check (CBC)
process as part of a comprehensive risk management tool. (Please see the section below for
more information about the criminal background check process.)

While criminal background checks are a vital and helpful risk management tool, they only
prevent individuals with a criminal history from gaining access to the sport and to our
youth. There are still many individuals without a criminal record who pose a risk to our
youth and our sport. To exemplify this point: It is believed nearly 90 percent of sexual
offenders would not be screened out by virtue of their criminal history because they do not
have convictions for sexual offense crimes. This statistic stresses the challenge in screening
out dangerous individuals from our sport and displays the need for a comprehensive athlete
protection program.

The USA Cycling SafeSport program takes a comprehensive approach, incorporating

multiple strategies aimed to eliminate risks and ensure athlete and member safety. In
conjunction with policy changes and criminal background checks, the SafeSport program
utilizes an educational component to strengthen our members' knowledge and
understanding of healthy professional boundaries and how to minimize high-risk situations.

To ensure USA Cycling coaches, staff, and other applicable members are trained and
educated on how to identify boundary violations, potential misconduct and abuse violations,
USA Cycling requires coaches to attend biennial (every other year) SafeSport education
training. In addition to the required SafeSport training, coaches need to familiarize
themselves with USA Cycling’s SafeSport policies located on the SafeSport webpage of the
USA cycling website.

As previously indicated, the primary intention behind USA Cycling’s SafeSport Program is
to prevent misconduct and abuse from happening, but there is no guarantee the program
will be 100% effective. For times when prevention efforts aren’t enough to stop occurrences
of misconduct and abuse from happening, USA Cycling has created a reporting system
which encourages individuals to report misconduct and/or abuse.

When you suspect or observe someone violating a SafeSport policy, it is important to report
the violation immediately. Reporting can be intimidating, and sometimes it is not clear who
should be notified. In some cases a reporter may be hesitant about reporting suspected
abuse for any number of reasons. It is critical the reporter does not attempt to evaluate the
credibility or validity of allegations, especially those allegations surrounding child physical or

2
sexual abuse, as a condition for or prior to reporting their concerns. Determining the
credibility of a person making an allegation and the validity of the facts on which an
allegation is based are the responsibility of USA Cycling and/or law enforcement/child
protection officials. Coaches are beholden to the USA Cycling Code of Conduct (see Code
of Conduct and Ethics section starting on page 7) and are thereby required to report any
suspected misconduct, abuse, Code of Conduct violations as well as any other violations of
SafeSport policies. (Please familiarize yourself with the misconduct and reporting policy on
the SafeSport webpage of USA Cycling’s website for more details.)

Criminal Background Check (CBC)

USA Cycling requires all of its certified coach applicants to complete and “pass” a criminal
background check (CBC). A criminal background check is one tool USA Cycling utilizes to
safeguard participants and to ensure its members are afforded a safe environment in which
all athletes can pursue their athletic goals. It is also to make certain USA Cycling has acted
in good faith to be in compliance with all recommended guidelines for the protection of
athletes by non-profit organizations.

CBCs are utilized as a preventive risk management tool. USA Cycling uses National Center
for Safety Initiatives (NCSI) as their authorized search organization. NCSI provides a full
screening that works in accordance of recommended guidelines established by the National
Council for Youth Sports (NCYS).

As a prospective USA Cycling coach, USA Cycling requires biennial CBCs. The fee for the
CBC is the responsibility of the applicant. CBCs can take up to 14 business days to
complete and applicants will be issued a “Red Light/Green Light” designation. A “Green
Light” finding indicates an individual is suitable for participation in USA Cycling with
regard to a CBC. A “Red Light” finding indicates an individual is not suitable for
participation in USA Cycling with regard to a CBC.

If a coach does not receive a “Green Light” on their CBC, a coaching license will not be
issued. If NCSI has questions concerning a CBC, the applicant will be contacted by NCSI
and given the opportunity to correct potential errors in the applicant’s record or provide
additional information prior to issuing a “Red Light.” In such situation, USA Cycling will be
notified.

A CBC is valid for two years from the date the background check is completed by NCSI.
Once logged in to the USA Cycling website, you may track your CBC due date on the
license tab.

Please visit the USA Cycling website for detailed instructions on completing the CBC
process. Coaches holding licenses with USA Cycling and USA Triathlon can make
arrangements for the background check results to be shared between the two organizations.
For more information on how to have your background check results shared, visit the USA
Cycling CBC procedure located on the coaching webpage.

3
Coaching License Application
The coaching license application is available in the Coaches section of the USA Cycling
website. Please complete and sign all waivers and return them to USA Cycling. Instructions
for submitting the application are listed at the top of the application. Completed forms may
be faxed to 719.434.4325 or scanned and emailed to coaches@usacycling.org.

Continuing Education
USA Cycling expects certified coaches to remain current on training methods by attending
seminars, conferences, summits, etc. which provide learning opportunities. Coaches are
required to upkeep 40 Continuing Education Units (CEUs) every two years. These can be
obtained in a variety of methods: webinars, clinics, seminars, workshops, conferences,
camps, written articles, certifications, etc. The required SafeSport training is worth three (3)
CEUs towards license renewal. Please include this on your CEU report form when
renewing. Specific education requirements as well as a list of approved CEU providers are
listed on the Coaches section of the USA Cycling website.

Acknowledgements
This manual is the latest incarnation of what initially started as the Sport Coach Manual. It
then became the Club Coach Manual and then the Level 3 Coaching Manual with its many
variations. The content has changed over time. Over the years many people have
contributed to the manual to make it what it is today.

USA Cycling appreciates the efforts of the following people who have contributed to the
manual over time and to the USA Cycling Coaching Education program:

Susie Barton-Stetson Barney King

Ed Burke, Ph.D. Yvonne Kingon
Sam Callahan David Mayer-Oakes
Chris Carmichael Stephen McGregor, Ph.D.
Phil Claud Matt McNamara
Andy Coggan, Ph.D. Clark Natwick
Betsy Davis Mike Niederpruem
Kristen Dieffenbach, Ph.D. Suzie Riewald, Ph.D.
Kevin Dessart Benjamin Sharp
J. Andrew Doyle, Ph.D. Jennifer Sharp
Renee Duprel Jon Whiteman
Mark Fasczewski Derick Williamson
Al Gandolfi Doreen Smith-Williams
Stephanie Girard Danny Van Haute
Calvin Jones Roger Young
Doug Kaufman

Please visit www.usacycling.org Coaches Program page for additional details on coaching
education.

4
 2
Chapter

Being a Coach

T
he title “coach” is an important one and anyone undertaking being a
coach should honor the title, position and responsibility associated with
it. Coaches determine the kind of experience an athlete will have with
sports. A great coach is one who knows how to communicate and listen
to athletes in a way which gets results. The goal of great coaching is to guide,
inspire and empower athletes to realize and develop their full potential .

A good cycling coach will know the sport and have an in -depth understanding
from fundamental skills to advanced tactics and strategy. They will plan for the
season, understand the progressive nature of training adaptation, know USA
Cycling and UCI rules, and provide a simple yet structured training environment
for athletes to succeed.

A good cycling coach will seek out new information. They will stay up to date on
current training techniques, seek tips from elite coaches and athletes , constantly
be in search of new research, attend coaching clinics and camps, listen to
webinars on current topics, and be open to growing and improving.

Coaches play a big role in motivating and inspiring their athletes. They play a
critical part in keeping a sport fun, fresh and challenging. Setting realistic
expectations and stressing performance goals versus outcome go als can help an
athlete understand the difference between perceived failure and success.

Athletes and their needs vary widely. Individualized communication to help

motivate and inspire different athletes is an art. Screaming and yelling at one
athlete may spark a completely different response than a soft, gentle approach for
another. Know your athlete. Know how to communicate effectively by explaining
ideas clearly, set clearly defined goals, and give athletes direct feedback. Listen
carefully and be flexible to adapting their training plan if necessary.

A good coach leads by example and adheres to the same rules they expect their
athletes to adhere to. Coaches display commitment to their athletes and look out
for the athlete’s best interests. A great coach w orks on all of these areas and is

5
always looking to improve their coaching ability. They also use their mistakes
and failures and those of their athletes as valuable learning opportunities.

For more information on what makes a good coach great, we recommend visiting the
following sources:
www.positivecoach.org
competitvedge.com

“Double-goal coaches never lose sight of the unique opportunity they have to use sports to teach
important aspects in life, such as hard work, fair play, teamwork, resilience, delayed
gratification, and how to compete fiercely and with class. They also recognize their enormous
potential to impact the course of lives, often more so than any other adult in athletes’ lives other
than parents. They realize their words and actions – even a single word or single action – good
or bad, might be remembered for a lifetime.” (Source: The Positive Coaching Alliance,
www.positivecoach.org)

Code of Conduct
The USA Cycling Code of Conduct was created to educate both coaches and athletes
through self-awareness concerning controversial or questionable areas of concern. The Code
outlines standard behaviors in specific areas.

Since coaching is a service-based vocation, coaches should strive to educate, train and
improve an athlete’s performance and potentially their life. The integrity of any profession is
determined by how individuals present themselves and how they conduct business.
Exemplary practices are built on a strong reputation, credibility and respect.

Coaches who act in an unprofessional, unethical, illegal or immoral manner can lead to
serious consequences not only for that coach, but also for other coaches in the profession.
Potential damages can be:

 Harm to the athlete (physically and/or psychologically)

 Loss of credibility
 Litigation
 Poor public perception of cycling coaches

Professional Coaching
USA Cycling considers all licensed coaches as ‘professional’ whether the coach is receiving
compensation or acting as a volunteer. Along with the designation as a ‘professional’ comes
a high-level behavior standard. First and foremost, professional coaching actions and
practices are conducted with the best interests of the athlete in mind at all times. Among
other things, a professional coach is also responsible for setting appropriate relationship
boundaries, providing accurate and sound training advice, and for conducting oneself in an
appropriate professional manner at all times.

All USA Cycling licensed coaches are beholden to the USA Cycling Code of Conduct
(Code). The Code serves as a covenant between USA Cycling and its licensed members to
uphold the most important values, standards of conduct, and business standards of USA

6
Cycling. In a more concrete sense, the Code is a set of rules outlining the responsibilities
and proper practices for all USA Cycling members.

Beginning in 2015, the Code will be presented to all persons purchasing a license through
the USA Cycling website and an electronic signature and agreement to the Code will be
required in order to obtain licensure/membership. From time to time the Code may
change; it is the responsibility of each coach to remain current with the most current Code.

Adherence to the Code is a requirement for continued membership. A violation of the

Code could result in temporary or permanent suspension from USA Cycling. The following
is the 2015 approved USA Cycling Code of Conduct:

USA Cycling Code of Conduct

The standards set forth in the USA Cycling Code of Conduct (Code) and the Athlete
Protection Policies (APP) are mandatory and must be followed by all Athletes, Coaches,
Clubs, Committee Members, Independent Contractors, Local Associations, Mechanics,
Officials, Program Managers and Directors, Race Directors, Soigneurs, Team Managers and
Directors, USA Cycling Board of Directors Members, USA Cycling Employees, Volunteers,
and all other USA Cycling Licensees and Participants (collectively, “any participant held
accountable by this Code”). The Code and APP are intended to be comprehensive and easily
understood, but they are not intended to be exhaustive or complete.

In some instances, the Code and APP deal fully with the subject covered. In other cases,
however, when the subject addressed is more complex, the SafeSport Committee will
provide additional guidance in making interpretations, determinations, and adjudications.
Our Code and APP operate in tandem with the policies and procedures of our organization,
our staff and with all applicable U.S. and foreign laws and regulations. Where differences
exist, because of local customs, norms, laws and regulations, we require the use of the
highest standard of behavior or the most restrictive requirement that applies.

Section 1
USA Cycling grants membership to individuals and groups. The membership may, therefore, be
withdrawn or denied after appropriate due process by USA Cycling at any time where USA Cycling
determines a member or prospective member's conduct is inconsistent with the mission of the
organization or the best interest of the sport and those who participate in it.

In order to assist all members and to better serve the interests of those who participate in
cycling, USA Cycling has adopted this Code of Conduct.

Section 2
Any member or prospective member of USA Cycling may be sanctioned under the racing rules, fined,
suspended, denied membership, censured, placed on probation, or expelled from USA Cycling after
being afforded the right to a hearing under the USA Cycling Administrative Grievance Policy [PDF], if
such member violates the provisions of the USA Cycling Code of Conduct, set forth in Section 3 below,
or aids, abets or encourages another person to violate any of the provisions of the USA Cycling Code of
Conduct.

7
Section 3
The following shall be considered violations of the USA Cycling Code of Conduct:

(a) Violation of anti-doping provisions as established by the UCI, WADA, USADA or the
USOC.

(b) The illegal possession, transportation or distribution of drugs or the possession,

transportation or distribution of any substances listed on the recognized list of banned
substances from WADA or USADA.

(c) Violation of the UCI’s Cycling Regulations ‘Ban on Injections’.

(d) Any violation of the USA Cycling APP.

(e) Conviction of, imposition of a deferred sentence for, or any plea of guilty or no contest at
any time, past or present for (i) any felony, (ii) any offense involving use, possession,
distribution or intent to distribute illegal drugs or substances, or (iii) any crime involving
sexual misconduct.

(f) Discrimination in violation of USAC Bylaw D or Section 220522(a) (8) of the Ted
Stevens Olympic and Amateur Sports Act, which requires USA Cycling provide an equal
opportunity to amateur athletes, coaches, trainers, managers, mechanics, administrators, and
officials to participate in amateur athletic competition, without discrimination on the basis
of race, color, religion, age, gender, sexual orientation, gender identification, or national
origin.

(g) Any non-consensual sexual contact or advance or other inappropriate sexually oriented
behavior or action directed towards any member.

(h) The use of illegal drugs or illegal performance enhancing techniques.

(i) Providing alcohol or tobacco or other substances to any participant under 21 years of age
by any participant held accountable by this Code.

(j) The abuse of alcohol in the presence of an athlete under the age of eighteen (18), by an
athlete, coach, official, trainer, or a person who, in the context of cycling, is in a position of
authority over that athlete.

(k) Consumption of alcohol by an athlete under 21 years of age regardless of the legal
drinking age established by the current state or country of tenancy.

(l) Excessive alcoholic consumption while on USA Cycling business or drinking of alcohol
and then driving while on USA Cycling business.

(m) Physical, sexual, or emotional abuse, as referenced in the APP, of an athlete by any party
held accountable by this Code and the APP.

8
(n) Any act of fraud, deception, or dishonesty in connection with any USA Cycling-related
activity.

(o) Any non-consensual physical contact, obscene language or gesture, or other threatening
language or conduct directed towards any person in connection with any USA Cycling-
related activity.

(p) Any intentional damage to private or public property while at a cycling event, race venue,
or damage to USA Cycling property.

(q) Failure of any member who is a party to or witnesses of any violation(s) contained in the
above stated USA Cycling Code of Conduct to report the specific violation to USA Cycling
immediately.

Section 4
Alleged violations of the USA Cycling Code of Conduct must be reported to USA Cycling’s Risk
Protection Manager.

As mentioned in the SafeSport Requirement section in chapter one, coaches are required to
report misconduct, abuse, Code of Conduct violations as well as any other violations of
SafeSport policies. Coaches failing to report violations are considered to be in violation of
the Code and will be investigated accordingly. USA Cycling takes adherence to the Code
very seriously.

Considering Ethics
The guiding principles below are an excerpt from the 2004 United States Olympic
Committee’s (USOC) Coaching Ethics Code:

General Principles:

Principle A: Competence
Coaches strive to maintain high standards of excellence in their work. They recognize the
boundaries of their particular competencies and the limitations of their expertise. They
provide only those services and use only those techniques for which they are qualified by
education, training or expertise. In those areas in which recognized professional standards
do not yet exist, coaches exercise careful judgment and take appropriate precautions to
protect the welfare of those with whom they work. They maintain knowledge of relevant
scientific and professional information related to the services they render, and they recognize
the need for ongoing education. Coaches make appropriate use of scientific, professional,
technical and administrative resources.

Principle B: Integrity
Coaches seek to promote integrity in the practice of coaching. Coaches are honest, fair and
respectful of others. In describing or reporting their qualifications, services, products or fees,
they do not make statements that are false, misleading or deceptive. Coaches strive to be
aware of their own belief systems, values, needs and limitations and the effect of these on

9
their work. To the extent feasible, they attempt to clarify for relevant parties the roles they
are performing and to function appropriately in accordance with those rules. Coaches avoid
improper and potentially harmful dual relationships.

Principle C: Professional Responsibility

Coaches uphold professional standards of conduct, clarify their professional roles and
obligations, accept appropriate responsibility for their behavior and adapt their methods to
the needs of different athletes. Coaches consult with, refer to, or cooperate with other
professional and institutions to the extent needed to serve the best interests of their athletes,
or other recipients of their service. Coaches’ moral standards and conduct are personal
matters to the same degree as is true for any other person, except when coaches’ conduct
may compromise their professional responsibilities or reduce the public’s trust in the
coaching profession and coaches. Coaches are concerned about ethical compliance of their
colleagues’ professional conduct. When appropriate, they consult with colleagues in order
to prevent or avoid unethical conduct.

Principle D: Respect for Participants and Their Dignity

Participants are defined as those taking part in sports – athletes and their family members,
coaches, officials, volunteers, administrator and spectators. Coaches respect the fundamental
rights, dignity and worth of all participants. Coaches are aware of cultural, individual and
role differences, including those due to age, gender, race, ethnicity, national origin, religion,
sexual orientation, disability, language, and socioeconomic status. Coaches try to eliminate
the effect on their work of biases based on those factors and they do not knowingly
participate in or condone unfair discriminatory practices.

Principle E: Concern for Others’ Welfare

Coaches seek to contribute to the welfare of those with whom they interact professionally.
In their professional actions, coaches consider the welfare and rights of their athletes and
other participants. When conflicts occur among coaches’ obligations or concerns, they
attempt to resolve these conflicts and to perform their roles in a responsible fashion that
avoids or minimizes harm. Coaches are sensitive to differences in power between themselves
and others, and they do not exploit or mislead other people during or beyond professional
relationships.

Principle F: Responsible Coaches

Coaches are aware of their professional responsibilities to the community and the society in
which they work and live. They apply and make public their knowledge of sport in order to
contribute to human welfare. Coaches try to avoid misuse of their work. Coaches comply
with the law and encourage the development of law and policies that serve the interest of the
sport. They are encouraged to contribute a portion of their professional time for little or no
personal advantage.

10
 3
Chapter

Cycling Disciplines

O
ne of the beauties of cycling as a sport is that there is an event for just
about every kind of racer. The athletes who have aptitude for sprint
and power events can participate in the 200 -meter match sprint,
kilometer or 500-meter time trial or BMX. Athletes who gravitate
toward endurance events can choose from the pursuit to stage racin g to cross
country mountain bike racing. Many people choose to compete in a variety of
disciplines during the course of a season, year, or lifetime.

Each cycling discipline categorizes athletes by their ability level. In road and
track racing, the categories range from category (“cat”) 5 as an entry level to cat 1
as a high level amateur racer. In mountain bike, the ability levels range from cat
3 to professional. Cyclocross starts at category 4. The highest category for both
men and women is professional (“pro”).

In BMX, riders are assigned to an age category based on their racing age. The
UCI recognizes two levels of competition: the championship level (elite and
junior categories) and the challenge level.

As an athlete gains experience or shows success at one level, t he cyclist is

“upgraded” to the next level. Specific requirements to upgrade and the rules for
each type of racing can be found in the USA Cycling rulebook available on the
USA Cycling website.

Road Racing
Road races fall into two basic types of competitions: time trials and mass start
races. The time trial may be an individual time trial (TT) or a team time trial
(TTT) and cover a variety of distances. Mass start road races begin with the
competitors starting at the same time and involve strategic and tactical decisions
along with teamwork for success.

Time Trials
Time trials (TT) can include the individual time trial, a hill climb time trial, and a team time trial.
For specific rules on time trials, please review the USA Cycling rulebook.

11
In the individual time trial (ITT), each rider starts at a predetermined time interval (30 seconds,
one minute, two minutes). Each cyclist is on the course alone unless the racer catches a rider who
started earlier. Drafting is not permitted.

The length of the TT depends on course design, course availability, age of the competitors, etc.
Juniors and older racers often compete in time trials 20 kilometers (roughly 12 miles) in length;
elite men and women compete in time trials as long as 40 kilometers (25 miles). In the United
States time trials are often on an out-and-back course involving a turn around. Being able to
negotiate the turn is a skill a good time trialist needs to develop.

A related event to the time trial is the hill climb time trial. The hill climb TT usually involves only
climbing not descending the hill. The team TT involves two or more cyclists working together.
Members of the team share the lead by pulling at the front in order to share the workload.

Mass Start Road Races

The mass start road race involves a large number of competitors who all begin at
the same time from the same location. Mass start road races include the following
kind of events:

 Road Races

 Criteriums

 Stage Races
Road races are mostly held on public roads with the length of the race dependent
on the age or ability level of the cyclists, the availability of the road and the
terrain over which the race will be held. Races may be held on a single loop that
the cyclists must navigate several times (sometimes called a circuit race) or the
race may be point-to-point perhaps starting in one town and ending in another.
Riders in beginner categories will compete in shorter events than those at higher
categories.

Criteriums are races typically held on short, closed courses. The race common ly
lasts an hour or so. Some races may be an hour plus a predetermined number of
laps. Race promoters will encourage vigorous competition through “primes”
(pronounced “preems”). Primes are prizes (cash or merchandise) offered to the
winner of a specific lap or by some other criteria.

A Stage Race is a type of road race taking place over several days. Stage races may
involve a time trial (and/or team time trial), a road race, a criterium or some
combination of all three. The winner of the stage race is the c yclist with the
lowest cumulative time. Time bonuses (or reductions of time) can be awarded for
winning stages or for being the first to cross an intermediate spot during a race.
Each day’s race will have a winner, but it is possible for the overall winner to
never win a stage. In addition to the overall winner (also known as General
Classification or GC), there are often competitions which allow other cyclists to
be recognized. Recognition is given to the athlete leading that competition by
being awarded a special jersey to wear during the race. Competitions include

12
sprint, king (or queen) or the mountain, most points, most aggressive rider, best
young rider, etc. These categories are awarded points based on either being the
first (or one of the first) acro ss the finish line or an intermediate checkpoint on
the course. For instance, the King of the Mountain (KOM) competition, the first
rider to crest the designated mountain or hill will gain points for the KOM
competition. There is also a team competition wh ere the lowest cumulative time
of the team members is the winner. Stage racing requires a lot of teamwork and
strategy becomes critical.

Mountain Bike Racing

The beginning of mountain bike racing started in Marin Count y, California in
the 1970s when young cyclists went in search of new thrills by flying down rocky
paths on vintage bicycles. In 1979, two of these adventurers – Gary Fisher and
Charlie Kelly – became mountain bike pioneers and created a company to sell
modified bicycles. By 1983, every major bike manufacturer joined the craze and
mass-produced similar bikes to what Fisher and Kelly had designed.

The first organized competitions are generally credited to Velo Club Tamalpais.
This group organized the Repack Downhill race, which was held, regula rly
between 1976 and 1979 just across the Golden Gate Bridge from San Francisco.
Riders came from all over the world and the media soon caught on. The
discipline took hold almost immediately and the first World Championship was
organized by the UCI in 1990. A world cup followed the next year and cross -
country mountain bike racing debuted as an Olympic sport during the 1996
Atlanta Games.

Cross-Country Olympic (XCO)

A Cross-Country Olympic race is a mass start competition held on a circuit course
comprised of forest roads, off-road single-track trails and unpaved dirt or gravel roads. The
number of laps depends on the level of competitors as well as the length of the
course. Professional races typically have finish times between 1.5 to 2 hours with lap times
between 12-15 minutes. Race distances range from 15-20 miles (24-32 kilometers) for men
and 13-18 miles (20-29 kilometers) for women. Racers pass through the start/finish area at
the start of each lap. The XCO is the only mountain bike event held at the Olympic Games
as well as the World Championships.

Cross-Country Marathon (XCM)

A Cross-Country Marathon (XCM) is a longer version of the Cross-Country event but is held
on a longer circuit usually one long loop or on a point-to-point course. Race distances may
range from 40 miles to 100 miles. Cross-Country Marathon is a UCI World Championship
event.

Short Track Cross-Country (STXC)

Similar to a road criterium, the Short Track Cross-Country event is a short circuit mass start
event. The course is usually three-quarters of a mile and winds through the central part of
the race venue. The race is approximately twenty minutes in length and does not have a
specific number of laps. The lead riders usually change throughout the race, with the
strongest racers taking the lead as the race winds down. During the race, riders falling more

13
than half a lap behind the race leader are usually removed from the race. Short Track Cross-
Country is not contested at the World Championships.

Downhill (DH)
Considered a “gravity” race, the Downhill is a time trial event that requires riders to
maneuver over a descending course. While gravity plays a role, competitors still pedal.
Competitors typically depart the start line in timed intervals (usually 30 seconds apart).
Professional downhill course times can range from four to eight minutes, depending on the
course. Racers will face several challenges including logs, boulders, tight single track and
roots. The racer with the fastest time is the winner. Because of the increased risk for injury,
downhill racers usually wear chest, elbow and knee protection pads. Downhill is a World
Championship event.

Enduro (END)
Enduro is the newest mountain bike discipline. Enduro races are a form of downhill racing
but the events include several timed downhill stages as well as several liaison stages that are
untimed. Enduro events may be completed in one day or over the course of two or more
days. The times a competitor achieves in all the timed downhill stages will be accumulated
for a total time and the rider with the lowest time is the winner. An Enduro downhill stage
is comprised of varied off-road terrain. The track will typically include a mixture of narrow
and wide, slow and fast forest paths and tracks over a mixture of surfaces. Each timed stage
must be predominantly descending but small pedaling or uphill sections are
acceptable. Untimed liaison stages can include either mechanical ski-lift, pedal powered
climbs or a mixture of both. A race organizer can provide a maximum of one technical
assistance zone with outside technical assistance only being allowed in this designated
zone. A rider may change any equipment on their frame in this zone but the frame and
front/rear suspension of the bike must not be changed during the race. Enduro is not
contest at the World Championships, yet.

Dual Slalom (DS)

Like slalom ski races, the Dual S lalom sends two competitors head to head down
two parallel slalom courses. The two courses are as identical as possible, with the
average time differential of less than a half second. Competitors are given the
opportunity to ride each of the pedaled courses once. The rider with the lowest
combined time is the winner of that heat. Riders who win the heat advance to the
next round. Courses usually consist of tight, twisty turns, berms, and jumps.
Because of the jumps, dual slalom also offers racers a chance to show off their
talents in the air. Dual Slalom is not contested at the World Championships.

Mountain Four-Cross (4X)

Mountain Four-Cross pits four riders against each other in a head-to-head
manner. Sometimes referred to as Four -Cross, a group of four riders begin
together at the top of a technical, challenging and sometimes dangerous course.
The first two riders to cross the finish line advance to the next round. Courses
are short in length and consist of jumps, berms, and tight, twisty turns. Four -
Cross is a World Championship event.

14
Observed Trials (OT)
Riders attempt to negotiate an obstacle course without putting down a foot or
using a hand for balance. Observed Trials competitions usually include mud,
rocks, water or other natural hurdles. Observed Trials is a World Championships
event.

Track Racing
Anatomy of Track
Track racing takes place on a velodrome. Because a velodrome is a unique setting, this section
includes information about the velodrome before an explanation of the events.

Velodromes vary in size from 140 meters to 500 meters. The shape can also vary from circular to
more of an oval; even the surface can vary (concrete, asphalt, wood and even grass). International
level competitions (World Cups, World Championships and Olympics) are contested on 250-
meter wood-surfaced tracks indoors or covered. Velodromes can be banked and the steepness of
the banking depends on the size of the track with shorter tracks typically have steeper banking.

Tracks typically have a tunnel leading to the infield. These tunnels offer safe
passage to the infield without disruptin g racing or training and reduce the chance
of damage to the track surface.

The infield is where athletes can set up an area for warm up and cool down or
take breaks between training and racing.

The apron is the flat surface directly below the banking that looks similar to a
sidewalk. An apron is used for entering or exiting the tra ck. Riders will be
disqualified for using the apron during a race.

The blue band is located at the bottom of the track and usually forms part of the apron. The
blue band is also off limits during racing except in emergency situations.

The pole line, or measurement line, is the black line that runs the entire length of the track
just above the inner edge. The official length of the track is measured on the inner edge of
this line. Racers may ride on or below the pole line but above the blue band.

The sprinter’s line is the red line. Multiple rules for racing, training and etiquette are associated
with the sprinter’s lane and the red line. For example, during the final 200 meters of any race,
the lead rider may not come out of the sprinter’s lane once the rider has entered it.

The blue line or the stayer’s line is located halfway to two-thirds of the way up the track. It
has no bearing on racing but is used as a benchmark during training sessions. Generally
riders engaged in fast efforts use the lower portion of the track while slower riders stay above
the blue line such as during recovery periods between fast efforts.

The railing or boards around the top of the track is known as the rail and forms the upper
boundary of the racing surface.

The straights are the longer, less steep portions of the track between the turns. The home

15
straight is where the start/finish line is located. The opposite straight is known as the back
straight.

The turns are the most steeply banked parts of the track. The first turn from the start line is
turn #1; the rider then exits through turn #2 and heads down the back straight into turn #3
and exits from turn #4 onto the home straight.

The finish line is the black line on top of a 72 centimeter (cm) wide, white band that crosses
the width of the track on the home straight. The judge’s stand is located on the infield
adjacent to the finish line.

The 200-meter line will be located between turns #2 and #3 on tracks longer than 200
meters. The distance from this line to the finish line is 200 meters. The line is used for the
200-meter time trial to seed the riders for the 200-meter match sprint.

The pursuit lines are the two red lines located in the middle of each straight. The pursuit
lines mark the start and finish locations for races like the pursuit, team sprint, kilometer time
trial and 500-meter time trial.

Training Etiquette
In training, safe and proper use of the track involves four lanes of traffic and four rules. As
discussed, the fastest lane (also referred to as the sprinter lane) is located at the bottom of the
track between the red and black lines. Riders should only occupy this lane if they are
performing a specific task. For example:
a. A 5 lap wind up to finish warm up,
b. A timed effort of a set distance, or
c. Practicing their standing start technique.

The most commonly ridden lane on the track is slightly above the blue line as it is used for
warm up, paceline work, endurance training, interval preparation, etc. The third lane is the
highest lane and therefore offers the most potential energy and speed to the rider. The third
lane is the width of riding space immediately next to the rail and is used to wind up to top
speed before dropping down the track and into the sprinter’s lane. This lane should only be
occupied for a specific purpose. The area just above the sprinter lane and below the blue line
should be left open to allow for faster riders to pass. For example, if a young rider is doing a 1
km timed effort in the sprinter’s lane and an adult sprinter wants to do a timed effort for
200m, the adult sprinter would just pass the slower moving young rider as necessary in the
space between the sprinters lane and the blue line. This allows the track to be shared. If the
passing lane is not available there could be trouble, or at least frustration felt by some riders.

The four rules of etiquette are simple but important to allow for the fact that the track bikes
do not have brakes. First, always pedal. Since track bikes are fixed-gear bikes, the pedals are
connected to the wheel through the chain. Thus, speed regulation is performed through the
feet with forward pedaling (propulsion), back-pedaling (slowing), and soft-pedaling (speed
maintenance). If the rider stops pedaling, the rider can be thrown from the bike.

Secondly, riders should always ride predictable lines. Riding erratically and going up and
down the track is not an acceptable action on the track. Riders must learn to ride the track in

16
a fashion that allows other riders to predict their movements. The easiest line to predict is a
straight one, but when a rider needs or wants to move up or down track, there is a rule to
complement the second rule. A rider coming out of turns 2 or 4 typically moves down the
track for the purpose of leaving the track or diving down track to start a timed effort. Moving
up track typically occurs entering turns 1 and 3 to reduce speed after a timed effort or to pull
off the front of a paceline. Riders should anticipate these actions.

The third rule is to look before changing your lane or direction of travel. If a rider is in the slow
lane and wants to start a timed effort, the rider will have to cross the entire track to get from the
rail to the black line. If the rider looks to see it is safe to perform this action, the rider is free to
drop down and go hard. If there is traffic, the rider is required to wait to start the effort until
crossing the track is safe. The same is true for riders as they enter the track or move up track.
When a rider looks for traffic, the rider should be sure to look for riders who are coming with
speed, so looking only to the side may not be sufficient. Look backward! It is also a good idea to
make mental notes about the traffic on the track. As riders advance they will develop the ability
to time the traffic and will have more knowledge of the traffic dangers.

Finally, riders must communicate with one another during training. Discussions with other
riders on the infield regarding workout plans are a key component to safety. Communication
continues on the track, but such communication needs to be short and sharp. Therefore, single
words and short phrases are better. “Stick” and “Stay” indicate to riders they should hold their
line because someone wants to pass or they are doing something that is making someone else
uncomfortable. “Rail” indicates to a rider someone else wants to wind up for a timed effort and
a rider is too close to the rail. The rider in question should move away from the rail as quickly,
but predictably, as possible to be courteous. If you are winding up for an effort and hear “rail”,
you should continue as planned because you may pull away from the rider behind you, or they
are winding up faster and will have to pass you. Other short phrases or words can be used to
convey meaning, but full conversations should be reserved for the infield. Body language is also a
useful method of communication. “Popping” or flapping the elbow indicates to riders your
intention to pull off the front of a paceline or to pull up track at the end of a timed effort. Also,
riders should become adept at reading body language of other riders to know their intent. For
example, there is a distinct difference in body position and movement for a rider who is riding as
fast as possible for time and when they finish the effort.

Riders should respect the four lanes on the track; fast/sprinter lane (between red and black lines),
passing lane (between the black line and blue line), medium (above the blue line), and slow (next to
the rail). Riders need to have a specific purpose when riding on the track, they should be in the
correct lane for the purpose they have, and they should respect these rules of etiquette to share and
help to ensure the safety of other riders.

Racing Etiquette
In racing, the first rule of racing etiquette is that riders must know, understand, and respect the
rules for the given race. There are many races on the track and therefore slight variations to the
rules. However, there are rules common to all events not individual or TTT. The only lane on
the track associated with the rules is the sprinter’s lane (between the red and black lines). Riders
must know how much lateral distance they can travel, when it is appropriate to pull out of line to
pass versus when they must stay in line, and how to fight for wheels in the paceline. Accidents
will happen, but it is not acceptable to cause a crash in the name of trying to win. On the other
hand, riders who race politely must simply be stronger to win, and will not win often or in the
long run as they progress into deeper fields. Riders should be assertive, not passive or aggressive.

17
The second rule of racing etiquette is that riders must act gradually. In the paceline, riders
must be comfortable moving into one another without bumping or touching wheels in order
to get position. If a rider moves into the paceline gradually they have a chance to get in line
without causing a crash and without going all the way to the back of the line.

The third and fourth rules of racing etiquette will be familiar: look before changing lanes and
communicate with other riders. In summary, if these four rules of etiquette make their way
into young and beginning riders’ actions then racing will be assertive, safe, and within the
rules.

Specific rules of the events listed below can be found at both the USA Cycling and UCI
website.

Match Sprint
Men and women compete in the match sprint. The match sprint involves two cyclists going
“head-to-head” in a tournament style format2. The winner from each match advances to face
another competitor. Riders are seeded based on a 200-meter time trial in which the rider is
alone on the track and races against the clock. The faster riders are then seeded against slower
riders. In major international competitions, riders must win the best-of-three starting in the
quarterfinals. The match sprint requires explosive power, speed, speed-endurance and tactical
knowledge.

The following components are important considerations in the match sprint:

 Manipulating opponents
 Strengths and weaknesses of opponents
 Effect of height
 Effect of distance to your opponent
 Distance to the finish
 One’s own strengths and weaknesses
 Bike handling skills

Time Trials
Men compete in a one-kilometer time trial and women compete in a 500-meter time trial. The
time trial is one person on the track racing against the clock from a standing start. The fastest time
wins. Explosive power is necessary.

Pursuit
At the elite level, the individual men compete in the 4000-meter pursuit and the individual
women compete over 3000 meters. Juniors and masters race shorter distances than their elite
counterparts. Two riders are on the track at the same time. One person starts on the home
straight and the other starts on the back straight. Pursuits have qualifying times where the
four fastest times move onto the medal round. The individual with the fastest time from
qualifying faces the second fastest person for first place; the third and fourth fastest cyclists

18
will compete for third place. In the medal rounds, if one rider catches and passes (thus the
“pursuit”) the other, that person wins. During qualifying, riders are racing against the clock
for seeding purposes.

The team pursuit is similar in format to the individual pursuit. Riders share the workload by
spending short bouts at the front of the pace line. The elite men and women will have four
team members and race 4000 meters. For both the men and the women, the clock stops
when the third rider crosses the finish line.

Pacing and high aerobic and anaerobic fitness are keys to success. In the team pursuit, the
ability to ride close to the rear wheel of another rider and to make the transition from leader
to the last person on the paceline are key skills.

Keirin
The keirin involves up to nine racers who follow a motorcycle or “derny” around the track
for about 2000 meters. The speed increases with each lap. With about 500 meters to go,
the motorcycle pulls away and the racers sprint to the finish. Strategy and the ability to
ride fast in a pack are critical skills.

Scratch Race
At the elite level, men race 15 kilometers and women race 10 kilometers. The winner of the
race is the first person to cross the line. Good aerobic fitness is important, but so is having
the ability to “explode” and attack. Since the race is also contested in a pack, bike handling
and tactics play a role. The scratch race has a mass start.

Points Race
Elite men race 40 kilometers while elite women race 25 kilometers. Juniors and masters race
shorter distances. The points race is a mass start event. During the event, points are awarded
for being the first cyclist across the line. For instance if points are awarded every 10 laps, the
first person across the line picks up 5 points, second place picks up 3 points, third place
earns 2 points, and fourth place earns 1 point. No points are awarded after fourth place. A
rider lapping the field earns 20 points. The rider with the highest point total wins the race.
High aerobic fitness and good tactics are key elements to the point race.

Madison
Also called the “American” the Madison is a fifty-kilometer event at the elite level. Two
riders participate as a team and take turns racing much like a relay. Points awarded are
similar to a points race, while lapping the field takes precedence over point leaders. High
aerobic fitness and good tactics are key elements to the Madison.

Team Sprint
Sometimes called the Olympic sprint, this event is a three-lap event with three riders on a team
for men and two-lap event with two riders for women. From a standing start, the three riders
start out and quickly get into a pace line. One rider leads the first lap and then “drops off” with
the second rider taking the lead for the second lap. At the end of the second lap, the second
rider pulls off and the third cyclist races alone to the finish. The team with the fastest time
wins.

19
Omnium
The omnium is a single competition held over two days consisting of six events run with a maximum
number of riders set by the track limit. Competitors compete in a scratch race, individual pursuit (4000
meters for men, 3000 meters of women), elimination, time trial (kilometer for men, 500 meters for
women), flying lap, and points race. Points are awarded during the first five events with first place getting
40 points, second place shall be awarded 38 points, third place awarded 36 points, etc. During the final
points race, riders shall add to, and lose points from, their point totals based on laps gained and lost, and
points won in sprints. The person with the most points wins. There are provisions for tiebreakers as well.
The omnium best suits an athlete with all around abilities.

Cyclocross
Cyclocross (‘cross) is a discipline combining the speed and tactics of road racing with the finesse
and bike handling skill of mountain biking. Unlike other disciplines, cyclocross riders are required
to dismount their bikes and negotiate obstacles at various points along the course. It is contested
on a short (roughly 1.5 mile) circuit that is comprised of different off-road terrain. The terrain
depends on the location and may include any combination of the following: grass, cinder paths,
dirt paths, muddy fields, etc.). Short stretches of pavement connect the various terrains.
Depending on course design, riders will dismount from their bikes one to five times per circuit to
negotiate man-made barricades, unrideable muddy stretches, stairs or even steep hills. In North
America and Europe, cyclocross races are held in the fall and winter. Because of the time of year,
mud is a common ingredient on a ‘cross course.

The cyclocross bike is more similar to a road bike than a mountain bike. The tires used for a
cyclocross race are wider and knobbier than a road tire, but less so than a mountain bike tire. For
specific rules on the cyclocross bike, please see the USA Cycling rulebook.

Elite men race for an hour and elite women for about 45 minutes. Cyclocross requires excellent
bike handling skills especially in terms of fast dismounts and mounts of the bike. Cyclocross also
requires a high level of aerobic fitness.

BMX
Bicycle motocross (BMX) is contested on bikes with 20 and 24-inch wheels designed to be
raced off road. These bicycles are also categorized as juvenile bikes in the bike industry as
they are marketed to a young demographic. Some riders start racing BMX as early as 5 years
old and some parents and even grandparents have been known to participate in events all
over the world.

BMX races are quick sprint races, usually 30-45 seconds in time and the BMX tracks range
from 900-1200 feet in length. Each BMX track will hold a maximum of eight riders per race;
a race can consist of multiple heat races (motos) and qualifiers until they get down to the
fastest in each group. The tracks range in technical difficulty with big and small jumps,
double or triple jumps, rhythm sections (which include multiple combinations of jumps),
step up or step down jumps, and the jumps range in length from 10 to 40 feet in
distance. The corners or turns are called berms and are usually 90 or 180 degrees. The
berms banking can vary in height as well as the surface. Where rain and moisture are a

20
factor, BMX tracks will pave the berms with asphalt to help keep the surface compact and
manage rain run-off.

The highest level of BMX racing is the Elite class (men and women) category and these
athletes are 19 years of age and older. The UCI Supercross World Cup is the premier series,
and these events are designed exclusively for the elite class and the tracks are very big in size
and technically challenging in design. The start hill is an 8-meter (26 ft) tall ramp and riders
have been known to hit speeds up to 45 miles per hour in the first three seconds of a
Supercross race. The Olympic Games utilizes the Supercross format. Explosive power and
good bike handling skills are critical for success. The winner is the person who reaches the
finish line first.

BMX Categories
A rider must be at least 5 years of age (refers to the real calendar age on the day of the race)
to compete in a UCI sanctioned event. The rider will be assigned to an age category based
on racing age. The UCI recognizes two levels of competition: the championship level (elite
and junior categories) and the challenge level.

In the UCI championship category for standard bicycles, the Championship Level, has the
following 43 competition categories:
 Elite Men 19 and over
 Elite Women 19 and over
 Junior Men 17 and 18
 Junior Women 17 and 18
 Elite Men Time Trials 19 and over
 Elite Women Time Trials 19 and over
 Junior Men Time Trials 17 and 18
 Junior Women Time Trials 17 and 18

The UCI recognizes the following categories in the Challenge level:

Standard Bicycles
 Boys: 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16
 Girls: 5-7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16
 Men: 17-24, 25-29, 30 and over
 Women: 17 and over
Cruisers
 Boys/Men: 12 and under, 13-14, 15-16, 17-24, 25-29, 30-34, 35-39, 40-44,
45 and over
 Girls/Women: 12 and under, 13-14, 15-16, 17-24, 25-29, 30-34, 35-39, 40-
44, 45 and over

Olympic Games and UCI World Championships

The table below offers a look at the events contested at the Olympic Games and
sanctioned by the UCI as World Championship races. Events may be added or
removed in the future.

21
 Event World Championships Olympics
BMX M, W M, W1
Time Trial M, W M, W
XCO Mountain Bike M, W M, W
Mountain Bike M, W None
Marathon
Downhill M, W None
4 Cross M, W None
Dual Slalom M, W None
Observed Trials M, W None
200m Match Sprint M, W M, W
Kilometer TT M, W None
500m TT M, W None
Individual Pursuit M, W None
Team Pursuit M, W M, W
Keirin M, W M, W
Scratch Race M, W None
Points Race M, W M, W
Madison M None
Team Sprint M, W M, W
Omnium M M, W
Cyclocross M, W None
Road Race M, W M, W

Summary
As you can see, cycling offers a variety of events to meet the interest of a variety of athletic types.
Individuals who are more sprint or short duration focused have events like BMX, downhill or
several track events. People who are more endurance focused and who like to ride the trails can
choose OXC mountain bike or XCM. For people who like to be a part of a team and ride on the
road, mass start road races are available.

While elite athletes will typically focus on one event (or closely related events), endurance cyclists
can ride the pursuit or points race on the track while also competing in road racing and maybe
cyclocross during the fall and winter months.

For young riders, USA Cycling prefers they get exposed to as many of the cycling disciplines as
possible and wait to specialize until they are developed and have a chance to experiment with
different events.

22
 4
Chapter

Para-Cycling

T
He first Olympic-like games for athletes with athletes with disabilities
were held in Rome in 1960, directly following the Olympic Games.
Eventually dubbed, “Paralympics,” these competitions grew from having
400 participants to nearly 4,000 representing more than 140 nations.
Today, as a result of the partnership between the International Olympic
Committee (IOC) and the International Paralympic Committee (IPC), countries
bidding to host the Olympic Games must also host the Paralympic Games. The
Paralympics are the most competitive spor t opportunity for athletes with physical
disabilities.

The first Para-cycling races were held as part of the Seoul 1988 Paralympic
Games and were only open to athletes with visual impairment. In subsequent
Games, the IPC added competition categories for amputees, athletes with
cerebral palsy and other disabilities.

In 2007, the IPC turned Para -cycling governance over to the International
Cycling Union (UCI), which integrated Para -cycling rules into its regulations and
charged the national federations with doing the same. Cycling is one of 11
Paralympic sports that have been fully -integrated into exisiting sport governing
bodies. Thus, in the United States, Para -cycling is governed by the UCI and USA
Cycling. This integration allows for efficient use of re sources in developing
athletes and ultimately helps the US field stronger national teams in
international competition. Perhaps even more importantly, this integration
allows for more and better sport opportunities for cyclists with disabilities at all
levels of the sport.

US Paralympics, a division of the United States Olympic Committee (USOC),

through its variety of programs, continues to provide support not only for elite
athletes, but also for local programs and initiatives. US Paralympics supports
emerging talent and elite Para-cyclists by selecting National teams, maintaining
quadrennial performance plans, and working with USA Cycling to improve and
expand Para-cycling competition opportunities nationally.

23
Coaching an Athlete with a Disability
Coaching an athlete with a disability is not so different from coaching any other
athlete. Your job, as with the rest of your clients, is to help the athlete identify
goals, map out a plan for progressing toward those goals, and supporting the
athlete along the way. You’ll write and modify training plans, offer nutritional
advice, collect training data, analyze power files, regularly evaluate progress with
the athlete, etc.

Be Flexible, Creative and a Good Listener

The most important thing you can do as a coac h is to take the time to know the
athlete. As a certified cycling coach, you already have most of the knowledge and
tools you need to coach an athlete with a disability. But in order to make the
best use of your skills, you will need to clearly understand your client’s abilities.
Try to stay focused on what they are capable of doing and what they hope to
accomplish with training.

Promote Safety, Street Skills and Visibility

Handcycles are low to the ground, making them harder for drivers to spot than a
standard bicycle. It is important to develop athletes’ street skills and “defensive
riding” tactics especially if they are training on their own. Flags will improve a
handcycles visibility to drivers and you should encourage your athletes to use a
flag.

Handcycles are also heavy. While all but the world’s best handcyclists are
relatively slow going uphill, they can reach high speeds on the descents, so it’s
important to have a good sense of how developed your client’s handling skills are
before sending them out to do hill repeats. Also note that the turning radius of a
handcycle is approximately 20 feet so having room to maneuver when practicing
skills is important.

Standard safety features on handcycles include a draft bar behind the rear axle
(to prevent other riders from getting their front wheel too far overlapped), dual
wheel rear braking, and adequate ground clearance. Tricycles should also have
dual wheel rear braking.

Tricycles (also referred to as trikes) are notoriously hard to control, both beca use
of the nature of the bike and the cyclists’ typical range of motion. Trikes are best
ridden on non-technical courses and routes.

Cyclists with poor balance who are able to ride a standard bicycle may have
trouble holding their line. This doesn’t mean they “aren’t safe” for a group ride
but requires that others in the group know to give them extra space while riding
together. Some athletes may not have the manual dexterity to change a flat
without assistance. If your athlete is new to the sport, you may need to help them
connect with suitable riding partners and practice changing a flat.

24
Have the Same Expectations
For individuals who are frequently treated differently, cycling can provide an
opportunity to be treated the same. Athletes with disabilities are, first, athletes.
As a coach, you can help these athletes by treating them the same as you do the
rest of your clients. Maintain high expectations for participation, performance
and communication, and don’t be afraid to challenge the athlete.

Bear in mind some athletes may come to you having spent their entire life being
told they can’t do things or are discouraged from taking risks. You and the athlete
may benefit from knowing what’s possible. Many individuals think they can’t do
something until they see someone else with similar abilities doing it first.
Familiarize yourself with elite-level Para-cyclists, the distances they ride, the power
they put out, and the speeds they can reach on various types of terrain.

Advocate for Your Athletes

In order for your client to get the most out of their cycling career, there will be
times when you will need to advocate for both your client and Para -cycling in
general. Para-cycling is relatively new and opportunities for racing locally may be
sparse. Help your athletes find local competition opportunities they need to
develop and grow as a competitive cyclist.

At lower levels of racing, advocating may simply mean contacting race directors
and working with them (as well as local officials) to include Para -cyclists in
existing events, either by simply including standard bikes in an existing category
or adding a category for all handcyclists, trikes and/or all tandems. At the
national and elite level, coaches should be familiar with the UCI Para -cycling
technical regulations and classifications so they can effectively advocate for the
athletes in competition.

Integrate: Inclusion Benefits Everyone

Strive for integration as much as possible. The social opportunities afforded by
group rides and competition, the life -skills learned through recreational and
competitive sport and the health benefits of exercise are invaluable to all cyclists.
This is even truer for those whose abilities are frequently judged by outsiders who
see only their disabilities. By participating in a cycling program, athletes with
disabilities can experience being powerful and in control (of their training and
own successes), which may sharply contrast many of their other life experiences.

Coaching a cyclist with disabilities provides an opportunity to work on flexibility,

creativity, listening skills and their passion for competitive cycling. Including
athletes with disabilities benefits the cycling community as a whole. Through
friendships and relationships with disabled cyclists, able -bodied cyclists may see
their own challenges differently as a result of getting to know the challenges may
disable athletes overcome to participate in the sport. And they may find
themselves more motivated, inspired, or appreciative of the role sport plays in
their lives. Including disabled cyclists can foster camaraderie and a stronger sense
of community in your local scene.

25
Athlete Development
Para-cycling athlete development is very much the same as any other cyclist. Just
with any other cyclist, para-cyclists should first gain racing experience locally. As
cyclists gain more experience, strength and skill, they should progress toward
racing regionally, then nationally, then internationally.

Paralympic Sport Clubs are the best place to try Para -cycling for the first time.
These organizations usually maintain a fleet of handcycles, tricycles and tandems
that allow individual to borrow them for a day. Many offer group rides and match
beginning cyclists with riding partners. Participating regularly in a local
Paralympic Sport Club cycling program is a great way to prepare for joining a
local USA Cycling club. You can find more information on Paralympic Sport
Clubs on the US Paralympic website: http://www.teamusa.org/US-
Paralympics/Community/Paralympic-Sport-Clubs

Domestic Competition Opportunities

Para-cyclists should compete in USA Cycling sanctioned events where possible.
Cyclists who use standard bikes should race in any racing they are eligible. Many
local race promoters are receptive to adding fields for handcycles, trikes and
tandems.

US Handcycling coordinates a national race series where riders earn points for
top finishes. At the time of this publication, it is the only integrated cycling series
in the US, and is both an opportunity for elite handcyclists to compete against
one another but also for new developmental level cyclists to gain valuable racing
experience.

Both road and track national championships are held every year and integrated
with USA Cycling Championship events. Details can be found either on the US
Paralympic Cycling Performance Plan or the USA Cycling Championship
calendar.

International Competition Opportunities

At the upper end of the athlete development pyrami d are elite para-cyclists who
have demonstrated the strength, skills and speed to meet the US Paralympic
standards for the Emerging Athlete pool, Talent pool, and/or the National Team.

Performance standards for the Paralympic National Team are highly comp etitive.
Once on the National Team, athletes are eligible to be selected for World Cup
teams. World Championship and Paralympic teams are selected based on
performances at US National Championships.

Internationally, Para-cyclists race for UCI points at four World Cup events. As
with other UCI World Cup series, those points determine how many athletes
each nation can bring to World Championship events (held every year) and the
Paralympic Games. The UCI maintains an international Para -cycling race calendar
on their website.

26
Disciplines
The UCI sanctions Para -cycling races on the road and the track. Cyclists who race
trikes or handcycles race only on the road while those who compete on standard
bikes or tandems race both. A growing number of race promoters offe r off-road
and downhill handcycle categories at various events throughout the US, but these
events are not contested at the Paralympic Games and are not currently
sanctioned by the UCI.

Road Race and Time Trials

On the road, athletes compete in mass-start road races and individual time trials.
Road races are typically contested on circuits that range between 7 to 15km.
Climbs on the circuit must have an average gradient of not more than 8% (with
no more than 15% gradient on the steepest section) and the tot al length of
climbing must be less than 25% of the circuits distance. Tricyclists and
handcyclists (as well as junior riders) can race on a shorter, less -technically
challenging circuit than the two-wheel cyclists, with approval of the UCI.

Road race distances vary greatly between classifications (or race categories).
Tandem races are between 70km (a short women’s race) to 120km (a long men’s
race), while trikes race between 15km to 40km. Time trials are often run on the
road race circuit and distances vary from 5km to 35km, depending on a rider’s
classification, though most time trials are 20 -30km. A full listing of the minimum
and maximum distances for each race category can be found in the UCI Para -
cycling Rules.

Track Events
Tandems and standard bikes compete in the pursuit (3km or 4km) and either the
kilo (1km) or 500m at World Cup events, World Championships, and the
Paralympic Games.

A team sprint is also contested by mixed -gender teams. Riders are assigned points
based on their classification and gender. Teams must be worth a maximum of 11
points. Additional details about Para0cycling track events including the team
sprint point system can be found in the UCI Para -cycling Rules.

Eligibility
In order to be eligible for competition in the Para -cycling events, all athletes
including tandem pilots, must have a valid USA Cycling racing license. Para -
cyclists must also fit into one of the following classifications, or competitive
categories. Additionally, tandem pilots may not be a member of a UCI register ed
team, and any cyclists who were members of either a UCI Pro Team or UCI
Continental team must wait three years after the expiration of their contract
before they can pilot a tandem in Para -cycling races.

27
Minimum Disability
The Para-cycling minimum disability requirement is a loss of functional grip (the
inability to operate handlebar mounted gear and brake levers on at least one
side), or amputation of more than half of one foot.

Classification
In order to create a level playing field, Para -cycling uses a functional classification
system to determine whether an athlete is eligible to compete in Para -cycling
events and to group eligible athletes into competitive categories. Athletes are
sorted into classifications based on what they can and cannot do on a
bike/trike/handcycle.

Domestic/National Classification
Athletes must have at least a provisional classification from a domestic
classification panel in order to compete in a national championship race.
Typically, new para-cyclist will submit a Request for Classification when they
register for their first national championship event. While not common, it’s
possible for regional or local race organizers to arrange for authorized classifiers
to attend their events, provide athletes with additional opportunities to obtain
provisional classification.

At lower level races, where there are smaller fields, races are typically organized so
that all handcycles, regardless of athletes’ classifications, race together. Thus it is
generally not necessary for athletes to obtain a classification in order to compete
in local races. But if an athlete has the opportunity to be classified in the US,
they should take advantage of it.

International Classification
Athletes with a provisional domestic classification must be evalua ted and
classified by a panel of UCI-accredited classifiers, including a medical specialist, a
physio-therapist, and a sport technician at their first international competition.
Visually impaired athletes are classified by a medical classifier who speciali zes in
ophthalmology.

The UCI maintains a master list of all classified athletes and updates the list after
each major international competition. Athletes on this list can request a free
Para-cycling classification card as proof of the international classi fication.

Classification Process
The classification process consists of a physical assessment, a technical assessment
and an observation of the athlete’s first event in competition. Even athletes who
have completed this three-part process are regularly obs erved by classification
officials to ensure consistency and fairness. Athletes who are deemed by the
classification panel to have internationally misrepresented their skills and/or
abilities can face sanctions, and will not be permitted to compete. All cyc lists, but
especially those with minor or rare disabilities, should always bring
documentation of their disability to their classification appointments.

28
For athletes with neurological conditions, the physical assessment consists of
standing, running, and/or bench tests to determine muscle strength and control,
coordination on an off the bike, and how well the athlete can perform actions
necessary to operate their bike (such as steering, operating shift/brake levers and
whether they can pedal in a standing o r aerodynamic position). For athletes with
amputations, the physical assessment includes an assessment of the extent of
amputation and whether the athlete uses a prosthesis(es). Athletes with spinal
cord injuries or other locomotor issues will be assessed for their muscle strength,
joint mobility (as related to the motions needed in cycling) and trunk control.

Classifiers use a point system in evaluating an athlete’s strength, mobility,

coordination, and cycling-specific abilities. Adaptive measures and alterations to
an athlete’s bicycle/trike/handcycle can chance the number of points an athlete
gets, which may change their competitive class. This includes changes made to the
bicycle’s frame, brake system, pedal system and toe clip position, handlebars,
and/or saddle.

Following the physical and technical evaluation, athletes are observed on the road
or the track during which time classifiers are watching to get a general impression
of the cyclists and their abilities. They take into account the athlete’s p osition on
the bike and their performance in competition. Observation of the athlete in
competition can also chance an athlete’s competitive class.

Protest and Appeal

Protest and appeal procedures for an athlete’s classification are detailed in the
UCI Classification Guide.

Classifications (Competitive Categories)

Men and women compete separately in all of the following classifications. There
are four main categories of competition, based on the sort of bike an athlete uses:
tandems, bicycles, handcycles and tricycles. Athletes with visual impairment or
blindness race on tandems. Usually, athletes with one or two limbs affected by
their disability will race standard bicycles. Athletes with cerebral palsy or
significant neurological impairment generally race on tricycles.

The following descriptions are examples only. For compete information about the
classification profiles, see the UCI Classification Guide available on the UCI
Para-cycling website.

Bicycle Classifications: C5 – C1
For athletes who can ride standard bicycles, there are five competitive
classifications: C5 (the least disabled) through C1 (the most disabled).

C5: This is classification is for athletes with minimum disability. It includes

cyclists with:

- Single above the elbow amputation (either with or without prosthesis);

or

29
 - Single below the knee amputation with the use of prosthesis; or

- Minimal neurological impairments and very slight lack of

coordination on the bike.

C4: Cyclists in this classification can get on and off the bike without assis tance,
but may have some slight tremors. If a cyclist in this category has limited range of
motion in the hip or knee that prevents them from pedaling in a complete
revolution in the crank arm, they can shorten the crank arm. For example, a C4
cyclist could be one with:

- Some neurological impairment; or

- With double arm amputations; or

- Single below the knee amputation (using prosthesis) and single below
the elbow amputation (with or without prosthesis).

C3: Cyclists in this classification can get on and off the bike without assistance,
but quite unsteadily. If a cyclist has limited range of motion in the hip or knee
that prevents them from pedaling a complete revolution of the crank arm, they
can shorten the crank arm. The C3 classification includes cyclists with:

- Moderate neurological impairment/paralysis and moderate spasticity;

or

- Double below the knee amputation (using prostheses); or

- Single through the knee amputation (using prosthes is); or

- Single below the knee amputation (using prosthes is) and single above-
elbow amputation (no prosthesis).

C2: These cyclists might require help getting on and off the bike. On the bike,
the C2 cyclist lacks coordination, which results in limited cadence, trouble
pedaling in a standing position, or difficulty balancing at low speeds. In the C2
classification, when a cyclist has a limited range of motion in the hip or knee
preventing them from pedaling a complete revolution of the crank arm, they must
use a 0cm radium crank arm on the affected side. The C2 class includes cy clist
with:

- Significant paralysis or neurological impairment; or

- Significant loss in muscle strength; or

- Single through knee amputation (using prosthesis) and double below -

elbow amputation; or

- Double below-knee amputation (with prostheses) and single above -

elbow amputation with no prosthesis; or

30
 - Single above-knee amputation and no prosthesis (but they have a
stump support).

C1: This classification is for athletes with the most severe impairments and
includes cyclists with severe neurological, coordination a nd strength limitations.
These cyclists typically need assistance getting on and off the bike, cannot pedal
while standing, and have very limited cadence. The C1 classification includes
cyclists with:

- Poor strength in the core and/or all limbs; or

- Paralysis affecting one side of their body and spasticity in both their
arm and leg; or

- Single above the knee amputation and arm amputation (no

prosthesis); or

- Double through the knee amputation using prostheses; or

- Single above the knee amputation with no prosthesis and double

below elbow amputation.

Tricycle Classifications: T2 – T1
There are two competitive classifications for Tricyclists. Athletes in the T2
classification are less disable than those in T1.

T2: Cyclists in this classification may have trouble ge tting on or off the trike
without assistance and have limited cadence. The T2 classification includes
cyclists with:

- Paralysis affecting one side of the body and significant spasticity

affecting their legs more and their arms; or

- Poor neurological function, lack of coordination, and limited cycling-

specific abilities.

T1: Cyclists in this category are typically not able to ride/control a standard
bicycle. The majority need assistance getting on and off the bike. These athletes
are not able to sit on the saddle without support from the handlebars or pedal in
a standing position. Their cadence is severely limited. The T1 classification
includes cyclists with:

- Paralysis that causes major loss of function on one side of the body
and severe spasticity in both limbs on the affected side; or

- Very poor balance, coordination, and functional strength in their

truck and/or all limbs.

31
Handcycle Classifications: H4 – H1
Handcyclists compete in four classifications, H4 (the least disabled) through H1
(the most disabled).

H4: This is the least disabled class for handcyclists. Athletes typically have some
function in their legs, but not so much that they can safely use a tricycle or
standard bicycle. They ride in a kneeling position handcycle. Leg amputees may
compete in this category. If an athlete’s disability prevents them from kneeling,
they may ride a recumbent handcycle in the H3 classification. The H4
classification includes cyclists with:

- Spinal cord injury from Th11 or below; or

- Double through knee amputation.

H3: Cyclists in this category typically have little to no function in their legs, but
normal to nearly normal core stability. They ride a recumbent handcycle. The H3
classification includes cyclists with:

- Spinal cord injury from Th11 or below; or

- Non-spinal cord injuries that result in functional abilities equal to

this classification’s profile; or

- Severe spasticity in their legs or incomplete loss of lower leg function,

so that the athlete cannot safely ride a standard bicycle, trike or
kneeling position handcycle.

H2: These cyclists are paraplegic with limited or very limited core stability. They
must ride a recumbent handcycle. The H2 classification includes athletes with:

- Spinal cord injury from Th1 through Th9/10; or

- Non-spinal cord injuries that result in functional abilities equivalent

to this classification’s profile.

H1: This classification is for cyclists with very little (if any) truck stability and
complete loss of lower limb function. Athletes may have limited handgrip and/or
severe spasticity. They may have thermo-regulatory limitations or impairment to
their sympathetic nervous system. They must ride a recumbent handcycle. The H1
classification includes cyclists with:

- Spinal cord injury at C7/8, C6 or above; or

- Non-spinal cord injuries that result in functional abilities equivalent

to this classification’s profile.

Tandems
All athletes with blindness or visual impairment compete in the same
classification and race on tandem bicycles with sighted pilots. Classification is

32
based on vision in the best eye with best correction, whether or not athletes will
use contact lenses or glasses in competition. Qualified athletes must have, at
most, visual acuity of 20/200 (6/60) and/or a visual field of less than 20 degrees.

Classification Status
In addition to being assigned a competitive category, an athlete will be given a
classification status:

New – This status is given to athletes who have not been evaluated by an
international classification panel and have not had their entry class or provisional
domestic classification verified.

Review – This status is given to athletes who have been evaluated by an

international classification panel, but are subject to re -evaluation. Athletes whose
classifications are under review can have their classifications changed before or
during a competition. Review status may be given for several reasons such as an
athlete has a changing/progressive disability; or the athlete needs to be observed
in competition; or the athlete is subject to a protest; or the athlete was affected by
the 2009/2010 update to the classification profiles.

Confirmed – This status is given to athletes who have been evaluated by an

international classification panel and their classification is not expected to
change.

NE – This status is given to athletes who are not eligible to compete because they
do not meet the minimum disability criteria.

Equipment and Adaptive Measures

Handcycles
There are several handcycle manufacturers that make high performance cycles
designed for racing. These cycles generally ha ve low profiles and are stable when
cornering at 20+mph. Many cyclists like the lean -steer handcycles because they
require a fair amount of trunk control to steer. Although lean steer bikes are
becoming less popular among elite level riders because they ca n get into a much
more aerodynamic position on a recumbent fork -steer handcycle.

33
Recreational Handcycles
The chart below outlines which type of handcycles are generally used for what
type of riding:

Cycle Type Recreation Touring Racing Low-level High-level

disability disability

Upright Fork X X X
Steer

Recumbent X X X X X
Fork Steer

Recumbent X X X X X
Lean Steer

Recumbent X X X
Trunk
Power/Kneeler

Youth Models X X X X

Trikes
At the present time, there are no tricycle manufacturers in the U nited States.
Most athletes who have purchased their own trikes have them made by a custom
frame builder.

Prosthetics
In general, athletes can use prosthetics in competition but depending the type
and severity of the limb disability there are different lim itations. An athlete with
an upper limb amputation or disability can use their prosthetic so long as it is not
permanently affixed to their bike. For an athlete that uses a prosthetic for a lower
limb, there are different rules for below knee (BK) and above knee (AK)
amputation or disabilities. BK athletes can use a cleat attached to their prosthetic
that clips into a normal cycling pedal. AK athletes typically do not use their
walking prosthetic on the bike. Instead, they can use a mount attached to the
frame to hold their stumps but as with upper arm disabilities, the stump cannot
be attached to the mount.

Whether developing a functional limb prosthetic or a frame mount, it is best if

your athletes can work with a prosthetic who specializes or has experie nce in
designing sport arms and legs and who understands the high forces the athlete
will apply to their prosthetic in competition and training.

34
Alterations to a Standard Bicycle
For athletes with the least disabled class (C5), the minimal level of disabi lity is
defined as being unable to operate the brake and shift levers with the affected
hand. IN addition, many athletes with neuromuscular disorders also cannot
operate standard bicycle controls. These athletes generally modify their bikes to
permit full use of the controls.

One option is to install the shift/brake lever from their “bad side” upside down
on the “good side” of their handlebars. This allows them to shift chain rings or
cogs without moving their hand position and they can pull one or both bra kes at
the same time.

Another option is to install a bar-end shifter in the drop bar for the “bad side”
shifting and use a brake-doubler so that the “good side” brake lever pulls both the
front and the rear brakes at the same time.

UCI Certification of Adaptive Measures

The UCI allows Para -cyclists to submit their adaptive measures for certification
prior to competition. If the UCI approves an athlete’s alterations to their cyle,
the athlete can obtain a certificate to present as proof of certification at a ny race.
(This effectively prevents an athlete from having to alter their adaptive measure(s)
at the last minute in competition.) Detailed information about the certification
process can be obtained from the UCI’s Para -cycling Commission.

More Resources
For detailed information on the Para -cycling rules, classification, and
competition, see Part XVI of the UCI Rulebook and the UCI Classification
Guide. (Both can be downloaded on the UCI website.)

The US Paralympic cycling webpage http://usparalympics.org/sports/summer -

paralympic-sports/cycling/FAQ includes resources for athletes to find
equipment, answer competition questions, how to qualify for National Team,
Talent Pool, Emerging Athlete Pool or the Paralympic Team as well as how to get
classified.

Guides to Cycling Classification as well as general information about

classification can be found on the US Paralympic website:
http://usparalympics.org/sports/classification/cycling
http://usparalympics.org/sports/classification

For help with beginning handcycling and information about competition

opportunities in the US, contact US Handcycling. ( www.ushandcycling.org)

To learn more about the differences between recreational and competitive

handcycles, you can contact the following manufacturers:
Top End (www.topendwheelchair.com/handcycles -cid3.html)
Freedom Ryder (www.fredomryder.com)

35
 Intrepid Equipment (www.intrepidequipment.com)
Quickie (www.quickie-wheelchairs.com/category/handcycles/673 )
Varna (www.varnahandcycles.com)
Hase (www.bike-on.com/product/hase-ketteiesel-handcycle-618.htm)

A great resource of handcycles and other adaptive cycling equipment can be

found on Bike-on.com (http://bike-on.com)

This chapter was written by Kelly Crowley, elite -level Para-cyclist and Level 2
USA Cycling Coach, edited by Justin Lucke and Greta Neimanas.

36
 5
Chapter

Health Issues

T
his chapter is designed to serve as general information for the coach. It is beyond the
scope of any manual or chapter to cover the wide range of possible health issues a cyclist
or coach may encounter. The information here should not be used in place of
professional medical care. Some athletes may have complex health concerns that will
require the coach to work closely with health care practitioners or to limit exercise in some
manner. For instance, a coach working with a diabetic athlete needs to be educated in diabetes
and possibly coordinate training and nutrition with a health care provider.

Cycling is certainly a sport that can be healthy and fit the needs of people seeking
to follow current basic recommendations for physical activity (moderate exercise
most days of the week). Such activit y has been shown to reduce all causes of
mortality, reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease, reduce the risk of developing
type II diabetes, etc. However, health issues related to cycling should be discussed
with the athlete as part of any risk managemen t strategy for a coach. This chapter
deals with some of those risks and also offers guidance in dealing with some
health-related issues.

Sudden Death Syndrome

One cannot ignore the possibility of death during training or racing. Athletes can
die from crashes, being struck by vehicles, hit by lightning, heat exhaustion or
sudden death. In all except for sudden death, the cause of death may be very
clear, but in the case of sudden death no readily apparent cause may be present.
In many cases, the cause of dea th will be linked to a congenital heart defect or
issue and in some cases the cause of sudden death may never be determined.

Sudden death in young athletes (<35 years of age) is rare, but such cases garner
headlines. Dr. John Vitarello, M.D., F.A.C.C., def ines sudden death syndrome as
“the abrupt unexpected death of cardiovascular cause, in which the loss of
consciousness occurs within one to twelve hours of symptoms.” For healthy
runners, Dr. Vitarello reports that sudden death occurs at the rate of one de ath
per 396,000 person hours of running or one death per year for ever 7,620
runners; the rate of cardiovascular events at YMCA centers is one acute per event
per roughly 2.9 million person hours 2. According to Dr. Barry J. Maron about 125

2 Webinar presented by USA Cycling, November 8, 2007.

37
athletes under the age of 35 involved in organized sports die of sudden death in
the United States each year. 3 However with no formal national reporting system,
the exact rate of sudden death in athletes is not known. To put these sudden
death syndrome numbers into perspective, Dr. Vitarello points out that in the
general population the rate of heart attack is 6.75 times more frequent than
sudden death syndrome; the risk of exercise related heart attack ranges from one
to 593 to one per 3,852. Coronary artery disease accou nts for about 13% of all
U.S. deaths annually (about 7.2 million).

One of the more well known incidents of sudden death occurred in marathon
runner Ryan Shay. Mr. Shay died during the early miles (roughly 5.5 miles) of the
Olympic Marathon Trials in November 2007 in New York City. Mr. Shay was 28
years old. According to the New York City medical examiner, Mr. Shay died from
“cardiac arrhythmia due to cardiac hypertrophy with patchy fibrosis of
undetermined etiology.” 4 Basically the heart had old scars (fi brosis) from an
undetermined source (etiology). Mr. Shay had been diagnosed with an enlarged
heart at the age of 14 but he received medical clearance to continue a high level
of training.

The most common cause of sudden death is congenital abnormality in t he heart

or blood vessels. These conditions may produce no symptoms. The most common
of these abnormalities that cause sudden death is hypertrophic cardiomyopathy
(HCM), an excessive thickening of cardiac muscle that may lead to ventricular
fibrillation, an irregular rhythm that leads to no blood being pumped. HCM
accounts for about 26% of all cases of sudden death syndrome.

Another potential cause is commotio cordis, a blow to the chest that causes cardiac
concussion. Commotio cordis occurs most often in children and adolescents
when a non-penetrating blow to the chest occurs. The rhythm of the heart is
disrupted (ventricular tachycardia) leading to death. The cases most often
reported involve a ball (such as a thrown baseball) striking the chest, but any
blunt force trauma could cause commotio cordis. In cycling it could occur in a
crash when the athlete lands on his/her chest. Commotio cordis accounts for
about 20% of all sudden death syndrome cases.

Other cardiovascular related causes of sudden death inc lude coronary artery
anomalies (roughly 14%), myocarditis (an inflammation of the sac around the
heart, roughly 5%), ruptured aortic aneurysm from Marfan’s syndrome (roughly
3%), and mitral valve prolapse (roughly 2%). Other conditions such as asthma
attacks or heat stroke can also account for sudden death. (Heat stroke and related
maladies will be addressed later in this chapter.)

Dr. Maron recommends that doctors screening athletes should include questions
focused on detecting potential heart problems through a personal and family
history along with a physical exam. USA Cycling recommends that coaches

3 Autopsy: Heart Problems Killed by Ryan Shay. (2008, May 18). The Associated Press.

4 http://www.freep.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20080319/SPORTS18/803190417/1217/sports

38
discuss health and family history with prospective and current clients; if answers
to questions make you suspect the need for the client to seek medical atte ntion,
encourage the athlete to do so. If you do not feel comfortable working with an
athlete who either refuses medical examinations or has a history profile that
concerns you, you are free to decline being a coach for that client.

Environmental Issues
Cyclists may face an erratic and/or extreme range of ambient temperatures during
competition or training. Coaches should work with athletes in selecting
appropriate clothing for the common ambient conditions a cyclist is likely to
encounter. The safety of th e athlete should be a top priority. If the temperatures
are going to be low, selecting clothing that will keep the cyclists warm and dry are
critical; if the temperatures are going to be high, select clothing that will provide
for as much cooling as possible while also protecting the body from harmful UV
rays and/or damage should a crash occur.

The above ignores humidity, rain and wind that might also impact clothing
selection. Naturally, an athlete might start a training ride or race in one set of
conditions and encounter very different conditions by the end of the ride or race.
For this reason, athletes should monitor weather reports for the ride route and be
prepared with extra clothing or clothing that can be removed as necessary.

Our ability to perform and survive in varied conditions is mediated to a large

degree by the body’s capacity to maintain a highly regulated and constant internal
environment; in biology this is called homeostasis. Without this constant
regulation we would be severely affected by even modest changes in the ambient
conditions. Small changes in our internal temperature can lead to serious medical
issues such as impaired muscle function, cardiac arrhythmias, brain damage, and
death. Whether in hot or cold environments, a significa nt portion of the body’s
resources is devoted to maintaining a stable body temperature.

In general, the body seeks to maintain a core temperature of about 37 degrees

Celsius (roughly 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit). The hypothalamus of the brain
monitors core temperature with input from skin and blood vessels receptors. If
the feedback from the receptors shows a change from “normal”, the hypothalamus
initiates measures to facilitate heat loss or heat conservation. The body can adapt
and improve its thermoregulatory responses after repeated exposures to a thermal
stress; however, our capacity to maintain thermal homeostasis is limited. Excess
and/or prolonged exposure to very hot or very cold temperatures can lead to
serious impairments in bodily functions and even permanent tissue or cellular
damage.

39
Physical Factors Affecting Thermoregulation

Heat moves along a gradient from high to low. The body can be heated or lose
heat via radiation, conduction, and convection. The body can create heat through
increased metabolism; it can also lose heat through evaporation.

Radiation is heat transmitted through the air via electromagnetic waves. Standing next to a
traditional incandescent light bulb and feeling the heat is an example of radiant heat. The amount
of heat an object can gain through radiation depends on its size, texture, and color. Dark objects
with a large surface area to mass ratio tend to absorb a large amount of radiant heat; light colored
shiny objects with a small surface area to mass ratio absorb less radiant heat. Skin, regardless of
color, absorbs the majority of radiant heat exposed to it. At rest in a comfortable and shaded
environment, humans tend to lose the majority of body heat through radiation. Ultimately, the
heat gained or lost through radiation is dependent on the temperature difference (gradient)
between the body and the environment. If the body is cooler than the environment, heat will
radiate to the body; if the body is warmer than the environment, heat will radiate from the body.

Conduction occurs when two bodies of different temperatures touch and heat is transferred.
Metals and water are excellent conductors while air and non-metals are not. Humans lose about
three percent of body heat through conduction; however, in water, lying on a cold floor or ground,
a larger amount of heat can be lost through conduction.

Humans can also lose body heat when a gas or fluid flows over the body (convection). The gain or
loss is dependent on the temperature gradient. In a cool environment at rest about twelve percent
of body heat is lost through convection. In cycling, air movement across the cyclist is a factor in
heat loss.

During exercise, evaporation is a prominent method for heat loss. Evaporation is the turning of
liquid into a gas. In humans, sweating is the process by which heat is lost through evaporation. For
every gram of water lost through sweat or respiration, about 0.6 kilocalories of heat is dispersed
from the body. As with other methods, the evaporation is dependent on the water vapor pressure
gradient that in turn is dependent on the air temperature and relative humidity. As most people
know, if the humidity is high, sweat does not evaporate and if evaporation does not occur, heat
loss is reduced.

The body can also create heat through metabolism. Of the energy the human body produces
metabolically, only about 25% is converted to mechanical work; the remaining 75% is heat.
Consequently, intense exercise that greatly increases metabolic rate also creates a large amount of
heat. During situations where the temperatures and water vapor pressure gradients are small and
perhaps when convection is reduced, this increase in heat production can be detrimental to
athletic performance, if not dangerous to the health of the athlete. The flipside is that in cold
conditions, the body can create heat by shivering.

Complications from Excessive Heat Stress

The normal signs of heat stress are thirst, tiredness, grogginess and visual
disturbances. If these signs are ignored, the ability of the cardiovascular system to
compensate is impaired; the cascade of complications is collectively called heat
illness and encompasses heat cramps, heat exhaustion, and heat stroke. Heat

40
illness is more common in overweight, un-acclimatized and poorly conditioned
persons including those who exercise when dehydrated.

Heat cramps (involuntary muscle spasms) occur during or after intense physical
activity usually in the muscles involved in exercise. Core temperature may remain
normal. An imbalance in fluid or electrolytes may play a role in heat cramps.
Proper hydration and maintaining electrolyte balance before and during exercise
will reduce the likelihood or severity of heat cramps.

Heat exhaustion usually occurs in un -acclimatized people. In athletes, this can

occur during the first hot weather spell especially if the training sessio n is
intense. Heat exhaustion possibly results from poor cardiovascular adjustments
exacerbated by a reduction in plasma volume from excessive sweating. Blood may
pool in dilated peripheral blood vessels thus reducing the blood volume needed
to maintain cardiac output. Core temperature generally does rise to dangerous
levels (<40 degrees Celsius, or >104 degrees Fahrenheit). Symptoms of heat
exhaustion include:
 Week and rapid pulse
 Low blood pressure in the upright position
 Headache
 Dizziness
 General weakness

Heat stroke is the most serious and complex of the heat illness family and
requires immediate medical attention. In the general population, heat stroke
occurs when the environment heat overwhelms the body’s ability to dissipate
heat. In the classic form of heat stroke, core temperature exceeds 105 degrees
Fahrenheit; the person experiences an altered mental state and sweating ceases.
The very old, very young and those with chronic diseases a re at elevated risk.

Athletes may experience exertional heat stroke (EHS), an extreme state of

hyperthermia resulting from the interaction of a large metabolic heat load during
exercise and a challenged heat dissipation system imposed by a hot -humid
environment. Commonly sweating stops or is dramatically reduced, the body
temperature rises to 41.5 degrees Celsius or higher, and the skin becomes hot and
dry. In highly motivated and trained athletes, sweating may continue but the heat
loss is not sufficient. The less acclimatized an athlete is to heat, the greater the
risk.

Acute Physiology Responses During Exercise in the Heat

During exercise in the heat, blood vessels leading to the skin dilate (vasodilation)
facilitating heat conduction from working mus cles and the body core to the skin
where heat is ultimately transferred to the environment. Vasodilation
significantly increases the load placed on the cardiovascular system as blood flow
is redistributed to the skin while at the same time the muscles need blood flow as
well. Core temperature increases with relative exercise intensity and stimulates
proportional increases in sweat rate. Although sweating facilitates sweat loss
through evaporation, sweating increases the strain on the cardiovascular system ,
as plasma from the body is lost as sweat.

41
Acclimatization to Hot Environments
Acclimatization refers to the physiological adaptations elicited by repeated
exposure to an environmental stress. Normally, the brunt (about 95%) of
acclimatization to a hot environment occurs in the first 14 days of exposure. The
process requires prolonged daily heat exposure starting with low intensity
exercise, short-term exposure (15 minutes or so). The goal is to create a situation
that produces a high sweat rate. Sweating capacity nearly doubles after ten days of
heat exposure; the sweat also becomes more dilute in terms of sodium
concentrate. Adjustments in evaporative cooling enable the heat -acclimatized
person to exercise at a lower core temperature than an un -acclimatized person; the
reduced core temperature means less diversion of blood from the core and
muscles to the skin.

For athletes who cannot train in a “genuine” hot or hot -humid environment,
athletes can simulate conditions. Let’s say that you are living in a c ool or cold
environment but have an early season race or training camp in a more hot (or
humid) environment. Two strategies can be adopted. You can train indoors on a
trainer with minimal airflow. This is especially effective if the room is very warm.
A second option is to train outside but to overdress using breathable materials.
For instance, wear an extra long sleeve jersey or a light jacket made of breathable
material.

A summary of responses to acclimatization to heat include: 5

Acclimatization Response Effect

Improved cutaneous blood flow Transports metabolic heat from deep
tissues to body’s shell
Effective distribution of cardiac output Appropriate circulation to skin and
muscles to meet demands of
metabolism and thermoregulation;
greater blood pressure stability during
exercise
Lowered threshold for onset of Evaporative cooling begins early in
sweating exercise
A more effective distribution of sweat Optimum use of effective surface for
over skin surface evaporative cooling
Increased sweat output Maximizes evaporative cooling
Lowered salt concentration of sweating Dilute sweat preserves electrolytes in
extracellular fluid
Lowered skin and core temperature and Frees greater portion of cardiac output
heat rate for a standard exercise for distribution to active muscles
Less reliance on carbohydrate Carbohydrate sparing
metabolism during exercise

5 Adapted from Exercise Physiology, 5th edition, eds, McArdle, W., Katch, F., & Katch, V.

42
Assessing Thermal Stress
Because of the many factors affecting heat exchange, temperature alone is not
enough to assess the thermal stress placed on the b ody. The “gold standard” for
assessing the effects of radiant energy and relative humidity on heat storage is
using a thermometer enclosed in a black globe along with a natural wet bulb
measured by placing a wetted wick over the thermometer bulb exposed to natural
air movement. This method is called the wet bulb globe temperature, or
abbreviated WBGT. However, in most cases the WBGT information is not readily
available. WBGT has some limitations in that it was derived empirically and not
through physiological principles regarding heat balance in the human body. High
humidity underestimates the heat stress and risk of heat illness. WBGT also does
not take into account clothing, intensity of exercise, age, fitness level, and health
status or level of heat acclimatization. Under these circumstances, ambient
temperature and relative humidity can be used to access the general thermal risk.

The American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) position paper, Exertional Heat
Illness During Training and Competition provides the following table for modifying
workouts. The table has been modified to remove the unfit, high -risk group.

WBGT (F O /C O ) Continuous Training and Non-

Activity/Competition
<50.0/ <10.0 Generally safe, exertional
heat stroke (EHS) can occur
associated with individual
factors
50.1-65.0/10.1-18.3 Generally safe; EHS can
occur
65.1-72.0/ 18.4- 22.2 Risk of EHS and other heat
illness begins to rise; high-
risk individuals should be
monitored or not compete
72.1-78.0/ 22.3-25.6 Risk for all competitors is
increased
78.1-82.0/ 25.7-27.8 Risk for unfit, non-
acclimatized individuals is
high
82.1- 86.0/ 27.9-30.0 Cancel level for EHS risk
86.1-90.0/ 30.1-32.2 Cancel level for EHS risk
>90.1/ >32.3 Cancel level for EHS risk
continuous activity in a
fit, acclimatized low risk
individual
Normal activity
Normal activity
Normal activity
Normal activity; monitor
fluid intake
Normal activity; monitor
fluid intake
Plan intense or
prolonged exercise with
discretion; watch at risk
individuals carefully
Limit intense exercise
and total daily exposure
to heat and humidity;
watch for early signs and
symptoms
Cancel exercise un-
compensable heat stress

43
 exists for all athletes.

Hydration Strategies for Training and Competing in the Heat

Cycling in Cold Conditions
Once you are in a hot, humid environment, you need to develop a hydration and
electrolyte strategy. The athlete should hydrate before, during and after exercise
in the heat and the hydration choice should include sodium. Depending on the
demands of training, carbohydrate may also be included. More specific
information can be found in chapter eight on nutrition and hydration.

The goal has been to replace as much fluid as you lose during exercise. This
recommendation certainly can be considered a goal, but in rea lity, replacing all
lost fluid may be a difficult, if not impossible, task. The first question a person
should ask is: “How much fluid am I losing during exercise?” The easiest way to
estimate or get a feel for fluid loss is through pre -exercise and post-exercise weigh-
ins.

The procedure to strip down to as little clothing as po ssible (nude is preferred),

empty your bladder, and then weigh yourself (preferably in kilograms). Record the
weight. Then, exercise or train while tracking fluid intake (preferably in milliliters
or grams) during the session. When the training session is complete, towel off the
perspiration, strip down to as little clothing as possible (again, preferably nude).
Record this weight. Then subtract the post-exercise weight from the starting
weight plus the weight in fluids consumed. For instance, over a one hour training
session, here is an example:

Pre-Exercise Fluid Intake (L) Post-Exercise Net Change (kg) Total Change Sweat Rate
Weight (kg) Weight (kg) (kg) (L/hr)

70.0 0.5 69.0 1.0 1.5 1.5 L/hr

Collected from Measured Collected from Derived from Addition of Net Derived from
pre-exercise post-exercise subtracting post Change + Fluid total change
weigh-in (nude, weigh-in (nude) from pre Intake divided by
bladder empty) exercise time.

44
In addition to the fluid intake, sodium needs to be a prime consideration. The
adage is that water follows sodium. Urinary output is partially based on sodium
concentration in the blood. If sodium concentration is relatively low, the kidneys
will remove water from the blood in order to get sodium concentrations into line.
If sodium concentration is higher than normal, the kidneys will not remove water
from the blood and the body will begin to seek water (thirst) to normalized
sodium concentrations.

During exercise, some people may lose a great deal of sodium. That sodium needs
to be replaced. Even as the sweat becomes more diluted through acclimatization,
the sheer volume of sweat will be such that sodium losses can be as high as five
grams per hour.

Heat and Children 6

Exercising in the heat creates a special situation for kids. Kids do not acclimatize
to the heat as well as adults, nor will they dissipate heat as effectively as adults.
Special care should be taken with youngsters exercising or competi ng in hot
conditions.

Generally speaking, kids have a greater surface area (SA) to body mass (BM) ratio
than adults. Heat transfer depends greatly on the surface area of the body in
contact with the environment. A six year old can have a SA: BM ratio of 50%
greater than that of an adult. Kids have a higher metabolic rate for a given
intensity than adults such that at the same running velocity a six year old will
expend upwards of 20% more energy than a sixteen -year-old runner at the same
velocity. Another factor for kids in the heat is that they will absorb heat faster
than adults when ambient temperature is greater than skin temperature.

Sweat rates for kids are also lower when compared to surface area. When
measured in milliliters per hour per square me ter (ml/ht/m 2 ), kids rates may be
half that of an adult’s rate. A major factor in sweat rate is the density of sweat
glands and the volume of sweat produced per gland. Adult men produce 43%
more sweat per gland than boys and girls. Comparatively boys and girls produce
70% of the sweat that an adult produces. The temperature threshold for sweating
also differs between adults and kids; kids will not start sweating until a higher
core temperature (relative to adults) is reached. Since evaporation is a primary
means of heat dissipation, a reduced sweat rate or delayed sweat response
increases the heat load.

Another risk for kids and the heat is that they are less likely to avoid the hottest
times of the day and perhaps, are not as aware of their fluid intake. Whereas
adults may shift exercise to a cooler time of day, kids may not. However, while
kids may be willing to exercise in hot conditions, exercise tolerance may be less

6Bar-Or, Oded. Temperature Regulation During Exercise in Children and Adolescents. In, “Perspectives in Exercise
Science and Sports Medicine” Volume 2. Gisolfi, C.V. and Lamb, D.R. (eds) Cooper Publishing Group,
Carmel, IN, 1989.

45
than for adults. Since kids create more metabolic heat, the need to maintain
hydration is critical.

Heat and Older Adults 7

It has long been held that older adults have a decreased capacity to regulate body
temperature in heat. However, is this strictly a chronological response or doe s
fitness or other factors play a role? Is a fit older person better able to tolerate heat
than a less fit person of the same age? Many studies indicate that adults respond
to heat stress with higher core temperatures, higher hea rt rates, lower sweat rates
and greater loss of body fluid compared to younger adul ts. Several studies have
shown reduced blood flow to the skin in older athletes; one possibility is that
structural changes in the cutaneous vessels result in less vasodilation. However,
one study showed that fit older adults who ran regularly had better s kin blood
flow and chest sweat rates than their less fit older counterparts, but young, fit
adults had better skin blood flow and chest sweat rates.

As with everyone else, hydration is a prime consideration. Older adults often have
a suppressed thirst mechanism that can reduce the desire to consume fluids. In a
study of older and younger adults of “average fitness” who were systematically
dehydrated by exposure to heat for three hours, the older m en reduced their
blood volume to a greater extent than the younger adults although total body
mass loss was similar.

Regardless of age, heat tolerance can be modified with training and acclimation.
Caution should be taken to avoid exercise during the part(s) of the day when heat
stress is higher, to remain well hydrated and acclimate properly.

Summary Points
The American College of Sports medicine (ACSM) notes that these conditions
demand extra precautions:

 Athletes on restricted salt (sodium) diets should consult with his/her

health care provider regarding strategies to maintain sodium balance
during exercise;
 Obesity impairs heat dissipation resulting in increased risk of heat illness;
 Diseases such as cardiovascular disease, hypertension, and some diabetes
related neuropathies increase the risk of heat illne ss;
 Medications such as diuretics, beta blockers, vasodilators, etc, can alter
the body’s ability to manage heat stress, as can alcohol or other licit (and
illicit) drugs; and
 People with a prior history of heat illness or difficulty acclimating to heat
may be more susceptible to future problems with heat.

7Kenney, W.L., The Older Athlete: Exercise in Hot Environments. Gatorade Sports Science Institute Sports Science
Exchange, SSE#44, Vol 6, No. 3, 1993.

46
As a coach, you should establish a heat stress management policy to reduce the
risk of heat illness in your athletes. Many cycling coaches are not present during
an athletes’ training session; in those cases the coach should educate the athlete
regarding heat stress issues. A policy might address the following issues:

 Screen and watch high risk participants;

 Assess environmental conditions using WBGT as a criterion to modify
or cancel training;
 Facilitate heat acclimatization for participants;
 Provide fluids and promote hydration;
 Be aware of heat and illness signs and symptoms; and
 Have an emergency response plan for heat illness (along with other
potential emergency situations).

Cycling in Cold Conditions

Cycling in cold conditions today is easier with modern synthetic fibers and
breathable layers of clothing. While in the heat the focus is on keeping the core
temperature from rising to a dangerous level (hyperthermia), in the cold, the
concern is to keep core temperature from dropping too low (hypothermia). At a
core temperature of 97 o F, the first signs of hypothermia begin with shivering,
euphoria, confusion, hallucinations, lethargy and weakness. At a core temperature
of 88 o F, shivering may cease and delirium and loss of consciousness may occur.

While hypothermia is associated with very cold temperatures, the combination of

sweat and cool air can lead to an increase in the loss of heat from the body.
Imagine riding on a day where the air temperature is 55 o F, you are climbing a
long hill and upon reaching the top are d renched in sweat. As you descend at
high speed, the wind chill combined with the air temperature and wet skin and
clothing can cause a large increase in heat loss.

The first concern in cycling with hypothermia might be bike handling. Confusion
and weakness may lead to an increase in the risk of a crash. As your core cools,
the body will redirect blood flow to the core and the brain in order to protect
high priority organs (heart, brain). The redirection of blood means a loss in
muscle power that leads to a decrease in metabolic heat production.

When training or competing in the cold, riders need to make smart choices when
it comes to clothing and to be smart about activity choices. Watc hing weather
reports and having sufficient clothing is critical and could be life savi ng. It is far
better to throw an extra jacket into one’s pocket than risk being caught in cold
and/or wet conditions. Avoid clothing that retains water (i.e. cotton). Opt for
clothing that wicks perspiration and outer layers that allow for the perspiration to
be released into the air.

Asthma/Exercise Induced Asthma

47
Asthma is an intermittent narrowing of the airways accompanied by a decrease in
some measure of airflow that the individual experiences as wheezing, chest
tightness, coughing, and/or dyspnea (labored breathing) with the presence of lung
inflammation. About 20 million Americans are estimated to have chronic asthma.
Asthma is a potentially life threatening illness that needs proper medical
attention. According to the Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America website,
nine Americans die each day from asthma episodes.

Exercise-induced asthma (EIA) is an intermittent narrowing of the airways

accompanied by a decrease in some measure of airflow that the individual
experiences as wheezing, chest tightness, coughing, and/or dyspnea (labored
breathing) that is triggered by exercise. About 90% of asthmatics also have EIA; for
about 10% of asthmatics, exercise does not trigge r bronchoconstriction.
Somewhere between three and ten percent of the general population have EIA but
not asthma or allergic rhinitis. EIA is reversible and is accompanied by a marked
decrease in exercise performance.

Triggers for EIA during training or c ompetition include:

 Exposure to allergens such as dust mites, pollen, animal dander;
 Exposure to irritants such as exhaus t fumes, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur
dioxide; and
 Exposure to cold, dry air during exercise.

Asthma and EIA are diagnosed using a pulmonary function test (PFT). Basically,
the PFT involves the measurement of inspired and expired air and the time
course of those activities. One measure is the first second of forced expiration
volume (FEV) 8 and types of sports studied. In elite populations, data from the
1996 Summer Olympics showed that 15% of the 699 athletes who completed a
survey had been diagnosed with asthma by a physician and 14% indicated use of
asthma medications at some time in the past.

Several American Olympic medalists have asthm a or EIA including Amy Van
Dyken (swimming), Jackie Joyner-Kersee (track and field), Tom Dolan
(swimming), Jim Ryun (track and field) and Alexi Grewal (cycling).

If a coach suspects an athlete has asthma or EIA, the coach should encourage the
athlete to seek medical testing. For asthma, the testing can be done “rested.”
There are several tests (methacholine test, exercise challenge, eucapnic voluntary
hyperpnea test, or hypertonic aerosol test) for diagnosing asthma or EIA. A
routine PFT may detect EIA.

The United States Olympic Committee (USOC) prefers the exercise challenge
method. The exercise challenge should take place in conditions similar to normal
competition conditions or under conditions in which the athlete has reported
problems. The exercise challenge involves gathering baseline PFT data and then
having the athlete exercise at high intensity (>80% of heart rate max for instance)

8Wilber, R.L., Incidence of Asthma and Exercise Induced Asthma, Exercise Induced Asthma: Pathophysiology and
Treatment. Rundell, K.W., Wilber, R.L., and Lemanske, R.F. Human Kinetics, 2001.

48
for an extended period of time, followed by several post -exercise PFT’s. While all
the values are considered, FEV is a major consideration. A large reduction (>10%)
in FEV from the post-exercise compared to baseline is an indicator of possible
EIA. Based on the results and consultation with a physician, the athlete is given a
treatment plan that may include medications. I n the case of a competitive athlete,
the medications need to adhere to the sport’s anti-doping rules and procedures
for use. Please see chapter 13 on Doping Control for more information.

The Immune System

The immune system comprises complex, well-regulated mechanisms including the
skin, mucous cells, white blood cells, and hormones that defend against outside
microbes (viruses, bacteria, fungi, etc.). If an infection occurs, a strong immune
system will reduce the severity and/or duration of the infection an d lead to a
speedier recovery.

Aerobic exercise may positively affect immune function through enhancing the
functional capacity of natural cytotoxic mechanisms and reducing the decline of
T-cell function and associated cytokine production as we age. 9 Moderate exercise
boosts natural immune function and host defenses for up to several hours.
Exhaustive exercise such as a long race or stage race may impair immune system
function. David Nieman of Appalachian State University studied upper
respiratory tract infection (URTI) rates in runners; 10 he found that about 13% of
the participants in the Los Angeles marathon report an URTI during the week
following the race compared to the about two percent of runners who had trained
for the marathon but did not run it fo r reasons other than illness. These, along
with other findings, led to the “open window” hypothesis that a high level of
unaccustomed training or competition creates abnormal stress that depresses
some aspects of immune function that increases the risk for infection. For people
who exercise regularly at moderate levels, the window effectively remains closed,
thus maintaining the protective benefits of exercise.

The immune system can be strengthened by minimizing stress levels, optimizing

sleep, creating a training plan with proper overload and restoration (including
rest), and eating a well-balanced diet of ample carbohydrate. 11 Ingesting
carbohydrate during exercise and immediately post exercise may serve to blunt
cortisol (a stress hormone) and diminish cytokine response, thus producing an
overall reduction in physiological stress during high intensity prolonged exercise.
In short, taking in carbohydrate during exercise may reduce impairment of the
immune system that can occur following intense exercise and blunt the “open
window” hypothesis. Glutamine (a non-essential amino acid) supplementation
may also play a role in maintaining or improving immune function following

9 McArdle, Katch and Katch, Exercise Physiology, 5th edition. P 446-447.

10 McArdle, Katch and Katch, Exercise Physiology, 5th edition. P 447.

11Nieman, D.C., “Immunity in Athletes: Current Issues”, Gatorade Sports Science Institute of Sport
Exchange SSE#69, Vol 11, #2, 1998.

49
intense exercise. It has been speculated that glutamine supplementation may
reduce susceptibility to URTI following high intensity prolonged exercise,
training or competition.

Disordered Eating
Disordered eating is a broad term that includes eating disorders such as anorexia
nervosa and bulimia as well as troublesome eating patterns or behavio rs. Such a
change may be a result of a short-term desire to lose weight (i.e., for an upcoming
competition) or a change in eating patterns triggered by a stressful event. Since
disordered eating is a boarder term and encompasses eating disorders, the forme r
will be used except when specific references to clinical eating disorders are
warranted.

The prevalence of disordered eating is difficult to assess. Most studies rely on self -
report surveys or interviews that can be negated due to false responses from the
respondent. Studies report that the prevalence of eating disorders range from 1%
to 40% in the sports population although in sports where aesthetics are judged
(gymnastics, figure skating, bodybuilding, etc .) the rates may be even higher. The
prevalence seems to be higher among women than men, but men are not immune
from either the vanity or performance side of weight loss. In cycling, for events
where low body mass is a performance enhancer (climbing for instance), an
athlete can become focused on body mass to the detriment of performance.
Athletes often find that when they lose a few pounds, they perform better. A
common reaction is to lose more, as that will keep improving performance.
However, at some point an athlete loses too much weight and perfor mance
suffers. Each athlete has an individual ideal performance weight that likely will
change over time especially in an athlete who climbs from the junior ranks to the
elite ranks and matures. The American Psychiatric Association (APA) defines an
eating disorder as a refusal to maintain a minimally healthy body weight (85% of
expected body weight), a dramatic weight loss, and fear of gaining weight even
when underweight, a preoccupation with food, abnormal eating patterns, and/or
bingeing with loss of control or feelings of guilt. The APA recognizes several types
of eating disorders including anorexia nervosa and bulimia.

The warning sings of disordered eating can be difficult to detect as the

individuals may take great care to conceal their behaviors. However, some of the
behaviors are common to athletes. Dieting, weight loss and pre -event meal rituals
are not automatic indicators for disordered eating.

Coaches, parents and teammates need to understand that they will not cause an
eating disorder; however, comments and opinions can carry great weight and
influence the athletes. Comments can be subtle or direct. For instance, a
comment like, “He is so lean, look how he can climb,” could be interpreted by an
athlete as “I need to get that lean to climb wel l.”

If you suspect a client or athlete has an eating disorder, experts recommend that
you remain strong and supportive of the person, but that the problem will not
just go away without help. Eating disorders are complex psychological

50
disturbances that require professional interventions. The coach may want to
contact a professional to assist with confronting the athlete. The coach can speak
with the athlete in an honest and sincere manner; the coach should be ready to
offer referrals to professionals who ca n help. If an athlete is identified as having
an eating disorder and is seeking treatment, it is important not to punish or
abandon the athlete by kicking the athlete off the team. However, training and
performance expectations will need to be adjusted.

Female Athlete Triad

The Female Athlete Triad is an interrelated syndrome involving eating disorders,
amenorrhea (loss of menstrual cycle), and osteoporosis (loss of bone mass). The
triad can be a health threat and potentially deadly. The components of the Triad
include:

 Disordered Eating (see section above);

 Amenorrhea: Primary amenorrhea involves a delay in beginning
menstruation (menarche) and is characterized by the absence of
menstruation by age 16 when secondary sex characteristics (i.e., breasts)
are present. Secondary amenorrhea is the missing of three or more
consecutive menstrual cycles after menarche;
 Osteoporosis: Low bone mass and deterioration of bone architecture are
the traits associated with osteoporosis. Osteoporosis increases the risk of
fractures. The gold standard for measuring bone mineral density is dual X -
ray absorptiometry (DEXA). The World Health Organization (WHO)
criterion for a diagnosis of osteoporosis is bone mineral density of 2.5
standard deviations below the mean value for a young, healthy
population; and
 Since cycling is not a weight bearing activity, males and females may have
an increased risk of having low bone mass unless they consciously
participate in weight bearing activity from time to time (walking for
instance).

The American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) position paper on the fema le
athlete triad states:

 Low energy availability is an important factor that impairs reproductive

and skeletal health in the Triad;
 Educating athletes, coaches, athletic trainers/medic al personnel, parents
and administrators is a key step in prevention and treatment;
 Athletes should be assessed for the Triad during a pre -participation or
annual medical screening and whenever an athlete presents with any of
the Triad’s clinic conditions;
 The treatment team should include a physician or other qualified health
care provider, a registered dietitian, and a mental health professional if an
eating disorder is present;
 The first aim of treating the Triad should be to increase energy availability
through increased energy intake and/or reduced energy expenditure;

51
  Athletes with an identified eating disorder should be required to meet
established criteria to continue exercising, and their training and
competition schedules may need to be adjusted; and
 No pharmacological agent adequately replaces bone mass loss or corrects
the metabolic abnormalities that impair health and performance in
athletes with menorrhea.

Cycling Injuries
Skin Care
Skin is the largest organ of the body. The skin serves to prot ect internal organs
and act as a barrier against infection along with being a key component in
thermoregulation. Repeated exposure to sun, wind, abrasions, etc., can take its
toll on the skin.

The skin is comprised of three layers, the epidermis (outer), dermis (inner) and
the subcutaneous layer. The epidermis is continually being renewed as new cells
replace older cells. The dermis contains the sweat glands, nerve endings, small
blood vessels and hair follicles.

Sunburn is a potential common ailment for cyclists. Medical experts recommend

avoiding exposure to direct sunlight between the hours of 10am and 3pm when
skin damaging ultra-violet (UV) radiation is at its peak. A practical measure for
cyclists is to wear sunscreen liberally with a high SPF (sun protection factor). For
very sensitive areas (the nose for instance), zinc oxide or one of its cousins should
be considered.

Abrasions are a common cycling injury. The treatment for abrasions involves
three steps: debriding, cleaning and dressing. Debrid ing refers to the removal of
foreign particles such as dirt or gravel. Washing the wound (irrigation) is a very
good method for debriding. Avoid using high pressure since it can disrupt the
integrity of the remaining intact skin and delay healing; the use of a normal saline
(salt) solution in a squirt bottle will cause the least amount of swelling (edema).

Cleaning is best performed with mild soap and water. A wound is best cleaned
with a piece of gauze that is soaked in sterile water or normal saline solu tion.
Paper towels and cloth can leave small fibers in the wound and delay healing.
Traditional cleaning solutions such as iodine and hydrogen peroxide are no
longer recommended. These substances kill bacteria, but they can also damage
tissue in the exposed skin thus delay healing. Peroxide can be used for cleaning
dried blood from intact skin.

Following debriding and cleaning, the wound needs to be dressed. A dressing

should provide a sterile, moist environment for the new skin to grow. There are
two basic types of dressings: colloid and ointment. Dressing that use an anti -
bacterial ointment can be prepared by applying a layer of ointment on the wound.
A dry, sterile gauze cover will prevent the ointment from spreading to clothes, but
is not necessary. The layer of ointment will usually provide an adequate barrier to

52
dirt and bacteria. Ointment should be reapplied to clean wounds two or three
times per day. Colloid dressings are easier to maintain, though more expensive. A
colloid dressing is a film of prot ein containing plastic that can be applied once
and left in place for five to seven days while a new layer of skin heals underneath.
The dressing prevents bacterial growth so anti -bacterial ointment is not needed.

Concussions in Cyclists for Team Managers and

Coaches
Written by Anna K. Abramson, M.D.

One of the most feared consequences of contact sport is traumatic brain injury.

Concussions are a form of brain injury resulting from direct blow or rapid acceleration
and deceleration of the brain inside the skull altering the cellular processes in the brain.
Concussion or brain injury can occur without direct impact or loss of consciousness. It
can result in symptoms that are evident immediately, or may evolve over the course of
hours, days, or even months. Perhaps more concerning is that some symptoms are only
evident with specific testing or questioning. Furthermore, after an initial injury, the brain is
susceptible to repeat injury. Equally important, disequilibrium and slowed reaction times
that may be caused by an initial injury increase the athlete’s risk for further head injuries.

By wearing helmets, cyclists significantly decrease their odds of head and skull injury, or at
least reduce the damage, but cannot prevent concussion completely. Ideally, following any
suspected concussion, a properly trained medical staff member would perform a complete
neurologic exam. However, teams may not have access to a team physician and the peloton
may not wait for this type of thorough investigation. A group of attendees at the recent
Medicine of Cycling Conference formed a focus group to put together information for
coaches and team managers to increase awareness of concussion and improve safety for
cycling athletes. This group includes:

 Anna K. Abramson M.D. – Internal Medicine physician at University of California

in San Francisco, co-chair of Medicine of Cycling Conference
 Matthew Bitner M.D. - Emergency Physician at Duke University Health System,
Associate Director of Pre-Hospital Medicine and race physician
 Keith Borg M.D. and Ph.D. – Emergency Department physician at the Medical
University of South Carolina and race day physician
 Jason Brayley M.D. – Sports Medicine physician with MultiCare Orthopedics and
Sports Medicine, Team Physician for Kenda Pro Cycling presented by GearGrinder
 Julie Emmerman, Psy.D. – Psychotherapist specializing in performance for
professional athletes, including Garmin-Slipstream ProTour team since 2008.
Professional cyclist 1999-2005
 Don Gerber Psy.D. – Clinical Neuropsychologist at Craig Hospital
 Mark Greve M.D. - Emergency Medicine physician at Brown University and medical
director Team Type 1
 Kevin Sprouse D.O. – Sports Medicine Fellow at the Steadman Hawkins Clinic of
the Carolinas and team physician for Chipotle Development Team / Slipstream
Sports.

53
The following guidelines are intended for education of cycling team managers, coaches and
athletes of the symptoms and management of concussion in athletes but are not a surrogate
for evaluations by appropriately trained medical professionals. These guidelines pertain to
adult athletes, as children and adolescents are at an even higher risk of concussion and
protracted recovery requiring a medical professional. This concussion statement is based on
current knowledge and best practices, and will need to be modified as more information
emerges.

Actions To Take in the Pre-Season:

Education of athletes on the importance of taking responsibility for their own health is
imperative. Cyclists should be encouraged to be honest with any new symptoms they
develop, especially after injury or concussion sustained during the season.

Assess athlete’s baseline neurologic function. This is one of the most important aspects of
good neurological care for all athletes. Establishing an athlete’s baseline neurological
function allows for a more accurate diagnosis in case of injury and for safe return to sport.
Cyclists with history of prior concussion are at an increased risk of repeat injury, so it is
particularly imperative for these athletes to have a baseline cognitive assessment performed
with the SCAT2 or computer based ImPACT testing prior to the start of the racing season.
See links to these websites below.

Most accurate assessments would occur with a baseline functioning test by a trained
neuropsychologist or primary care physician using established tests such as SCAT2 or
ImPACT as a means of assessing baseline data. Athletes without access to formal testing
should at least have access to the following three items that would aid evaluation by a trained
medical professional in case of concussion evaluation:

 Document history of possible head injury or concussions in the past, including

when the injuries occurred, what symptoms the athlete experienced, what testing
was done, length of recovery, and how the athlete was cleared for competition.
Cyclists with prior concussions resulting in extended symptomatic periods are at
increased risk for prolonged recovery after any additional injury;
 Romberg test of balance asks whether the athlete can stand feet together with their
eyes closed for 30 seconds without tilting, becoming unsteady or falling. If athlete is
unable to do this, he or she needs a professional evaluation; and
 Reaction time tests. Athlete can attempt several simple tests listed online and can
time how long it takes for them to recite months of the year backwards. These tests
can help guide return to play decisions in concussed athlete. See link at the end of
this article for examples.

Evaluation For Concussion After Injury:

54
Communicate to riders and staff the importance of immediate assessment for possible
concussion after a crash by medical staff. This includes any damage to rider’s helmet, face,
or neck. In the event of a high-speed impact, an evaluation for concussion is warranted
regardless of the rider’s complaints.

 Fast and effective evaluation can ensure proper triage and safety for the athlete.
 Cooperating with medical staff performing the exam will speed up the process. If
the athlete is safe to return to competition then following these guidelines will help
him or her get there faster.

In many situations medical staff will not be on hand after a crash but team staff may be
present. In these situations it is important to be aware of symptoms of severe injury to the
brain or spine that can become life threatening. Should riders develop these symptoms, they
need to immediately be withdrawn from competition and transported by emergency medical
personnel to a medical facility. These include:

 Loss or change in consciousness;

 Nausea and/or Vomiting;
 Severe headache;
 Disorientation;
 Inability to speak or swallow;
 Amnesia;
 Significant trauma to the head;
 Clear fluid leakage from the nose or ears;
 Inability to walk or ride their bike in a straight line; and
 Seizure.

Riders, who have sustained a more minor injury leading to concussion, can be more
challenging to identify. The tests immediately following trauma are imperfect as symptoms of
concussion can evolve over time. Symptoms of concussion listed below should signal that the
athlete may need medical attention, and if still on the bike, to immediately withdraw from
competition for further assessment.

Cyclists suspected of a concussion would ideally be observed for 15 minutes following

guidelines established in other sports. This may not be possible in the context of most
bicycle racing. Those athletes that are suspected of having a concussion but do not
demonstrate life threatening or initial symptoms of concussion outlines should have at the
minimum the following brief exam prior to clearance to continue the race:

 Observe the athlete stand feet together, eyes closed, and head tilted back. If the
athlete is unable to maintain their balance they have failed this assessment and
cannot be returned to competition until assessed by a medical professional.
 Ask questions like the following four, to assess memory and comprehension (if you
know this information, otherwise ask questions you are able to answer yourself):

 What is the name of this race?

55
  Which city did you race in last week?

 Can you name four teammates in this race?

 Can you name the months backwards, starting with December?

Initial symptoms and signs of a concussion may include 6:

 Any loss of consciousness

 Headache
 Neck pain
 Poor balance
 Nausea
 Decreased reaction time
 Memory disturbance
 Confusion
 Blurred vision
 Sensitivity to noise or lights
 Dizziness
 Emotionality
 Head shaking, trying to “clear the fog”
 Difficulty concentrating
 Fatigue
 Irritability or anxiety

Regardless of if the cyclist finishes the race after a suspected concussion; symptoms can
evolve for up to 14 days and persist for many weeks afterwards. Monitor for the following
symptoms and signs as these may suggest the need for further medical evaluation:

 Changes in mood or memory noted by team members/family

 Increased irritability
 Disinhibited behavior
 Increased sadness, anxiety, or nervousness
 Aggressiveness
 Change in sexual drive or behavior
 Ongoing headaches
 Fatigue or low energy
 Ongoing difficulties with concentration or “fogginess”
 Insomnia / trouble falling asleep
 Changes in reaction time, especially if athlete has increased number of crashes

Any athlete suspected of having a concussion should AVOID the following or consult a
physician prior to:

56
  Strenuous physical and cognitive activity for at least 24hours or until previous
symptoms are completely resolved as such activity can delay recovery;
 Consuming Alcohol;
 Taking Sleeping pills or anti-anxiety medications;
 Taking aspirin, ibuprofen, naproxen, or narcotics. However, athlete can consider
using acetaminophen for headaches and general aches instead; and
 Driving or operating machinery, including their bike.

Return to Sport Considerations After a Concussion

The return to normal activities is a critical step in the recovery of concussed cyclists.
However, to do this safely it requires supervision by a physician trained in the care of
concussed athletes. Though each cyclist’s recovery has to be evaluated on a case by case
basis, a few basic premises should be followed to maximize safety and allow for proper
recovery. These should serve only as educational guidelines and not rules for unmonitored
return to competition:

 The primary treatment for concussion is to rest the brain, so await complete
resolution of post-concussive symptoms such as headache and dizziness prior to
initiating any physical activity.
 Once concussed cyclists are asymptomatic use a step-wise approach when increasing
level of activity.
o Start with a low impact stationary bike or trainer, keeping the goal HR
<70% maximum and monitor for symptom recurrence. If the athlete
becomes symptomatic, stop the activity immediately, and rest the athlete
for 24 hours. Reattempt exercise only if the athlete is asymptomatic.
o Gradually increase level and duration of activity only if there is no
recurrence of symptoms over the following 24 hours. Continue this daily
progression until the athlete is able to train at pre-injury level without
recurrence of symptoms. If the athlete develops symptoms during any stage
of the step-wise progression, rest the athlete 24 hours, and then if
asymptomatic, resume the progression at the last level the athlete could
complete without symptoms.
o Pay special attention to the athletes’ balance and reaction times as these
may take longer to return and ongoing deficits may cause repeat injury
once the cyclist is back on the road or mountain.
o Delayed presence of symptoms or recovery may indicate ongoing trauma or
mark another serious condition that requires attention by a physician

Sample return to competition protocol adapted from the Zurich Concussion Consensus
2008 7 advised by a physician will typically look as follows:

1. No activity - complete physical and cognitive rest until symptom free

57
2. Stationary riding at a HR <70% of max, short duration, and not on rollers as full
coordination of the cyclist may not yet be assured
3. Solo riding on a road, track, or trail of low intensity and short duration
4. Solo riding on a road, track, or trail incorporating intervals and/or hill workouts at higher
levels of intensity and duration.
5. Group rides with sprints and/or climbs, pacelines
6. Return to competition

*If concussion symptoms return during any portion of the cyclist's return to competition
protocol, the athlete must inform the managing physician of their recurrent symptoms, and
rest a minimum of 24 hours before resuming the level of activity where symptoms recurred,
and then only with physician clearance.

You can contact Dr. Jason Brayley to learn more about concussion in athletes at
jason@medicineofcycling.com and Dr. Anna Abramson with questions regarding the
Medicine of Cycling series at anna@medicineofcycling.com.

List of Resources and Helpful Websites:

 SCAT2 Assessment - http://www.neurosurgery.net.au/SCAT2.html
 ImPACT Resources - http://www.impacttestoffice.com/
 Reaction test examples - http://www.topendsports.com/testing/reaction-tests.htm
 CDC info sheet for coaches -
http://www.cdc.gov/concussioninyouthsports/images/coaches_Engl.pdf
 http://www.cdc.gov/concussion/sports/cdc_ncaa.html?source=govdelivery
 Zurich Concussion Consensus 2008 -
http://www.sportconcussions.com/html/Zurich%20Statement.pdf

58
 6
Chapter

Long Term Athlete

Development Movement

W
hen an athlete steps onto the podium for a win, it is the culmination of a long road
of development that probably began before the athlete took up the sport. The
American Development Movement (ADM), introduced by the United States
Olympic Movement in 2014, was designed to help American athletes explore their
full potential and utilize sport as a path toward an active and healthy lifestyle.

The ADM is supported by five key principles: universal access to create opportunity for all athletes;
developmentally appropriate activities that emphasize on motor and foundational skill
development; encourage multi-sport participation; fun, engaging and challenging atmosphere; and
quality coaching at all age levels.

The American Development Movement Key Principles

Universal access is a critical component in athlete development and is defined as allowing access
for everyone to participate in sport. By providing universal access to youth regardless of gender,
race, physical disability and economic status, more children could become involved in sport and
physical activity and be more physically active. Sport must be inclusive so that all children have the
opportunity to discover the benefit of physical activity and realize their full athletic potential. Sport
and physical activity can also be a tool for children to express themselves, develop social
relationships, and learn valuable life lessons.

A clear understanding of an individual’s development level (as opposed to his or her age) will help
coaches, parents and administrators appropriately alter the training, skills and tactics needed to
maximize the athletes’ full potential, while helping avoid burnout.

In order to succeed, athletes must first be taught foundational motor skills and technique.
Coaches, parents and administrators who jump directly into competition tactics and strategy
without emphasizing basic fundamentals, may put their athletes at a disadvantage. To ensure long-
term development, athletes must be given adequate time and knowledge to develop these essential
building blocks for success.

Multi-sport participation is critical to developing well-rounded foundation for physical activity that
can transfer between sports and everyday life. Encouraging athletes to play as many sports as
possible at a young age exposes them to a variety of activities that may or may not fit their passion.
This experience allows athletes to explore, play and discover sport according to their personal
interests and skill level.

59
Multi-sport play also provides several cross-training benefits for athletes, including strength,
endurance, agility and speed training, which can help enhance overall athleticism and promote a
healthy lifestyle. In addition, the social and psychological benefits of multi-sport participation can
be equally impactful.

A fun, engaging and challenging environment is essential for any youth sport activity. The
definition of “fun” may change as children advance to more elite levels of competition, but a
standard emphasis on making the process positive and enjoyable is key.

Free and spontaneous play is encouraged to help foster growth and development. By offering
the opportunity for unstructured play, athletes are more likely to customize physical activity
to meet their needs and keep the “fun” in sport intact. Creating a team mentality through
positive reinforcement is also critical.

Age-appropriate cycling activities and duration of practice and competition will be discussed in
further detail in the core competency section of this chapter.

Quality coaches are critical to athlete development; therefore quality coach education is critical for
athlete success at all competitive levels. Coaches should have a background in coaching and be
working towards improving themselves in that role. Quality coaching not only requires a coach to
be highly qualified in the sport they coach, but also includes knowing how to communicate,
develop practice plans, to develop athletes and teams, and provide a safe, positive, and fun
environment. Coaches should view themselves as continual learners.

The American Development Movement Key Outcomes

By creating positive experiences for all athletes, the American Development Model will keep more
Americans engaged in sport longer, with four clear outcomes: grow both the general athlete
population and the pool of elite athletes from which U.S. Olympians and Paralympians are
selected; develop fundamental skills that transfer between sports; provide an avenue to fulfill an
individual’s athletic potential; and create a generation that loves sport and physical activity, and
transfer that passion to the next generation.

The dropout rate for youth sport activity is at all-time high in the United States. The American
Development Model will help increase youth participation in sport and encourage children to stay
active longer. In effect, this will help maximize potential for future U.S. Olympians and
Paralympians.

Emphasizing basic knowledge, fundamental skills and multi-sport participation will enhance an
individual's mental and physical ability, and give them a better experience and understanding of
sport. These basic development principles will help prepare children for a lifetime of activity –
both at recreational and elite levels, and beyond.

Clubs, coaches and parents can help a child fulfill his or her athletic potential by providing a fun
and engaging atmosphere, teaching basic fundamentals, encouraging multi-sport play and using
developmentally appropriate activity. Whether that foundation leads to a life of recreational play
or high-performance competition, both paths support an active and healthy lifestyle.

60
Ultimately, the long-term goal is to create healthier Americans through sport. By emphasizing an
active and healthy lifestyle at a young age, the American Development Model can help improve
the health and well being for future generations in the United States.

The American Development Movement Stages

The American Development Model (ADM) is comprised of five stages designed to create a healthy
sport experience and support an athlete’s advancement based on their physical, mental and
emotional level, and potential for growth.

Stage I: Discover, Learn and Play (ages 0-12)

This is the first step to being involved with sports at a young age (0-12) or when first
introduced to a new sport. Discovery of key concepts and motor skills of the sport/activity is
critical in order to learn how the game is played. Skills are transferred between sports. This
early stage requires coaching that will allow fun and enjoyment through discovery and
exploration.

ATHLETE

 Learn basic rules and sport techniques

 Play multiple sports for sound motor skill development
 Emphasize skill development, sport education and age-appropriate play
 Emphasize practice over competition; if competing, not beyond local or regional
levels

DISCOVER

 Have fun
 Sample multiple sports through unstructured play
 Develop motor skills that transfer from sport to sport
 A passion for sport and active lifestyle
 Socialize with others
 Utilize free or spontaneous play for discovery of the sport and sport skills

LEARN

 Core fundamental movements

 How to use equipment
 Rules of the game

PLAY

 Physical education class

 Open gym
 Exercise
 Free/spontaneous play
 Basic organized play

61
  Everyone has an equal chance to play in competition

Stage II: Develop and Challenge (ages 10-16)

The second stage of the development process can be explored after an athlete has been
engaged in a sport and wants to explore more organized training options. This stage focuses
on refining the skills needed to be successful in the activity or sport, and then furthering skill
development through challenges, such as recreational competition, organized sport programs
or club participation.

Athlete readiness and motivation determine the choice to pursue the next level in sport. The
second stage may begin earlier for some athletes who are quick to develop physically and
mentally. Fun and socialization are still key areas of emphasis in order to encourage future
participation and to avoid burnout.

ATHLETE

 Understanding of rules and techniques of the sport

 Participation in multi-sport for continued motor and physical development
 Participation in a structured, on-going training program (as opposed to participating
in “open gym)”
 Competition at the local/regional level but not over-competing
 Maintain fun and engaging level across developmental outlets
 Understand the impact on performance due to different maturation rates

DEVELOP

 Physical: Core movement fundamentals, increasing requirements for speed, agility,

balance, endurance, strength and coordination
 Psycho-Social: social skills, team work, communication skills and adapting to the
growing challenges of sport development
 Technical Sport Skills: Identify personal strength and areas to improve with a
continued emphasis on proper movement mechanics
 Tactical: Practice appropriate time to emphasize team and individual skill
application

CHALLENGE

 Recreational competition at the local/regional level

 Organized league play

Note: Seek challenging competition that is commensurate with athlete/team

Stage III: Train and Compete (ages 14-19)

At stage three, athletes begin to train and compete in a program that matches their own
personal interests and developmental needs. Competitions become more clearly defined in

62
this process with potential for new experiences in team selection. Maximizing potential
becomes an option for athletes as they start to grasp the commitment necessary for certain
sports, and the skill sets needed to excel at the next competitive level of sport. Technical,
tactical, physical, and psychosocial development becomes increasingly more important for
the athlete at this time. This is also the time to increase sport-specific training. Recreation
and multi-sport play can continue to be used in a cross-training capacity to allow the athlete
to more fully develop.

ATHLETE

 Is becoming focused on particular sports

 Uses multi-sport play for cross-sport development
 Is participating in a fun, structured and on-going training program
 Competing in more challenging situations to improve skills at the local, regional
and/or national levels

TRAIN

 Seek opportunities to further develop skills

 Focus training through coaching
 Implement and follow a consistent training schedule
 Increase sport-specific training
 Greater emphasis on competition skills
 Utilize more sport-science related information such as nutrition and sport
psychology

COMPETE

 Club competition
 Middle and high school competitions
 Local, regional and national competitions

Note: Seek challenging competition that is commensurate with athlete/team skill.

Stage IV: Excel for High Performance or Participate and

Succeed (ages 15+)

When an athlete reaches high school (grades 9-12), they will likely face a choice that offers
the option to focus on sport for high performance and increased competition, or continuing
to stay involved in sport for the fun, healthy, and social aspects at a less competitive level.
Athletes will be able to choose the pathway that best represents their interests. Growth
spurts, more experience or simply dedication to training may all affect which path an athlete
chooses during their sport career. This stage allows for full development and commitment to
their sport(s), or allows athletes to enjoy the physical benefits that sport offers. Fun and
socialization remain key elements of this stage, although the definition of fun changes from
athlete to athlete and will also adjust based on the commitment level to high performance or
participation.

63
Adoption or transfer of sports at a later age allows athletes to participate, learn, and grow in
the sport and then transfer fundamental physical and psychosocial skills that are developed
in earlier stages. This is a process where the talent or sport skills and physical ability transfer
allows for lifelong sport participation.

There are two pathways in the Excel for High Performance stage. They are Excel for High
Performance and Participate and Succeed. Please see their description below.

Excel for High Performance

ATHLETE

 Dedicated to maximizing their athletic potential

 Multi-sport for cross-sport development
 Participating in a rewarding but structured, on-going training program that has year
round commitment
 Is single sport-focused while in season

EXCEL

 Train specifically
 Maximize talents
 Full year plans to excel and progress
 Specific coaching
 Talent identification
 Driving towards high performance

HIGH PERFORMANCE

 Competitions commensurate with athlete skill level, and to levels just beyond their
comfort zone to challenge performance
 Qualified/quality coaches
 Elite competitions around the country and world

Participate and Succeed

ATHLETE

 Dedicated to participating in sports to be successful and have fun

 Multi-sport for cross-sport development
 Participating in a structured on-going training program, and finds fun and
rewarding
 Focused on enjoying their time playing as well as the healthy benefits of sport
participation

64
PARTICIPATE

 Be active and involved

 Compete for fun
 Develop for personal advancements
 Competition focused on participation
 Satisfied with involvement verses advancements

SUCCEED

 Local and regional based competitions that meet the needs of the athlete and their
competition goals
 Development camps
 Sport club competition

Stage V: Mentor and Thrive (Active for Life)

Some athletes want to give back to the sport after they finish competing. Coaching,
officiating, and mentoring other athletes are natural next steps for any athlete finished
competing. With previous experience as an athlete, the coach, official and/or administrator
can prepare other athletes to be the best they can be in sport, and enjoy the development
process. Everyone can use sport and physical activity as an avenue to be active and healthy
for life. In this final stage of development, the experienced athlete is able to give back to
sport as a mentor.

ATHLETE

 Transition from participant to sport leader as a coach or mentor

 Pursue opportunities to remain involved with sport for life

MENTOR

 Become a certified coach

 Sport club management
 National Governing Body (NGB) involvement
 Officiating
 Administration
 Professional development in chosen sport(s)

THRIVE

 Master’s programs/competitions
 Consistent exercise
 Recreational competitions
 Personal health
 Support local and national sports and organizations

65
Long-Term Athlete Development
The principles of long-term athlete development (LTAD) come from sport science and practical
experiences from coaches to develop a systematic process for developing high performing athletes
and promoting an active lifestyle.

66
A key element in working with young riders is that riders of the same chronological age can be very
different in terms of physical size, physical ability, ability to learn skills, and emotional readiness for
competition. A good way to take the fun right out of sport is to overwhelm the rider with skills or
concepts that the rider is not ready to learn. The coach needs to individualize the training to meet
the athlete where he/she is in terms of ability to learn.

The LTAD model that was developed in Canada (and from which much of this chapter is
adapted) has nine stages as illustrated in the table below. Training age is the number of years the
rider has participated in the sport. So a ten-year-old rider who has been training since age eight
would have a training age of two.

Stage Description Chronological Chronological Training

Age (Male) Age (Female) Age

Active Start Learning to Ride 0-6 0-6 0

Fundamentals Love to Ride Around 6-9 6-8 0-3

Learn to Train Learning Cycling Skills 9-12 8-11 1-5

Train to Train Building the Engine 12-16 11-15 3-6

Learn to Compete Entering Competition 16-18 15-17 4-8

Train to Compete To the Front of the Pack 18-21 17-21 6+

Learn to Win First Across the Line 19-23 19-23 8+

Train to Win Staying at the Front 23-25 23-25 10+

The train-to-train phase generally coincides with the growth spurt in a child; for many athletes the
growth spurt (which can come at different chronological ages) is an event that determines whether
an athlete continues along the high performance path or joins the “active for life/ competition for
life” path; the former path leads to national championships and international competition while
the latter leads to lower level competitions such as age-group or, for the older athlete, the “weekend
warrior” path.

USA Cycling combines the first four stages together as developmental stages. Typically around the
age of 12, a rider will make a conscious decision on how seriously to pursue cycling. Please do not
let the stage names fool you; the early stages are not meant to dissuade riders from entering
competitions; however, the emphasis should be on skill development and all-around sport
development.

Growth and Development

The Long Term Athlete Development (LTAD) is a pathway for optimizing training, competition
and recovery over an athletes’ career. LTAD is based on training age or sport years. An athlete’s

67
prior experience combined with an athlete’s stage of physical, mental and emotional development
is a more critical consideration than chronological age when it comes to deciding what an athlete
is ready for. Because of the overlap between training age in the stages, an athlete may progress
through more than one stage in a year or season. However, caution should be taken to avoid
pushing athletes through the stages too fast regardless of how “exceptional” an athlete may be.

Below is a list of the individual stages adapted from the Canadian Cycling Long-Term Athlete
Development Model along with associated physical, mental, tactical and technical skills
appropriate to each stage. It also includes types of sport environments, sport participation and
testing and talent identification, if applicable. For more information, please visit
http://www.canadian-cycling.com/cca/about/documents/ltad_en.pdf

Active Start – Ages: 0 to 6 (Female & Male), 0 Sport Years

The objective of this stage is movement literacy with a focus on running, jumping, wheeling,
twisting, kicking, throwing and catching. This stage focuses on speed, power and endurance by
using fun and games. Motor learning is integrated into games with a focus on fun and motivating
games. No tactical skills are introduced at this stage, but children are encouraged to explore risks
and limits in a safe environment. Active movement and well-structured swimming and gymnastics
programs are introduced in mid to late stage. Typically, children learn to ride a bicycle near the
end of this stage.

Coaching is introduced through a community initiation coach and parent or recreation leader.
Delivery of these ideas is conducted via school, parents, recreational program or BMX Cycling.
Children are encouraged to participate in as many physical activities as possible with minimal to
no competition in this stage.

Fundamentals – Ages: 6 to 8 (Female), 6 to 9 (Male), 0-3 Sport Years

This stage focuses on developing movement literacy with a continued focus on fundamental skill
development, movement development, speed, power and endurance through fun and games as
well as an introduction to core strength and stability through fun games. Warming up and cooling
down is introduced as well as motor learning integrated through practice. Emphasize effort and
doing one’s best as well as finishing. Tactical skills introduced include mass start races, time trials,
and a basic introduction to sport rules, tactics and ethics.

Specific technical skills introduced include developing basic cycling skills, position and pedal
stroke, use of gears, basics of cornering, climbing, descending, braking, accelerating and avoiding
obstacles. Additional concepts include basics of diet, rest and recovery, respect for others and fair
play as well as focus on character development through participation.

Sport involvement is delivered via school, recreation programs, BMX cycling clubs and cycling
clubs. There is a limited introduction to competition and focus is on skill development via skill
and ability games. Sport participation may include up to 160 hours of cycling per year, less than
four hours per week, up to five sessions per week with the longest session lasting one hour.
Competition may include up to 12 events per year or three races per month. Periodization is not
introduced in this stage and children may compete in one discipline and may participate in up to
four other sports.

Testing at this stage is meant to motivate and collect benchmark data by timing cycling skills in a
circuit and a record of basic anthropometry is kept.

68
Learn to Train – Ages: 8 to 11 (Female), 9 to 12 (Male), 1-5 Sport Years
The Learn to Train stage focuses on developing cycling literacy. The fundamentals of sport skills,
peak motor development, speed, power and endurance are continually addressed through fun and
games. Strength is addressed by continued focus on core strength and stability and an introduction
into ankle and knee stability through fun games, a Swiss ball and using an athletes own body
weight. Warming up and cooling down are emphasized and an athlete’s anaerobic power is
through incidental development only. Aerobic power is developed incidentally through fun and
games though some specific development is introduced.

Motor learning is integrated into practices with a focus on motivating and fun activities. Emphasis
is placed on effort and doing one’s best as well as finishing. Tactical and technical skills introduced
include bicycle racing (other disciplines), sport rules and ethics, introduction to racing skills for
BMX, Mountain Biking, Road and Track, refine position and pedal stroke, use of gears, cornering,
climbing, descending, braking, accelerating, and avoiding obstacles.

This stage is a great time to introduce cultural and lifestyle habits of cyclists as well as hydration
and recovery and regeneration concepts. Competition framework should focus on skill
development and can be introduced via local races, regional races and school championships as
well as by observing elite racing.

Sport participation can last up to 240 hours in one year, less than 6 hours per week, with up to 6
sessions per week and the longest session lasting an hour forty five minutes. Athletes may compete
in up to 15 events per year or four races per month. Athletes may compete in up to two disciplines
and may participate in up to three additional sports with a single periodization introduced that
follows a seasonal schedule.

Talent identification for non-competing cyclists can include timed cycling skills circuits and basic
anthropometry and for competitors includes anthropometry, vertical jump, and a discipline
specific test.

Train-to-Train – Ages: 11 to 15 (Female), 12 to 16 (Male), 3-6 Sport Years

The Train-to-Train stage focuses on physical and skill development also known as the window of
opportunity. At this point in an athlete’s development, they will be building their engine and
focusing on major fitness development as well as advanced sport specific drills. Plyometrics will be
introduced to increase speed and power. This stage is a key development window for females at
onset of menarche. A continued core strength focus and stability as well as introduction to free-
weights can occur. Athletes will develop a specific warm up and cool down routine. Anaerobic
power will be emphasized in competition only and specific training and complementary sports
emphasize aerobic power.

Motor learning is integrated into practices and development of mental preparation will focus on
appropriate attitudes to competition, being the best you can be and belief in the process. Tactical
skills will continue to focus on introductions to racing and sport rules, tactics and ethics. Technical
skills include advanced cycling skills, group riding, drafting, pacing, etc. This stage highlights
continued development of cultural, lifestyle habits and nutrition, hydration, recover/regeneration
and tapering and peaking. Introductions to career planning as well as use of a training diary and
selection of competitions that prioritize competitive sports near the end of this stage.

The sport environment of this stage is cycling specific and competition includes local, regional and
national races. This is a great opportunity to expose athletes to multiple disciplines. Athletes can

69
expect 120-400 training hours per year for males, 100-320 training hours for females. This breaks
down to 6 to 12 hours per week, 3 to 7 sessions per week and lasting as long as 2 to 3 hours.
Competitive events range from 10 to 25 events per year, or 3 to 6 races per month. Athletes may
compete in up to three disciplines and participate in up to two other sports. Single periodization
that follows a seasonal schedule is advised.

Talent identification tests can include both anaerobic and discipline specific time trials.

Learn to Compete– Ages: 15 to 17 +/- (Female), 16 to 18 +/- (Male), 4-8 Sport

Years
The Learn to Compete stage focuses on optimizing the engine for athletes. In this stage, athletes
build on previous skills such as optimizing the engine; advancing sport specific drills, focus on
speed and power by developing plyometrics and specific sprint training. Strength training includes
athlete specific core strength and stability, ankle and knee stability, and free weights. Sport specific
strength program is utilized in the specific preparation phase. Warm up and cool down protocols
are integrated and specific to training and competition. Anaerobic power is stressed in specific
preparation and competition phases targeted on development. Aerobic power has specific training
and is used with complementary sports.

An emphasis is placed on decision-making, refined mental preparation and social psychology and
team dynamics. Tactical skills include refining competition skills and test various strategies,
develop team tactics, continue education on sport rules, tactics and ethics. Technical skills are
refined through advanced training and athletes are encouraged to experiment with techniques
such as cornering, single track, group riding, drafting, pacing, etc.

Additional areas athletes should focus includes optimizing their cultural and lifestyle habits,
nutrition and hydration; recovery and regeneration; and taper and peaking. Parental education
should involve lifestyle management and athletes are introduced to career planning and travel
strategies. Athletes should refine their use of a training dairy. Discipline specialization near the end
of the phase and also focuses on selection of competitions where athletes prioritize competitive
sports.

Racing and training should range from 300 to 600 hours per year for males, 240 to 500 for
females. This equates to 10 to 14 hours per week, with 4 to 9 training sessions a week lasting from
3 to 4:15 hours. Twenty to 45 events per year or 4 to 8 races per month where competitors race in
up to four disciplines. Athletes in this stage may participation in up to two other sports with a
single periodization with multiple sub peaks.

Testing and talent identification are conducted by using an anaerobic test, anthropometry, blood
tests, and regular testing of discipline specific time trials.

Train to Compete– Ages: 17 to 21 +/- (Female), 18 to 23 +/- (Male), 6+ Sport

Years
Similar to the previous Learn to Compete stage, the Train to Compete stage focuses on optimizing
the engine. In this stage, athletes build on previous skills such as optimizing the engine; advanced
sport specific drills, focus on speed and power by developing plyometrics, specific sprint training
and max power. Strength training includes athlete specific core strength and stability, ankle and
knee stability, and free weights. Sport specific strength program is utilized in the specific
preparation phase. Warm up and cool down protocols are integrated and specific to training and

70
competition. Anaerobic power is periodized and targets development. Aerobic power is developed
during the pre-season and maintained during the season.

An emphasis is placed on decision-making, refined mental preparation, distraction management,

social psychology and team dynamics. Tactical skills include optimizing competition skills and test
various strategies in competition, develop team tactics, and select competitions for development
purposes, continue education on sport rules, tactics and ethics. Technical skills are refined through
advanced training and athletes should master techniques such as cornering, single track, group
riding, drafting, pacing, etc.

Additional areas an athlete should focus on include optimizing their cultural and lifestyle habits;
nutrition and hydration; recovery and regeneration; and taper and peaking. Career planning
comes into play, travel strategies and media training. Athletes should have regular monitoring and
testing with discipline specialization and fitting life goals within their high performance quest.
Athletes should incorporate cross training.

Racing and training should range from 450 to 700 hours per year for males, 400 to 600 for
females. This equates to 11 to 17 hours per week, with 4 to 9 training sessions a week lasting from
3:30 to 5 hours. Twenty to 50 events per year or 5 to 10 races per month where competitors race
in up to three disciplines. Athletes in this stage may participate in up to two other sports with a
single periodization with multiple sub peaks.

Testing and talent identification are conducted by using an anaerobic test, anthropometry, blood
tests, efficiency and regular testing of discipline specific time trials.

Learn to Win – Ages: 18 to 23 +/- (Female), 19 to 23 +/- (Male), 8+ Sport Years

The Learn to Win stage focuses on maximizing the engine. In this stage, athletes should maximize
their engine, focus on speed and power by developing plyometrics, hone specific sprint training
and max power. Strength includes athlete specific core strength and stability, ankle and knee
stability, and free weights. Sport specific strength program and max power is utilized in the specific
preparation phase. Warm up and cool down protocols are integral and specific to training and
competition. Anaerobic power is periodized and targets development. Aerobic power is developed
during the pre-season and maintained during the season.

Emphasis is focused on target events, refining decision-making, advanced mental preparation,

distraction management, and social psychology. Tactical skills include optimizing competition
skills and test various strategies in competition, optimize team tactics in competitions, and
optimize integration of technical and tactical elements as well as continue education on sport rules,
tactics and ethics. Technical skills are refined through mastering cycling skills and techniques as
well as correcting weaknesses.

Additional areas athletes should focus on include maximizing their cultural and lifestyle habits;
nutrition and hydration; recovery and regeneration; and taper and peaking. Career planning
comes into play, travel strategies and media training. Athletes should have regular monitoring and
testing. Discipline specialization and fitting life goals within their high performance quest. Athletes
should incorporate cross training.

Racing and training should range from 550 to 700 hours per year for males, 450 to 650 for
females. This equates to 15 to 22 hours per week, with 4 to 9 training sessions a week lasting from
5 to 6 hours. Forty to 60 events per year or 5 to 14 races per month where competitors race in up

71
to three disciplines. Athletes in this stage should participate in one sport with single or multi-
periodization with multiple competition peaks.

Testing and talent identification are conducted by using an anaerobic test, anthropometry, blood
tests, efficiency and regular testing of discipline specific time trials.

Train to Win – Ages: 23 to 25 +/- (Female), 23 to 25 +/- (Male), 10+ Sport Years
Similar to the Learn to Win stage, the Train to Win stage focuses on maximizing the engine. In
this stage, athletes should maximize their engine, focus on speed and power by refining
plyometrics, and hone specific sprint training and max power. Strength includes athlete specific
core strength and stability, ankle and knee stability, and free weights. Sport specific strength
program and max power is utilized. Warm up and cool down protocols is integral and specific to
training and competition. Anaerobic and aerobic power is maintained with development
following a quadrennial plan.

Emphasis is focused on results, refined decision-making, advanced mental preparation, distraction

management, social psychology and team dynamics. Tactical skills include innovative tactics,
optimizing competition skills and testing various strategies in competition, optimizing team tactics
in competitions, and optimize integration of technical and tactical elements as well as continued
education on sport rules, tactics and ethics. Technical skills are refined through mastering cycling
skills and techniques as well as correcting weaknesses.

Additional areas athletes should focus on includes maximizing their cultural and lifestyle habits;
nutrition and hydration; recovery and regeneration; and taper and peaking. Career planning
comes into play, refining travel strategies and media training. Athletes should have regular
monitoring and testing. Athletes should prioritize events and fitting life goals within a high
performance quest. Athletes should incorporate cross training.

Racing and training should range from 600 to 1,200 hours per year for males, 500 to 1,000 for
females. This equates to 16 to 30 hours per week, with 4 to 9 training sessions a week lasting from
5 to 7 hours; forty to 120 events per year or 6 to 20 races per month where competitors race in up
to two disciplines. Athletes in this stage should participate in one sport with single or multi-
periodization with multiple competition peaks.

Testing and talent identification are conducted by using an anaerobic test, anthropometry, blood
tests, efficiency and regular testing of discipline specific time trials.

Active for Life – Ages: Enter at any age

The Active for Life stage is for any athlete at any age and focuses on maintaining activity and giving
back. If competing, athletes will focus on advanced sport specific drills, speed and power developed
via specific sprint training. Strength is gained by athlete specific core strength and stability exercises
as well as ankle and knee stability and free weights. A specific strength program will be developed.
Warm up and cool down is integrated into specific training and competition. Anaerobic power is
periodized and targeted toward development. Aerobic power is developed pre-season and
maintained throughout the season.

Emphasis is focused on decision-making, refined mental preparation and distraction management.

Tactical skills include optimizing competition skills and test various strategies in competition, and
demonstrate leadership in sport rules, tactics and ethics. Technical skills are refined through

72
advanced cycling skills and techniques such as cornering, single track, group riding, drafting,
pacing, etc.

Additional areas athletes should focus include optimizing their cultural and lifestyle habits;
nutrition and hydration; recovery and regeneration; and peaking. Athletes should use a training
diary. Competition, if desired, can range from club racing to masters’ level.

In general, athletes should get a minimum of 60 minutes of moderate physical activity daily or 30
minutes of intense activity for adults. It is possible to transfer from one sport to another and move
from highly competitive sport to recreational activities. Often athletes will give back by
participating as a coach, official or leader.

If competing in this stage, athletes can have a range of 300 to 640 hours of training in a year with
10 to 14 hours per week by training 4 to 9 sessions per week. Testing and talent identification are
appropriate to the level of competition, if desired by using anthropometry and blood testing.

73
 7
Chapter

Sport Physiology

B
ioenergetics. A central task of exercise performance is the ability to provide
sufficient energy to complete a task. That energy is provided and used in the form
of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP is used to provide the energy for muscular
contraction, pumping of blood by the heart, and breathing, but it is also required
to maintain all of the physiological processes that we may not think of but that are necessary
to keep us alive. So the more ATP we can produce for a given amount of time, generally, the
more work we will be able to do, and hence the better we will be able to perform. So, ATP
provision is one of the most important aspects to understand when considering sport
physiology.

The energy (ATP) required for muscular contraction as well as life sustaining processes is
produced through bioenergetic processes in the muscle. These bioenergetic processes can be
categorized as either “anaerobic” or aerobic. The term “anaerobic” can be misleading to
some as it connotes a lack of oxygen, but, as will be addressed later, there is seldom an actual
lack of oxygen during exercise. Instead, these “anaerobic” bioenergetic processes simply do
not involve the use of oxygen to generate ATP.

The anaerobic bioenergetic pathways include the ATP-PC system and anaerobic glycolysis.
The ATP-PC system is the simplest and most rapid way to provide ATP to the contracting

74
muscle, therefore, it is the predominant energy system for intense efforts that last less than
10 – 15 seconds Since the ATP-PC system is exhausted in a fairly short time frame,
anaerobic glycolysis is often a more important contributor to ATP provision. The term
glycolysis literally means “glucose breakdown”, and this is what happens. Glucose is broken
down in a series of reactions that result in the formation of pyruvate (when aerobic) or
lactate (when anaerobic). Therefore, when anaerobic glycolysis is being utilized, lactate levels
will increase and often blood lactate levels will be indicative of anaerobic glycolysis. As an
aside some may use blood lactate testing to determine training intensities or estimate
performance capabilities. In some cases though due to the lag in appearance of lactate, or
the lag in its clearance, blood lactate is not indicative of the relative contribution of
anaerobic glycolysis. Therefore blood lactate testing should be used cautiously in this regard.
Anaerobic glycolysis is the primary system providing ATP for intense efforts between 10 sec
and one minute. Past one minute, it can still be an important provider of ATP, but not the
primary contributor. Hence, any efforts longer than 60-75 seconds are primarily aerobic in
nature.

Energy Systems
In order to propel a bike forward, our bodies use the skeletal muscles of the legs (along with
hips, buttocks and upper body in some cases/situations). To produce this power or force,
the muscles contract (generally) to pull on the bones that transfer the energy from the
muscles into the pedals. We need energy (along with an electrical signal from the brain) to
get the muscles to “fire”. Where does this energy come from?

The primary chemical compound in the body used to store and release energy is adenosine
triphosphate (ATP). This high-energy compound stores chemical energy within its
phosphate bonds. The molecule is comprised of a protein molecule (adenine) plus a sugar
molecule (ribose) with three phosphate groups attached. When a phosphate group is
removed (hydrolysis), energy is released. For this reaction to take place, an enzyme (ATPase)
is needed. When that phosphate group is removed, a molecule of adenosine diphosphate
(ADP) remains. A phosphate group can be added to the ADP to reconstitute ATP; this
process, rephosphorylation, occurs through several energy systems or pathways.

There are three energy systems that can convert ADP into ATP: ATP-PC, anaerobic glycolysis
and oxidative phosphorylation. (Please note that other terms exist for each energy system.)
Each system has its advantages and disadvantages as shown in the table below.

Speed of Action Amount of ATP Duration of Action

replenished
ATP-PC Very fast Very small Very short
Anaerobic Glycolysis Fast Small Short
Oxidative Slow Large Long
Phosphorylation

Before delving into the processes, let’s take a moment to dispel a common misconception.
Because of the demands of the activity in terms of duration and intensity, the activity will
determine the primary energy system. For instance, sprinting 200 meters will require an
energy producing process that produces ATP vary rapidly whereas racing for 200 kilometers

75
does not require a rapid production of ATP since the intensity is significantly lower and the
activity is going to take a lot longer. There is a tendency to think of these energy systems as
operating separately from one another like a bank of light bulbs where one bulb is lit until it
burns out and another bulb is turned on. A preferred way to think about it is to consider the
idea of a light dimmer switch where all the bulbs are lit and producing light, but some bulbs
are turned up so that some bulbs are producing more light. This is how the energy systems
operate in that one energy system is dominant yet all the energy systems are producing ATP.

ATP-PC
While ATP is the most prevalent high-energy compound in the body, another high-energy
phosphate compound is stored in the body as creatine phosphate (CrP) 12. As with ATP, the
energy in CrP is stored within the phosphate bond. While CrP is not used directly to
produce energy, it is a readily available source of phosphate that is used to rephosphorylate
ATP from ADP as shown in the simplified chemical reaction below.

Creatine phosphate + ADP  ATP + creatine

This rapid, one-step process uses the enzyme13 creatine kinase (CK) to catalyze the reaction.
Each molecule of CrP can rephosphorylate one molecule of ADP to ATP. Since the reaction
does not involve oxygen, it is referred to as an “anaerobic” energy system. Since the reaction
requires only a single step, it can produce energy very quickly and is the ideal energy system
for short, high-intensity bursts of exercise lasting up to 8 (or 10) seconds.

A downside to the ATP-PC energy system is that both ATP and CrP are stored in finite
amounts within the muscle. While the body protects itself by not allowing muscle ATP levels
to drop to very low concentrations, the CrP concentrations can drop to very low
concentrations. Another downside is that these concentrations drop rapidly so that the
muscle can become fatigued quickly and the amount of force produced also drops quickly.

You may be asking yourself what happens to the creatine that is produced from the chemical
reaction. The CrP process occurs within the cell but outside the cell’s mitochondria 14. The
“free” creatine from the CrP reaction passes into the mitochondria. While anaerobic
processes take place outside the mitochondria, inside the mitochondria is the location for
oxidative processes. When the free creatine enters the mitochondria, a phosphate group is
added to it through a process known as oxidative rephosphorylation. This process requires
the use of ATP produced aerobically. Since this part is aerobic, requiring oxygen, this is the
explanation for why one breathes very hard after a short, intense effort.

CrP Summary
 Single step chemical reaction;
 Uses the enzyme creatine kinase (CK);
 One ATP per CrP molecule;
 Anaerobic
 5 to 10 seconds in duration; and
 Fatigue is related to CrP depletion.

12 Some textbooks will use alternative terms for creatine phosphate such as phosphocreatine, PC PCr and CP. Some
textbooks will use the abbreviation ATP-PC or ATP-CP for this energy pathway.
13 An enzyme is a protein that allows a chemical reaction to proceed at a faster rate without the protein itself being altered.
14 As you should recall from high school biology, the mitochondria is an organelle within the cell and is known as the
power plant of the cell where many chemical reactions take place.

76
Anaerobic Glycolysis
Anaerobic glycolysis is the process of taking carbohydrate in the body and putting it through
a series of chemical reactions that release enough energy to rephosphorylate ADP and re-
form ATP.15 A by-product of this process is lactic acid. This weak acid quickly dissociates
into a molecule of lactate and a hydrogen ion (H+). While the terms “lactic acid” and
“lactate” are often used interchangeably, they are different. It is beyond the scope of this text
to delve into the details of the differences.

Virtually all ingested carbohydrates are converted into glucose for use by the body or stored
as glycogen in the muscle and liver for later use. Glycogen is a large molecule comprised of
long strands of glucose molecules. Glycolysis is specific to the breakdown of glucose while
glycogenolysis is the breakdown of glycogen.

Compared to the CrP one-step process, anaerobic glycolysis involves 18 chemical reactions
requiring many enzymes and is thus a slower process of generating ATP. One enzyme,
phosphofructokinase (PFK), controls the speed at which all the reactions occur. This type of
enzyme is considered to the rate-limiting enzyme. The level of acidity and the temperature
affects enzymes; if the acidity rises (pH decreases); the activity of PFK declines and slows the
glycolysis process and, eventually, the ATP replacement rate. A drop in ATP concentration
(which means an increase in ADP concentration) creates an increase in PFK activity. This
feedback loop is an important signal that ATP is being used and must be replenished.

As noted the process can start with glucose (glycolysis) or glycogen (glycogenolysis). When a
glucose molecule is “burned”, the process requires the use of two ATP and yields four ATP
through the chemical reactions. However since the process took 2 ATP the net yield is 2
ATP. When glycogen is burned, the process requires one ATP to get it started, but the gross
yield is four ATP; the net is three ATP from one molecule of glycogen. Glycogenolysis is
more efficient from an ATP production standpoint and is a reason that glycogen is used
preferably by the body during exercise. An intermediate product of each process is pyruvate.

The major advantage to the anaerobic glycolysis pathways is the larger yield of ATP, and
while slower than the CrP system, the process is still relatively quick. For this reason, the
anaerobic glycolysis pathway is the predominant system for intense activity lasting upwards
of two minutes. Since the body has considerable stores of carbohydrate (glucose and
glycogen), fuel availability will not be a limiting factor.

A major drawback to anaerobic glycolysis is the increase in acidity16 within the muscle. This
acidosis impairs the functions of key enzymes (e.g. PFK) and can impair force production.
The decrease in force production is fatigue.

15 Munford and Doyle, p64.

16Acidity is the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) and is expressed as pH. The lower the pH value, the
more acidic the environment. A pH of 7.0 is considered “neutral”. A pH of 2.0 would be highly acidic; a pH
of 12 would be considered “basic” or “alkaline”.

77
Anaerobic glycolysis summary
 Predominate energy system for events lasting upwards of two minutes or
intermittent sprint activities;
 18 chemical reactions involving 12 chemical compounds and 11 enzymes;
 Relatively fast energy production, but slower than CrP process;
 Oxygen is not used to produce ATP; and
 Fatigue associated with low pH (acidity)

BMX races epitomize the type of event that utilizes the anaerobic glycolysis pathway.

Lactate
The pyruvate molecule can either be metabolized anaerobically into lactate or aerobically
(after being shuttled into the mitochondria). The lactate molecule is much-maligned by-
product of anaerobic glycolysis. It is often referred to as a “waste product”; however, it is an
important source of fuel for high intensity exercise. Lactate can be used as a fuel for heart
muscle, other organs and even other muscle fibers.

When the exercising cells produce lactate the concentration rises to the point where lactate
exits the cells into the blood stream. The blood stream carries the lactate to highly aerobic
organs (cardiac muscle, kidney, liver) where those cells metabolize the lactate, yielding more
ATP. Lactate that reaches the liver may be converted into glucose (gluconeogenesis); this
glucose is released into the blood to help maintain blood glucose concentrations. This can
be a source of glucose for the brain, which is the preferred fuel of the brain.

Oxidative Phosphorylation
Oxidative phosphorylation is commonly called the aerobic energy system and is the energy
system that can supply a virtual endless supply of ATP. Oxidative phosphorylation uses
carbohydrate, fat and even protein as fuel sources. This process takes place within the
mitochondria.

The aerobic provision of ATP relies on oxygen and occurs primarily in the mitochondria,
although preliminary processes (e.g. aerobic glycolysis) occur outside of the mitochondria.
Two important components of aerobic ATP provision include the Krebs Cycle and Electron
Transport Chain (ETC). Both of these processes involve numerous reactions and rely on
many enzymes. Therefore, aerobic ATP provision is inherently slower than anaerobic ATP
provision, but can be sustained much longer, and ultimately results in more ATP
production. The key element of aerobic ATP provision lies in the last step of the ETC
where oxygen is combined with hydrogen to form water. The formation of water is tied to
ATP generation as the last step in the ETC. So, aerobic ATP provision depends on the
availability of oxygen, but also depends to a large extent on the amount of enzymes available
to complete the oxidation of carbohydrates, fats or amino acids in the mitochondria.
Therefore, aerobic metabolism is dependent on the availability and the amount of
mitochondria in the muscle.

Compared to the CrP and glycolysis processes, oxidative phosphorylation is much slower
and more complex with many more steps (124 verses 18) and more chemical compounds (30
verses 12) and more enzymes (27 verses 11) than either of the “anaerobic” processes. In
addition to the chemical steps, since this process requires oxygen, that oxygen must be

78
brought in from the air outside the body through the lungs, into the blood, then into the
muscles and finally into the mitochondria.

Through oxidative phosphorylation, a molecule of glucose will yield 36 ATP (37 ATP from a
molecule of glycogen) compared to 2 ATP from glucose in glycolysis (3 from glycogen). So
while the process is slower, the total yield is much, much greater.

While an individual BMX race is highly anaerobic, the aerobic system does contribute some
energy and is an important source to recharge the anaerobic energy system. With multiple
races in a day or competition, the oxidative system must be developed to some extent.
However, the BMX racer will not need as highly developed system as a cross-country
mountain bike racer or road stage racer.

It is beyond the scope of this manual to explain all the steps involved in the oxidative
phosphorylation process. If the reader is interested, any college exercise physiology text can
offer a more detailed explanation.

A significant advantage of the oxidative phosphorylation system is the near limitless

capability to produce ATP. However, a major disadvantage is the relative slow speed at which
ATP is produced. Because of the speed (or lack thereof) of the process, this energy system is
predominant in lower intensity, longer duration activities such as road cycling.

Oxidative Phosphorylation Summary17

 Slow process;
 124 chemical reactions;
 30 compounds;
 27 enzymes;
 Rate limiting enzymes are phosphofructokinase (PFK), isocitrate dehydrogenase
(IDH), and cytochrome oxidase (CO);
 36 ATP via glucose, 37 via glycogen;
 Fatigue has been associated with a lack of muscle glycogen; and
 Primary energy system for long duration activities

VO2max
A principle that is often discussed in reference to cycling performance is that of the
VO2max. The VO2max is by definition the maximal ability of an individual to transport and
utilize oxygen. Remember from Muscle Energetics that oxygen is consumed at the end of the
ETC when water is formed, and is tied directly to aerobic ATP provision. Since there is such
a tight coupling between oxygen conversion to water and ATP synthesis, the VO 2max is
strongly indicative of the ability to perform aerobic work. Conceptually, the higher the
VO2max, the more aerobic work one can perform. In general, this is the case. That is, if we
take a sample of the general population, VO2max is predictive of aerobic performance, but
as we reduce the variability of our sample (e.g. highly trained endurance athletes), VO 2max is
a less reliable predictor. That being said, if you are an endurance athlete, it’s generally better
than not to have a high VO2max.

17 Munford and Doyle, p74

79
Since BMX events are more “anaerobic” having a high VO2max is less important. BMX
athletes will also have more type II fibers, which make having a high VO2max difficult.
Again, since the events are short, the necessity of a high VO 2max is reduced although some
endurance is required since the BMX athlete will be racing multiple times and the
“anaerobic” energy systems are “re-charged” through the aerobic pathway.

Although VO2max is ultimately determined by the amount of oxygen utilized at the end of
the ETC in the mitochondria, it is largely dependent upon the individual’s ability to provide
oxygen to the muscles so it can be consumed. Therefore, VO2max can be expressed as:

VO2max = (HRmax x SVmax) x (a-v O2diff) max

Where HRmax = maximal heart rate, SV max = maximal stroke volume and (a-vO2diff) max
= maximal difference between arterial and venous O2 content. The combination of HRmax
and SVmax components gives us maximal cardiac output (COmax), which represents the
maximal amount of blood that can be pumped by the heart in a minute. The (a-v O2diff)max
is determined by subtracting the oxygen content of the venous blood from the oxygen
content of the arterial blood and the resulting difference is that which was extracted from
the blood and consumed (primarily by the muscle). Therefore, in order for one to have a
high VO2max, one must be able to deliver a large volume of blood to the muscle (high CO)
and have the ability to extract a large proportion of oxygen from that blood.

Aerobic versus Anaerobic Pathway Summary

There are two important advantages to aerobic over anaerobic ATP provision. First,
although slower, aerobic pathways can produce much more ATP per unit of substrate. In
other words, for one unit of glucose consumed by aerobic metabolism, approximately 34
ATP are produced, whereas anaerobic metabolism of glucose only yields 2 ATP. So, over the
long haul, aerobic metabolism produces more than 15 times as much ATP than anaerobic
metabolism for the same amount of fuel. This would be analogous to comparing the fuel
economy of a very fuel-efficient car such as the Honda Civic, which might get 50 mi/gal and
travel 500 mi on one 10 gal tank of gasoline. Whereas a Ferrari GT may only get 10 mi/gal
and travel only 100 mi on the same 10 gal tank of gasoline. The Ferrari will go from 0-60
mph much faster than the Civic, but if you need to go more than 100 mi, you want the
Civic. When we are exercising intensely over long durations, we cannot refuel our gas tanks,
so, we need to get the best fuel economy we can, and that means producing ATP through
aerobic means. On the other hand if we simply need to perform for a few seconds to a few
minutes, fuel economy is not important and faster ATP provision is of greater value. The
second advantage to aerobic ATP provision is that the Krebs cycle, the process primarily
responsible for consuming fuel in the mitochondria, can use carbohydrates, fats or amino
acids as substrate whereas anaerobic glycolysis can only consume carbohydrates. Again,
during intense exercise, our gas tanks are limited, and in particular, our carbohydrate gas
tank, glycogen, is much more limited than our gas tank that contains fat. So, if we can
consume fat in the Krebs cycle to provide ATP, that will spare our very limited glucose
(stored in the form of glycogen), for the finale of the race, or for longer durations.

80
Bioenergetics Summary
The figure below provides a summary of the bioenergetic pathways that produce ATP. For
BMX racers, the primary energy systems during competition and training are the ATP-PC
and glycolytic pathways. However, recovery from anaerobic efforts is done using the
oxidative system.

Please keep in mind that regardless of the activity, whether long in duration or short, all
three energy systems are at work. However the demands of the event/activity will dictate the
energy system that predominates. Too often people think of these processes as light switches
that are either on or off. A better concept is that of the dimmer light switch where some
lights can be made brighter while others are dimmed in order to satisfy the needs at that
time. The figure below shows the concept of how all energy systems are in play.

81
The table below provides a summary of the major differences between the three energy
systems.

ATP-PC Glycolysis Oxidative

Phosphorylation
Chemical steps 1 18 124
Compounds 1 12 30
Enzymes 1 11 27
Speed of ATP Fast Medium Slow
production
(comparative)
ATP net yield per 1 2 (or 3)18 36 (or 37)19
molecule
Duration 5 to 10 seconds Up to 2 minutes Long
Intensity High Moderate-high Low
Rate limiter(s) CK PFK PFK, IDH, CO
Location of Process Cell cytoplasm Cell cytoplasm Mitochondria
Example of activity BMX race start BMX race, Endurance events:
kilo/500m TT on time trials, pursuit,
track road/XC mountain
races, etc.

18 2 if from glucose, 3 if from glycogen

19 36 if from glucose, 37 if from glycogen

82
 8
Chapter

Human Anatomy

T
he cardiovascular system serves two primary purposes 1) the delivery of oxygen and
nutrients to the tissues and 2) the removal of wastes from the tissues. In the
delivery of oxygen and removal of wastes, the cardiovascular system works closely
with the pulmonary system (lungs). Anatomically, the cardiovascular system is
comprised of the heart, arteries, capillaries and veins. Blood is contained and transported in
the cardiovascular system.

Blood
Blood is a liquid medium responsible for transporting nutrients (such as glucose) and gases
(such as oxygen) from the heart to the tissues. The primary tissue of concern to cyclists
would be the skeletal muscle. Nutrients are predominantly transported in the liquid portion
of the blood, the plasma. Oxygen is transported in the blood, in the red blood cells
(erythrocytes), attached to hemoglobin. When talking about oxygen transport and red blood
cells we often hear the term hematocrit. The hematocrit is simply an expression of the
percentage of the blood that is comprised of erythrocytes (see figure below). For example, if
45% of your blood volume is comprised of erythrocytes, the hematocrit would be 45. In this
example, the remaining 55% would be primarily the plasma, of which the majority is simply
water. Therefore, water is the single most important component of the blood.
Hematocrit

83
The Heart
The heart is the organ responsible for pumping blood through the vessels to the lungs and to
the rest of the body. As can be seen in the figure below, anatomically, the heart has four
chambers; the right and left atria and the right and left ventricle. Blood flow through the
heart follows a sequence of events whereby it returns to the heart from the systemic veins
and enters the right atria where it is held until it can empty into the right ventricle. Once
full, the right ventricle pumps the blood to the pulmonary circulation in the lungs where it
becomes saturated with oxygen before returning to the heart via the left atrium. The highly
oxygenated blood then empties from the left atria into the left ventricle. Once full, the left
ventricle pumps the blood out into the systemic circulation via the major artery, the aorta.

The Heart

84
Arterial and venous circulation

The Vessels
Generally speaking, vessels either carry blood away from the heart (arteries), or bring blood
back to the heart (veins). Typically, we can think about arteries carrying “oxygenated” blood
away from the heart and veins carrying “deoxygenated” blood back to the heart. The
primary exceptions to this rule are the pulmonary arteries that carry “deoxygenated” blood
away from the heart to the lungs (where it becomes saturated with oxygen), and the
pulmonary veins that carry the “oxygenated” blood back to the heart from the lungs. When
we refer to oxygenated/deoxygenated blood, this is a bit misleading as venous blood is not
truly “deoxygenated”, but simply has lower oxygen content than arterial blood. Relatively
speaking though, venous blood is “deoxygenated”.

As blood travels away from the heart through the arterial circulation, the arteries become
smaller (arterioles) and ultimately become one blood cell in diameter. These smallest vessels
are called capillaries and this is where all gas (e.g. oxygen and carbon dioxide) and nutrient
(e.g. glucose) exchange occurs between the blood and tissues (e.g. muscle and lungs). If we
draw an analogy whereby gasses and nutrients are packages to be delivered by courier, the
arteries and arterioles are simply transportation routes for the blood, (like major interstate
highways) and the muscles are the homes to which deliveries are to be made. No delivery
can be made on a major interstate, but on the other hand, the exchange capillaries are
analogous to neighborhood city streets. At the city street level, the traffic flow is low and
slow, so that delivery trucks can stop and drop off or pick up packages. If there are more
capillaries in the muscle, there are more low flow/speed “streets” whereby deliveries can be
made more effectively. Therefore, increasing capillary density in the muscle may increase the
ability of the circulatory system to deliver oxygen and nutrients to the exercising muscles.

85
The Pulmonary/Respiratory System
The pulmonary system has two primary roles. The first is the exchange of gasses between the
environment and the circulatory system. This is accomplished by bringing oxygen rich air
from the environment into the lungs where oxygen can then enter the blood. While the
oxygen is being brought into the body from the outside environment, the primary waste
product of metabolism, CO2, is removed. The air we breathe in is very low in CO2
(approximately 0.03%) but CO2 levels in our blood are much higher. Due to the low CO2
levels in the lungs and the high CO2 levels in the blood, CO2 will move out of the blood
into the lungs and when we exhale out of the body. The lungs remove the primary waste
product of metabolism (CO2) that increases dramatically during exercise. As with the
circulatory system (where gas exchange only happens in the capillaries) in the lungs, gas
exchange only occurs in small air sacs called the alveoli (see figure below). Thus, air is
transported deep into the lungs to the alveoli where gas exchange occurs with the capillaries
of the circulatory system, but much of lungs are simply transportation passageways for the air
to get to the alveoli (see figure below) and no gas exchange occurs in these passageways.
Therefore much of the volume of the lungs is simply “dead space”.

Please see below for the relationship of alveoli to bronchial passages (directly below) and
the relationship of the alveolus to the capillaries of the circulatory system (the second
diagram).

(McArdle, Katch & Katch 5th edition slide set)

(McArdle, Katch & Katch 5th edition slide set)

86
 Exchange of gasses (oxygen and carbon dioxide) between lungs and circulatory system
(McArdle, Katch & Katch 5th edition slide set)

The second role of the pulmonary system is the maintenance of blood pH by the removal of
carbon dioxide (CO2) from the blood (figure above). As previously indicated CO2 is
produced by metabolism in the muscles and removed by the lungs. CO2 levels are also tied
to pH of the blood. At rest, pH of the blood is quite stable but during exercise pH of the
blood will drop (increased acidosis). The primary mechanism of resisting a drop in pH
(decreased acidosis) is to remove CO2 from the blood by the lungs. This mechanism of
maintaining pH of the blood is not of great significance at rest but during exercise it may
contribute to limiting performance. Generally speaking, when breathing becomes labored
during intense exercise it is not due to a lack of oxygen but due to an effort to remove CO2
and maintain pH of the blood. Further when an athlete becomes “out of breath”, they
typically do not lack oxygen but are blowing of CO2 to maintain pH of the blood. So in
general we say in healthy, untrained or moderately trained individuals the pulmonary
system’s ability to deliver oxygen does not limit performance. The lungs are over designed to
deliver oxygen to the blood and this ability is sufficient to meet the demands of exercise even
at maximal intensity. That being said in some individuals, including highly trained, or elite,
endurance athletes, the lungs may not be able to deliver sufficient oxygen from the
environment to the blood and these athletes will de-saturate (i.e. oxygen levels in the blood
will drop).

Respiratory Muscles
The muscles involved in breathing are skeletal muscles, the primary of which is the
diaphragm. At rest, breathing only involves the diaphragm, and as it contracts, it increases
the volume of the thoracic cavity creating a relatively lower pressure than the environment.
Thus, inhalation draws air into the lungs from the environment due to the pressure
difference. Exhalation simply involves the relaxation of the diaphragm, which then
decreases the volume of the thoracic cavity resulting higher intrathoracic pressure relative to
the environment pushing air out of the lungs. During exercise, other muscles such as the
intercostal (internal and external), and abdominals can become involved. The more intense
the exercise and greater the ventilation the more these accessory muscles will be used and
expiration will become a more active process.

87
The Skeletal Muscles
The leg muscles are principally involved in cycling. At the gross anatomical level, the
primary muscles involved in cycling are the knee extensors (see figure below). These
muscles are commonly referred to as the quadriceps, and are comprised of four muscles; the
Vastus lateralis, Vastus medialis, Vastus intermedius and the Rectus femoris. In addition,
the hip extensors, Gluteus maximus and Gluteus medius (see figure below) can also be
involved. To a lesser extent, the knee flexors (see figure below), commonly referred to as the
hamstrings, the Semimembranosus, Semitendinosus and Biceps femoris also play a role.
The knee flexors though are the most important, with the Vastus lateralis probably being the
single most important muscle involved in propelling the bicycle.

Gross skeletal muscle anatomy of muscles involved in cycling: a) the quadriceps; Vastus
lateralis, Vastus medialis, Vastus intermedius, and Rectus femoris b) Gluteus maximus
and Gluteus medius c) the hamstrings; Semitendinosus, Semimembranosus and Biceps
femoris.

88
At the microstructural level, there are several structures that are important for muscular
contraction to occur. The muscle cell is innervated by a motor neuron that will transfer the
impulse to contract from the central nervous system to the skeletal muscle. This impulse
will result in excitation of the skeletal muscle cell by the influx of positively charged sodium
(Na+) ions. This excitation is then transferred to an intracellular structure called the
sarcoplasmic reticulum, which releases calcium (Ca2+) into the contractile unit of the muscle
cell called the sarcomere (see figure below). The presence of Ca2+ in the sarcomere allows
the two principle contractile proteins, actin and myosin, to interact and in doing so produce
force. This force production is dependent upon shortening of the sarcomere and as a result

89
the gross muscle. The shortening of the sarcomere and force production is therefore
referred to as a contraction.

Below you will find: the neuromuscular junction (left) and release of calcium from the
sarcoplasmic reticulum into sarcomere (right).

Skeletal Muscle Fiber Types

An important characteristic of a muscle fiber that is relevant to performance is the muscle
fiber type. In general we can classify skeletal muscle fibers as fast or slow. This classification
is based on the speed of contraction of the muscle and can also be related to its biochemical
characteristics. Another classification scheme is based on biochemical/genetic
characteristics, and in this scheme, slow fibers are generally classified as Type I and the fast
fibers are classified as either Type IIx or Type IIa. You may be more familiar with the
classification of Type IIb than IIx. Previously, Type IIb was a designation used to classify
human fast muscle fibers, but in recent years it has become clear that the Type IIx
designation was more appropriate than Type IIb, therefore, in the scientific world, human
Type IIb fibers are now referred to as Type IIx, and this change in nomenclature is slowly
moving into the textbooks. The characteristics of these different muscle fiber types are
presented in the table below. One of the most important characteristics that are central to
performance in cycling is the amount of mitochondria present in the muscle fiber. This is
important because if muscle has a high mitochondrial content, it will have the ability to
perform more aerobic work than a muscle with a lesser amount of mitochondria.
Conversely if a given muscle has a lesser amount of mitochondria, it will fatigue more easily.
So with regard to endurance performance mitochondrial content of the muscle is a very
important factor. On the other hand if an athlete is more concerned with anaerobic,
intense, short-term performances, it would be advantageous to have Type IIx or Type IIa
characteristics and in particular a higher Vmax and specific tension (i.e. high force
producing capacity relative to fiber size). In this case fatigability is not a concern; simply
performing the greatest amount of work in the shortest amount of time is the most
important consideration.

The chart below shows: Physical and biochemical characteristics of skeletal muscle fiber
types.

90
Characteristic Type IIx Type IIa Type I
Amount of mitochondria Low High/Mod High
Resistance to fatigue Low High/Mod High
Predominant energy system Anaerobic Combination Aerobic
ATPase Highest High Low
Vmax (speed of contraction) Highest Intermediate Low
Efficiency Low Moderate High
Specific tension High High Moderate

Summary
As mentioned previously, please keep in mind that regardless of the activity, whether long in
duration or short, all three energy systems are at work. However, the demands of the
event/activity will dictate the energy system that predominates. Too often, people think of these
processes as light switches that are either on or off. A better concept is that of the dimmer light
switch where some lights can be made brighter while others are dimmed in order to satisfy the
needs at that time.

91
 9
Chapter

Nutrition and Hydration

T his chapter is designed to provide an overview and general information about

nutrition for the athlete. It should not be used as the final guide for a specific
athlete. Athletes with special needs such as diabetes should seek information from
a registered dietitian, as should any athlete wishing for specific dietary analysis and
assistance. Some colleges offer this service for free for its students.

Remember, the athlete is always responsible for what he or she puts into his or her
body.

The information contained in this chapter on nutrition focuses on endurance sports. Most
of the general principles apply across disciplines; however, some competition factors require
adjustments. For instance, although a single moto is very short, a BMX racer is going to
race many times over the course of a day (or days). The fueling strategy between motos or
between days is similar to that one would see during an endurance event.

Proper nutrition is not a magic bullet that can overcome poor training; however, proper
nutrition could have an adverse effect on your training and race day(s) performance. The
key elements to proper nutrition include:

1. Adequate energy intake to meet the demands of training and development;

2. Adequate carbohydrate intake to meet the demands of training and racing;
3. Adequate vitamin and mineral intake to provide the systematic functioning of the
body; and
4. Adequate fluid intake (this issue will be addressed in a separate section).

Nutrition includes several components such as macronutrients (carbohydrate, protein and

fat), minerals (iron, potassium, etc.), vitamins and water.

Nutrition is the study of the processes involved in the intake and utilization of food
including ingestion, digestion, absorption, and metabolism20. Nutrients are the specific
substances that are used for energy, tissue building or repair, or regulating body processes.
Nutrients are classified as essential or non-essential. Essential nutrients are those that

20 Williams, M.H. Nutrition for Fitness and Sport, 4th edition. Brown and Benchmark, Dubuque, IA, 1995.

92
 cannot be made by the body in sufficient quantity. Non-essential nutrients are those that
This manual should only
can be formed in the body.
serve as a guide. It is
advised that you consult
Six classes of nutrients are considered to be necessary:
with a registered
 Carbohydrates (CHO)
dietitian (RD) to discuss  Fats
your individual needs. If  Proteins
you have medical  Vitamins
conditions that require  Minerals
treatment with drugs or  Water
special diet
modifications, discuss CHO, fat, protein and water are considered macronutrients since the quantities needed are
these needs with your measured in grams. Vitamins and minerals are micronutrients since their quantities are
physician and RD. measured in milligrams or other small units of measure.

The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) in conjunction with other

organizations has developed guidelines that represent the nutritional needs of a healthy
person. These guidelines are referred to as the Recommended Daily Allowances (RDA) and
can be found on foods produced in the United States. The RDA on packages is based on
the energy intake of an average American (2000 kcal for males and 1800 kcal for females)
and may not be sufficient for athletes.

Many people think that all athletes must eat well when, in fact, some athletes do not follow a
very healthful diet. Female athletes have a tendency to have more nutritional deficiencies
than male athletes especially in the areas of iron and vitamin B (both typically found in red
meat). Other athletes at higher risk are participants in sports where the competition is based
on weight classes (wrestling, boxing, judo, etc.) and sports where body image is a factor in
scoring the competition (gymnastics, figure skating, etc.). However, runners and cyclists can
be susceptible to extreme weight loss since body mass is an element in success over some
courses.

Athletes may have poor nutritional habits for a number of reasons:

 A lack of knowledge;
 Financial constraints; and
 Time limitations for cooking or preparation.

Athletes may suffer from malnutrition either through an unbalanced diet or excessive
consumption of one food at the expense of a variety of foods. Such dietary deficiencies
could hamper training and/or performance. While we tend to think in terms of
deficiencies, one can be impaired by too much of certain nutrients as well.

Goals of Sports Nutrition

Louis Burke summarizes the goals of sport nutrition as it relates to road cycling in a review
article published in 2001 (Burke, L.M., “Nutritional practices of male and female endurance
cyclists.” Sports Medicine. 31(7): 521-532, 2001. Many of the goals can be applied to all
types of racing and general health. The goals listed below come from that review paper.

93
During training the road cyclist should:
 Meet the energy and fuel demands to support training;
 Achieve and maintain an ideal physique for the event. Training and nutrition
should be manipulated to achieve a body mass and body composition consistent
with good health and good performance;
 Fuel and hydrate well during each training session to optimize training for that
session;
 Practice race nutrition strategies to assess practices that are beneficial and fine tune
race nutrition strategies (and eliminate those strategies that are not beneficial);
 Provide all nutrients between training sessions associated with recovery and
adaptation;
 Maintain optimal health and function especially by achieving the increased needs
for some nutrients resulting from a heavy training load;
 Reduce the risk of illness during heavy training periods by maintaining healthy
physique and energy balance and by supplying nutrients believed to assist immune
function such as consuming carbohydrate during prolonged training sessions;
 Eat for long term health by following nutrition guidelines; and
 Continue to enjoy food and the pleasure of sharing meals.

For races:
 Fuel up adequately prior to a race; Consume carbohydrate and taper properly
before the event and utilize carbohydrate loading strategies when appropriate;
 Minimize dehydration during the competition by using opportunities to drink
fluids before, during and after the event;
 Consume carbohydrate during events lasting less than one (1) hour or other events
where carbohydrate stores in the body might become depleted;
 Achieve pre-race and race eating/drinking strategies without causing
gastrointestinal discomfort;
 Promote recovery after the race, particularly if the racing will be over several days;
 Achieve adequate energy and nutrient intake during a weekend competition
towards total nutritional goals; and
 Make use of foods that enhance training and competition.

Recommended Daily Intake

The recommended carbohydrate (CHO) intake for a person depends largely on the activity
level of the person. The more active a person, the more CHO one needs. While many
organizations recommend that ~65% of daily energy intake come from CHO, this can be
misleading depending on the total energy requirements for the person. A preferred method
is to look at energy intake relative to body weight and activity level. This provides absolute
numbers for each athlete.

For moderate activity, a person consuming 5 g CHO per kg body weight should be adequate.
As training and activity increases, CHO consumption also needs to increase. During periods
of moderate intensity training, the intake should be 5 to 8 g CHO per kg body weight and
during high intensity (or high volume) training, the intake may need to be as high as 8 to 10

94
g CHO per kg body weight. Using 8 g CHO per kg body weight as a standard, the male in
the REE and TEE examples would require 560 g CHO, which is approximately 2,240
Calories from CHO. This equates to about 60% of total energy intake from CHO per day.

To find the CHO content of a food, consult the labels on the food package or consult
websites of which there are many that provide nutritional information. The table below can
help in determining CHO intake for a variety of body weights assuming 8-grams/kg body
weight/day.

Grams of CHO intake per kilogram total body weight (assuming 8 g CHO/kg BW)
Athlete Weight in pounds (kg) Grams of CHO per day
100 (45) 360
110 (50) 400
120 (55) 440
130 (59) 470
140(64) 515
150 (68) 550
160 (73) 580
170 (77) 620
180 (82) 650

Depletion Training
Depletion training is training intentionally undertaken in a low muscle glycogen state. Such
training is also called “train low, race high”21. The idea behind depletion training is that the
athlete training in such a state would increase the use of fatty acid oxidation and, in turn,
improve the utilization of fat during competition. However, there is little evidence to support
this claim and some preliminary evidence from the Australian Institute of Sport (AIS) that
such training could impair muscle glycogen metabolism when one races in a glycogen loaded
state. As the AIS folks note, athletes will sometimes train in a low muscle glycogen state by
“accident”.

Chances are that you and/or your athletes have trained in a low muscle glycogen state
probably out of neglect to restore muscle glycogen. Often the athlete will report that the
training was challenging or more difficult when done in a low muscle glycogen state. One
could also question if the desired intensity or duration cannot be completed, has the training
stimulus been compromised? One recommendation is that depletion training be undertaken
during transition or base phases training when the training load is low (low intensity and low
intensity in the case of a traditional base phase). If there is an improvement in fatty acid
oxidation during this phase, how long does such an effect last? Would it be beneficial six
months later when the racing season is underway?

Another factor is the potential for immune system suppression. Carbohydrate status is
positively linked with immune system health. When carbohydrate status is low, the immune
system may be impaired (see the section on “Overtraining” for more information).

21 “Train low, race high” should not be confused with the concept in altitude training of “live high, train low” where one
lives at a moderate/high altitude and trains at (or nearer to) sea level.

95
At this time, based on the science available, USA Cycling does not recommend depletion
training.

Macronutrients
Macronutrients are the major energy sources such as carbohydrate, protein and fat.

Carbohydrate
This may be perhaps the most important aspect (along with water) of nutrition.
Carbohydrate (CHO) is a long chain of sugar molecules. We ingest CHO as starches
(polysaccharides), sucrose and lactose (disaccharides), and glucose and fructose
(monosaccharides). Some CHO is stored as glycogen in the liver and muscles and some is
immediately converted to glucose for use by the body. One gram of CHO yields 4.2 kcal
(generally rounded off to 4 to make the math easy).

Glycogen is the storage form of CHO in humans. The liver can store 75-100 grams (g) of
CHO. A sedentary person can store about 12 g of CHO per kilogram (kg) of muscle tissue.
A well-trained athlete can store about 24 g of glycogen per kg of muscle mass. Please note
that this is muscle mass and not total body mass! Since one gram of CHO has about four
Calories of energy, the liver can store upwards of 400 Calories and each kg of muscle can
store up to 100 Calories of energy from CHO.

CHO is an important energy source for the BMX athlete since it is easily converted to energy
in the body. Low muscle glycogen during training may also contribute to lower intensity
training which results in less training impulse which impairs performance. Athletes often
think of glycogen and carbohydrate being important to endurance athletes, but glycogen is
also the preferred fuel for very high intensity training and competition. In fact, sprinting as
in a BMX race or on the velodrome expends muscle glycogen at a very fast rate.

Protein
The main functions of protein in the body include:
 Building tissue
 Major component of enzymes
 Energy source

Protein is a complex structure containing carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. The
presence of nitrogen makes it unique compared to fats and CHO. Amino acids link
together to form chains which are proteins. Up to 300 amino acids may link together to
form a polypeptide chain.

Amino acids can be made in the body by piecing together amino acids; such proteins are
called nonessential. However, there are some proteins that the body cannot synthesize and

96
that must come from the diet (essential). Because not all amino acids can be made in the
body, it is necessary to include them in the diet.

Plants and animals are both sources of protein; however, the qualities of the amino acids
differ. Some foods that contain all 9 of the essential amino acids are said to have complete
protein. Animal sources of protein tend to be complete and in larger quantities than the
amino acids found in plant sources. An example of the low quality and quantity consider
that 2 ounces of fish has 14 g of protein whereas the same quantity of beans has 5 g of
protein. Many plant sources are lacking an amino acid; for instance, grains lack lysine and
legumes are low in methionine. The exception to this is soybean that is comparable to
animal protein. For vegans, eating a wide variety of plants, grains and legumes can provide
all the amino acids needed.

Protein is not very energy dense and the energy is not easily released from the protein. A
gram of protein can provide 4.65 kilocalories of energy (rounded off to 4 generally). Only
during extreme exercise or extreme starvation does protein provide more than 10% of the
energy needs.

Much has been discussed about the protein needs of athletes. Some argue that strength or
power athletes need more protein than the average person or endurance athletes. The
Recommended Daily Intake (RDI) for a sedentary person is 0.8 gkg-1 body weight. However,
because of the demands that athletes place on their bodies, their protein needs are probably
higher.

Athletes would need increased protein intake to build and to repair muscle tissue compared
to non-athletes. The best available research indicates that 1.5 gkg-1 body weight is probably
sufficient. Excess protein is either stored as fat or excreted. An excess of protein (and this
would need to a large amount in a healthy person) can stress the kidneys. Most Americans
eat more than enough protein to meet the 1.5-gram level when you consider that lean beef
has 8 grams of protein per ounce! This has led some people to claim that Americans have
the most expensive urine in the world.

Since a gram of protein has 4 Calories, 1.5 g would mean a caloric intake of 6 Calories per
kg body weight. Based on the 70 kg cyclist above, that would mean 420 Calories from
protein that is about 11% of total energy intake (many organizations recommend 10 to
15%). Combining the protein and CHO intake thus far, roughly 2,675 Calories of the
roughly 3,850 Calories needed per day are already met. The remainder (roughly 1,175
Calories) can come from fat.

BMX and track athletes will often participate in a strength training/conditioning program to
add muscle; thus, protein is a critical component of the diet. However, protein intakes
greater than 2-g/kg body weight has not been shown to be necessary, and the excessive
energy will be stored as fat.

97
Fat
Before delving into this area, it should be noted that some fat is essential for proper bodily
functions and that fat should not be completely eliminated from the diet. Fat storage in
humans is simply an adaptation so that we can store excess energy when food is plentiful for
use when food is not available. However, in modern times where starvation is rare in many
places, this mechanism works against us.

Not all fats are equal. Some fats, like some amino acids, cannot be made by the body and
are called essential. Since fat is a large energy source for lower intensity (below lactate
threshold or below about 85% VO2max), it is necessary for endurance athletes as a large tank
of energy. Fat also plays a role in immune function and protection through layers of
padding around the organs.

Fat is a class of substances called lipids that are insoluble in water. Each form of lipid has a
specific function in the body. The three types of lipids are triglycerides, cholesterol and
phospholipids. Phospholipids will not be discussed; in short, they make up the membranes
of cells.

Triglycerides are the principal form of fats that are consumed in the diet and stored in the
body. A triglyceride is a combination of three fatty acids and a glycerol molecule. Glycerol
is an alcohol (not like that found in your favorite beer) that can be produced as a by-product
of CHO metabolism. Glycerol can be used as an energy source since it can be converted to
glucose by the liver (a process called gluconeogenesis).

Fatty acids are chains of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen. The number of each element and
the bonding and arrangement of the elements determine the type of fatty acid. A saturated
fat has a full allotment of hydrogen ions so that none can be added; monounsaturated fats
have one fewer hydrogen ions and thus one double bond. Polyunsaturated fats have more
than one double bond (or at least 2 fewer hydrogen ions that they can maximally hold).

Fat should constitute less than 30% of total energy intake. However, one should seek to
spread that fat intake evenly between the saturated, monounsaturated, and polyunsaturated
fats so that each contributes about 1/3 of the fat intake. 1 gram of fat yields about 9.4 kcal
of energy on average (rounded off to 9 for easier math).

While health organizations promote a fat intake of less than 30% of total energy intake,
athletes might consider taking in an even smaller percentage. In the example provided above,
the energy from fat is right at 30%. The athlete in this situation might look to increase the
CHO intake to 8 or 9 grams per kg body weight and possibly increase the protein intake
(although exceeding 2.0 g/kg body weight is not necessary) to reduce the energy from fat to
closer to 20%.

98
Micronutrients
2015 Dietary Guidelines

The Department of Health and Human Services Office of Disease and Health Promotion
and the Department of Agriculture (USDA) recommends the Dietary Guidelines for
Americans and is intended for Americans ages two and over, including those at increased
risk of chronic disease, and provide the basis for federal food and nutrition policy and
education initiatives. These Dietary Guidelines encourage Americans to focus on eating a
healthful diet – one that focuses on food and beverages that help achieve and maintain a
healthy weight, promote health, and prevent disease.

The first edition of the Dietary Guidelines for Americans was released in 1980. As mandated
in Section 301 of the National Nutrition Monitoring and Related Research Act of 1990 (7
U.S.C. 5341), the Dietary Guidelines for Americans is reviewed, updated, and published
every 5 years in a joint effort between the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
(HHS) and the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA).

The HHS and USDA will jointly publish and release the 8 th edition of the Dietary
Guidelines for Americans in the fall of 2015. Below you will find information from the 2010
Dietary Guidelines for Americans.

The intent of the Dietary Guidelines recommends two over-arching concepts. The first is to
maintain calorie balance over time to achieve and sustain a healthy weight. And the second
is to focus on consuming nutrient dense foods and beverages that includes limiting the
intake of sodium, solid fats, added sugars, and refined grains while emphasizing nutrient-
dense foods including vegetables, fruits, whole grains, fat-free or low-fat milk and milk
products, seafood, lean meats and poultry, eggs, beans and peas, and nuts and seeds.

Nutrients should be consumed primarily through foods. The following is a list of the
different micronutrients that make up part of a balanced diet.

Minerals
Minerals are inorganic elements that are components or activators of hormones or enzymes.
Minerals play roles in muscle contraction, oxygen transport, nerve impulse conduction, acid-
base balance in blood, water regulation in the body, blood clotting, and normal heart
rhythm. The minerals needed can be consumed from the plants, animal products and even
the water we drink.

The minerals we need include:

 Calcium
 Phosphorous
 Potassium
 Sodium
 Magnesium
 Iron

99
It is beyond the scope of this section to go into detail on all the minerals humans need for
normal physiological function. For this reason, the above minerals will be the focus of this
section. For more information, please consult one of the references located in the
Appendix.

As with most other areas of diet, if one is eating a well-balanced diet that is meeting daily
energy needs, these minerals should be found in the diet. However, low energy diets or
restrictive diets might reduce the amount of some minerals in the diet. In situations where
diet is not providing adequate minerals (or vitamins or other nutrients), the athlete should
work with a registered dietitian to incorporate foods high in those nutrients into the diet.

Calcium (Ca)
Adequate calcium status is important for optimal bone health. In addition, calcium serves
vital roles in nerve transmission, constriction and dilation of blood vessels, and muscle
contraction. The Recommended Daily Allowance (RDA) for calcium varies to 1,300 mg/day
for males and females between ages 9 to 18. For ages 19 to 50, the RDA is 1,000 mg/day for
both male and females and increases to 1,200 mg/day for ages 51 and higher. Calcium can
be found in dairy products, eggs, dried beans and peas, dark green vegetables, and
cauliflower. The absorption of calcium may be enhanced by vitamin D and adequate
protein intake; however, large intakes of fat or phosphorous may decrease absorption. The
body is very good at regulating calcium by increasing absorption when intake is low and
decreasing absorption when intake is high.

Phosphorous (P)
The RDA for phosphorous 1,250 mg/day for males and females between ages 9-18 and
reduces to 700 mg/day for 19 and older males and females. Sources of P include seafood,
meat, eggs, dairy products, grains, dried beans and peas and a variety of vegetables. Soft
drinks have a high concentration of P as well. Keep in mind that excessive P intake can
inhibit Ca absorption. P combines with Ca to form calcium phosphate for the development
of bones and teeth. P is also involved in cell membrane structure (phospholipids), DNA,
vitamin B function for energy production. P is also involved in adenosine triphosphate
(ATP) and phosphocreatine (PC) that are the high-energy compounds that are needed for
muscle contraction. Because of the availability of P and the body’s ability to regulate P,
deficiencies are rare.

Potassium (K)
Potassium (K) is a mineral that is also considered an electrolyte. The RDA for ages 9 to 13 is
4,500 mg/day for males and females and for those 14 and older, 4,700 mg/day. Sources of K
include bananas, citrus fruit, fresh vegetables, milk, meat and fish. K plays a role in
regulating body fluids, in generating electrical impulses in the nerves and muscles (including
the heart). K also aids in energy production by transporting glucose into muscle fibers,
storing glycogen and the production of high-energy compounds. Since the body regulates K
very well, it is rare to have too much or too little K. Too little K has been seen in situations

100
where diuretics are used. In such cases, a deficiency can lead to muscle weakness or cardiac
problems. Too much K might disturb electrical impulses causing cardiac problems.

Sodium (Na)
The upper limit of the RDA for sodium for ages 9 to 13 is less than 2,200 mg/day for both
males and females. Ages 14 and higher are recommended less than 2,300 mg/day of sodium.
Sodium is involved in regulating body fluids; however, it also functions in nerve impulse
conduction, muscle contraction, and acid-base balance. Sodium is widespread in the
American diet both naturally and from additives. Some researchers have found that
Americans consume anywhere from 4 to 5 grams of sodium per day (8 to 10 times the
minimal needs). Extreme endurance exercise (such as a long stage race) might lead to an
acute loss of sodium that can impair performance. For this reason, most sports drinks
provide some sodium (and other electrolytes) to replace what is lost during exercise. Since
sodium plays a role in body fluid regulation, adding some sodium to fluids can increase fluid
retention.

Acclimated, well-conditioned athletes might have sweat concentrations of 115 to 60

milligrams of sodium per liter of sweat whereas un-acclimated athletes might have sodium
concentrations of 920 to 2300 mg/liter of sweat22. In athletes with high sweat rates (> 2.5 L
hr-1) the sodium loss could be 2500 to 5000 mg per hour. Over a long training session or
race, the sodium deficit could reach 15 to 30% of the sodium available for metabolism and
fluid balance.

In recent years, low sodium concentration (hyponatremia) or “water intoxication” has

received a lot of press coverage. Clinical definition of hyponatremia is a concentration of
<130 millimoles per liter of blood). Often the people susceptible to hyponatremia are those
who are participating in ultra-endurance events lasting six or more hours and who do not
replace sodium losses adequately. The precise mechanism of hyponatremia is not clear, but
it seems to be induced by excessive sweating combined with low sodium intake.

Magnesium (Mg)
The adult RDA for Mg ranges as the following: 240 mg for ages 9-13 males and females; 360
mg for ages 14-18 females; 410 mg for ages 14-18 males; 310 mg for ages 19-30 females; 400
mg for ages 19-30 males; 320 mg for ages 31 and higher females; and 420 mg for ages 31 and
higher males. Mg is found in a variety of foods such as seafood, nuts, green leafy vegetables,
fruits and whole grains. Mg is involved in one of the enzymes (ATPase) critical to muscle
contraction. MG also regulates the synthesis of protein and other compounds (2, 3-DPG)
that is involved in oxygen metabolism. Mg deficiency is rare.

22 Bergeron, M.F. “Sodium: The Forgotten Nutrient”. Gatorade Sports Science Institute, SSE# 78, Vol 13, No. 3, 2000.

101
Iron (Fe)
As with magnesium, the RDA for iron varies. The following is the RDA for iron based on
age and sex: 8 mg for men and women ages 9-13; 15 mg for women ages 14-18; 11 mg for
men ages 14-18; 18 mg for women ages 19-50; 8 mg for men ages 19 and higher; and 8 mg
for women older than 51. Iron sources include organ meats (liver), meat, fish, dried beans,
whole grains, broccoli, dates, and figs and even iron cookware. Iron is involved in oxygen
transportation through hemoglobin, myoglobin, electron transfer and oxidative processes
that release energy. Iron status is a legitimate concern in athletes. For this reason, USA
Cycling performs regular blood chemistry analysis on its athletes in the National Program to
assess iron status.

Dietary iron comes in two forms: heme and non-heme. Heme iron is found only in animal
foods (meat, chicken, and fish). Non-heme is found in animal foods and plants. Heme iron
is considered more bioavailable---it can be better absorbed through the intestines. 10-30% of
heme iron is absorbed while 2-10% of non-heme iron is absorbed. Vitamin C increases the
absorption rate for non-heme iron (but has no effect on heme iron absorption). Tannins
(found in teas) can impair non-heme iron absorption by as much as 60%. To a lesser extent,
calcium can impair non-heme iron absorption.

Since iron plays such a key role in oxygen transport, adequate levels in the body are essential
for high level performance. Iron may be one of the few nutrients in which athletes might
have a deficiency. Iron status should be monitored through regular blood chemistry profiles.
Athletes should strive to increase dietary intake of heme iron or high quality non-heme iron.
For athletes who are not iron deficient, increasing iron intake has not been shown to
improve performance23. However, too much iron can have a negative impact. Prolonged
consumption of large doses of iron can lead to accumulation of iron in the liver that can
lead to liver damage.

Iron Deficiency
Iron deficiency occurs in stages. Stage 1 is iron depletion and is characterized by low serum
ferritin and low bone marrow stores. The second stage involves a further decrease in serum
ferritin levels and a decrease in circulating iron in the hemoglobin. However, hemoglobin
levels are still in the normal range in stage 2. The third stage is iron-deficiency anemia and is
characterized by low serum ferritin and decreased hemoglobin concentration.

Endurance athletes can be misdiagnosed with anemia if a physician does not know the
training status of the athlete or look at other parameters. The misdiagnosis is called “sports
anemia” and is not a form of anemia at all. Hemoglobin concentration (as a percentage of
total blood volume) is reduced but iron markers are normal. This condition occurs when
plasma volume expands faster than red blood cell count that is a common training
adaptation. The term sports anemia should not be used since it is a misnomer and also
because exercise does not create anemia, iron deficiency does.

23 Nielsen, P. and Nachtigall, D. Iron Supplementation in Athletes. Sports Medicine. 26(4): 207 -216, 1998.

102
At the USOC and USA Cycling, we consider low ferritin to be <50 mg/dl for males and <40
mg/dl for females to be cause for further monitoring, increasing heme iron intake in the diet
under careful medical monitoring and using a prescription iron source.

Supplements
Supplements encompass a plethora of substances. Many people supplement their diets with
a multi-vitamin, sports drinks or energy bar. These are not the issue most of the time. The
supplements considered in this section are those that might have an ergogenic effect. An
ergogenic agent is something that improves performance. In essence a disk wheel is an
ergogenic agent. However, the term is often limited to the nutritional arena.

It is beyond the scope of this paper to discuss all the supplements on the market and in light
of recent findings on the safety (not to mention the doping control issues) of dietary
supplements, the coach is warned to be wary of claims made by dietary supplement makers.

USAC DIETARY SUPPLEMENT POSITION STATEMENT

(Adopted January 26, 2004)

Warning Label
WARNING: Using any form of dietary supplement may result in a positive test for
prohibited substances leading to a suspension and/or other penalties. Vitamins, minerals,
herbs, amino acids and other dietary supplements may contain prohibited or illegal
substances that may or may not be listed on the label. Any athlete who takes a vitamin,
mineral, herb, amino acid, or other dietary supplement does so at his or her own risk of
committing a doping violation.

General Information
USA Cycling does not condone or promote the medically unsupervised use of dietary
supplements. Because the dietary supplement industry is loosely regulated in the United
States, the ingredients in a given supplement cannot be guaranteed for purity. For this
reason, it is possible that a dietary supplement could lead to a positive doping control test for
a substance prohibited by the Union Cycliste Internationale (UCI), US Anti-Doping Agency
(USADA), World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), and/or the International Olympic
Committee (IOC). Anti-doping rules make the presence of a prohibited substance in an
athlete’s urine or blood a doping offense regardless of how the substance got there. Any
athlete who takes a vitamin, mineral, herb, amino acid, or other dietary supplement does
so at his or her own risk of committing a doping violation.

Every athlete is responsible for knowing the doping control rules and categories of
prohibited substances. Information on prohibited substances is available from USADA via
its website (www.usantidoping.org). Athletes are encouraged to consult with USADA
through its toll free drug information line (1.800.233.0393).

For information on many of these ergogenic aids read Melvin Williams’ book “Ergogenic
Aids in Sports”. Dietary supplements come and go; some are based on sound science while

103
 others are not. Prime considerations for any athlete considering a supplement should
include:

1) Does the USOC, UCI or another governing body ban it? For information on this
aspect, the athlete is directed to contact the United States Anti-Doping
Agencyhttp://www.olympic-usa.org/inside/in_1_3_7_1.html (USADA) at
1-800-233-0390. Also consider that some supplements enter the body and are converted
to other substances that can show up as positive on a drug test or as a masking agent
(which are also banned). You can also visit the USADA website at
www.usantidoping.org. For more information, please see Chapter 13 on Doping
Control.

2) Are the claims plausible? Many dietary supplements make claims that are a stretch at
best but might
. be based on a sound principle. For instance, a supplement may claim to
improve V O2 max by increasing some component such as an enzyme. However, having
more of something in the body that is needed does not always translate into improved
performance.

Recognizing Nutritional Quackery

Melvin Williams poses several excellent questions in evaluating a supplement:
1) Does the product promise quick improvements in performance?
2) Does it contain some secret or special ingredient or formula?
3) Does the advertisement rely mainly on anecdotal evidence or celebrity endorsements?
4) Does it exaggerate the benefit?
5) Does the ad appear in publications that could benefit from the supplement sale?
6) Does it use outdated research or a single study to support its claim, or is the research
unpublished in a peer-reviewed journal?
7) Is it a recent discovery that no one else has?
8) Is the claim(s) too good to be true?

The chart below provides an overview of major vitamins and minerals including sources and
function. Please consult with a registered dietitian for specific information.

Vitamin/ Sources Function

Mineral
A Liver, cheese, green leafy
vegetables, sweet potatoes
D Dairy (if fortified), fish oils, direct
sunlight on skin
E Vegetable oils, green leafy
vegetables, egg yolks, whole grains
K Pork/beef liver, eggs, spinach
Maintains skin membranes, night vision, and
bone development
Increases absorption of calcium and promotes
bone growth
Antioxidant to protect cell membranes
Blood coagulation

104
 B1 Ham, pork, lean meat, legumes, Coenzyme for CHO metabolism; central
fortified breads nervous system functions
B2 Milk and dairy, beans, green leafy Coenzyme for energy production; healthy skin
vegetables
Niacin Lean meats, fish, poultry, beans, Coenzyme for energy production; fat synthesis;
whole grains healthy skin
B6 Animal products only Protein metabolism, formation of red blood
cells and hemoglobin, energy production
Folic Acid Liver, leafy green vegetables, Formation of DNA, red blood cells and nerve
legumes, nuts tissue
Biotin Meats, legumes, milk, whole grains, Energy metabolism
vegetables
Pantothen Beef and pork liver, lean meats, Functions with another coenzyme in energy
ic Acid milk, eggs, whole grains, vegetables metabolism
C Citrus fruits, potatoes, green leafy Connective tissue development, iron
vegetables absorption, antioxidant

Dietary Reference Intakes: Recommended Intakes per Day for Adults 19 to 50 years of age24.
Mg =milligram; mcg = microgram
Nutrient DRI/RDA Upper Adverse Effects of
Males Females Level High Dose
Calcium (mg) 1,000* 1,000 2,500 Kidney stones, blocks iron or zinc, renal
problems
Phosphorous (mg) 700 700 3,000 Impacts calcium absorption and
regulation
Magnesium (mg) 400-420 310-320 35025 Diarrhea (only in supplements and not
food)
Vitamin D (mcg) 5* 5* 50 Bone breakdown; high calcium
absorption
Thiamin (mg) 1.2 1.1 ND No Data
Riboflavin (mg) 1.3 1.1 ND No Data
Niacin (mg) 16 14 35 High supplement intake causes nausea,
vomiting, liver damage
Vitamin B-6 (mg) 1.3 1.3 100 High supplement intake can cause
difficulty walking (sensory neuropathy)
Folate (mcg) 400 400 1,000 Increase of supplement can mask B12
deficiency
Vitamin B-12 (mcg) 2.4 2.4 ND No Data; no problems associated with
high food intake
Pantothenic Acid (mg) 5* 5* ND No data
Biotin (mcg) 30* 30* ND No data
Choline (mg) 550* 425* 3500 Body odor, low blood pressure

24 AI is indicated with an *.
25 The UL for magnesium indicates the upper level of magnesium that one should not exceed if one is supplementing their
diet; the UL refers to non-dietary sources.

105
Vitamin C (mg) 90 75 2,000 Diarrhea, kidney stones, increased iron
absorption
Vitamin E (mg) 15 15 1,000 No adverse effect of high food intake;
limited data suggests hemorrhaging
with high doses
Vitamin A (mcg) 900 700 3000 Liver disease and birth defects in
pregnant women
Vitamin K (mcg) 120* 90* ND No data
Chromium (mcg) 35* 25* ND No data
Copper (mcg) 900 900 10,000 Liver damage
Iodine (mcg) 150 150 1,100 Thyroid problems
Iron (mg) 8 18 45 Cardiovascular, CNS, kidney, liver.
Reduces zinc absorption
Manganese (mg) 2.3* 1.8* 11 CNS problems
Zinc (mg) 11 8 40 Immune suppression, increase LDL

Feeding Yourself
Assuming that you are following a moderate to high CHO diet, the following information is
designed to address the specific timing and contents of feeding at three important periods
during the day. For some of these periods solid foods may not be the best option. During
some of these periods, the thought of eating solid food might not be appealing and liquid
forms of carbohydrate might prove to be a viable alternative.

It should also be noted that if one is following a moderate to high CHO diet regularly and
the exercise session is less than 1 hour in duration; your body probably has enough glycogen
on hand. However, the pre-exercise and during exercise information can be helpful in
exercise and regeneration following the exercise bout.

Research shows that one hour of high intensity exercise can decrease live glycogen by about
55% and two hours of strenuous exercise can almost deplete liver and muscle glycogen
content.26

Pre-Exercise Feeding
The purpose of the pre-exercise feedings is to “top off the tank” by increasing blood glucose
levels to spare muscle glycogen. The food ingested prior to exercise should be low on the GI
scale. In all cases, you should experiment with foods and eating patterns during training.
Just before the big race is not a time to experiment with new things. Would you try a new
bike during a race without training with it? The following chart gives an idea of a food
consumption pattern outlined by Melvin Williams:

Menu Sample (each has ~15 g CHO)

1 apple

26 McArdle, Katch and Katch, Exercise Physiology: Energy, Nutrition and Human Performance, 5 th ed., Lippincott-Williams &
Wilkins, p92.

106
 4 oz. orange juice
½ cup cereal
¼ large bagel
8 oz. Gatorade ®
1/3 Powerbar®
1-cup milk

Obviously you can increase the portions above to total the proper CHO intake and add or
substitute your own favorites using the nutrition information on food labels or from food
charts.

Three Hours Prior to Exercise

3 to 5 g CHO /kg total body weight
For a woman weighing 50 kg (~110 pounds), this would mean ~200 g of CHO

One Hour Prior to Exercise

1-2 g CHO/kg of total body weight

Feeding During Exercise

For the BMX and track athlete, feeding may occur during the breaks in training. Hydration
should be maintained by drinking water or sport drink between training bouts or
competition motos.

The research literature suggests that athletes may use 30-60 grams of CHO per hour during
exercise (0.5 to 1.0 g CHO/min). Consuming about 60 g of liquid, solid or gel carbohydrate
each hour benefits high intensity, long duration exercise (>1 hour). Most recommendations
include drinking ~250 ml of sports drink such as OSMO® every 15 to 30 minutes during
exercise (this equates to about a liter per hour). This recommendation would fall into the
above range. For this reason, solid foods such as energy bars, fruits, etc. are a good addition
to the liquid variety.

Protein During Exercise

A recent wave in sport drinks has been the addition of protein to sport drinks designed to be
consumed during exercise. The earliest studies in CHO+PRO drinks showed promise in terms of
delaying fatigue; however, more performance based studies did not show performance
improvement. There is little evidence to suggest that ingesting protein with carbohydrate during
exercise is detrimental to performance if the drink is tolerated.

Post-Exercise Nutritional Considerations

Athletes must consume a ratio of 4 grams of carbohydrate with 1 gram of protein within 30
minutes of completing a training session.

107
By now most cyclists have heard variations of the above recommendation. Generally
speaking, during all but the transition phase, the athlete should consume carbohydrate,
protein, water and sodium within a reasonably short period of exercise completion. There is
some truth to this recommendation, but also maybe a bit of overstatement in some regards.

Carbohydrate Post-Exercise
It is true that in the time period following exercise that the muscles will have an improved
rate of muscle glycogen synthesis if carbohydrate is present. The key word is rate. The
reasons for this improved rate of muscle glycogen synthesis lies in the mechanism for
extracting glucose from blood into the muscle cell and storing it as glycogen. During
exercise calcium is more freely floating in the muscle. The transporter (GLUT-4) that carries
glucose from the blood into the muscle cell is more active when calcium is present. Thus,
during the time after exercise before calcium has returned to its storage sites in the muscle,
the GLUT-4 transporters are highly active and transporting glucose from the blood into the
muscle. In addition, the pancreas begins to secrete insulin in sufficient amounts after
exercise; during exercise insulin production drops to almost nothing. Insulin plays a large
role in moving glucose from the blood into the muscle.

Based on the above you can see why it is a good idea to consume carbohydrate shortly after
exercise. The time frame varies with some findings that this improved rate of muscle
glycogen synthesis can be as long as four hours post-exercise. Just to be safe, the athlete
should strive to take in carbohydrate much earlier especially if the athlete is going to train or
compete again in a short period of time (say 8 hours).

However, delaying feeding may not be as detrimental if the athlete has 24 hours or
thereabouts between training sessions or races. While the above is true that the rate of
muscle glycogen synthesis is increased when sufficient carbohydrate is available after exercise,
if one consumes a good, athlete-friendly carbohydrate diet over a 20 hour cycle following
exercise, the results at the end of that time period may be the same whether feeding began
immediately or was delayed a couple of hours.

Another factor in post-exercise feeding is the volume of carbohydrate ingested. Ivy, et al

(1988)i showed that muscle glycogen resynthesis was not improved 4 hours after exercise
when subjects ingested 3 g of glucose per kg body weight compared to 1.5 g of glucose per kg
body weight immediately and 2 hours post-exercise.

Timing, at least in the short-term, can make a difference. Ivy, et al. (1988)ii showed that
delaying the ingestion of carbohydrate from immediately to 2 hours post-exercise showed a
slower rate of muscle glycogen synthesis when measured 4 hours post-exercise.

The above studies demonstrate that taking in about 1.5 g of carbohydrate per kg body weight
immediately post-exercise will show an improved rate of muscle glycogen resynthesis over the
first 4 hours following cessation of exercise. However, none of them examined the effect of
timing and load over a longer period of time. Parkin, et al (1997)iii had cyclists ride for a
prolonged period of time to “deplete” muscle glycogen. Following exercise completion, the
riders were fed five high glycemic index meals with one group getting the first feeding
immediately post-exercise (early) and the other group having a delayed feeding starting 2
hours post-exercise. Just as with the Ivy studies referenced above, in the 4 hours following

108
the feedings, the EARLY group showed a higher rate of muscle glycogen storage. However,
over the course of 8 and 24 hours, the total muscle glycogen content in the muscle (vastus
lateralis in this case) was nearly identical (statistically, they were not significantly different)
when carbohydrate ingestion is sufficient.

The take home message is that for athletes who have 20 or more hours between training
sessions or competitions, they can sufficiently restore muscle glycogen levels if they consume
adequate carbohydrate over that time period. However, if the athlete has a short time frame
between training sessions or competitions, then taking in carbohydrate immediately post-
exercise becomes more critical in terms of muscle glycogen.

Protein Post-Exercise
The above section dealt with carbohydrate. It is commonly held that ingesting protein with
carbohydrate will increase the rate of muscle glycogen synthesis. However, in a survey of the
scientific literature, Jengtens and Jeukendrup offered that if carbohydrate intake is sufficient,
adding protein does not improve the rate of muscle glycogen synthesis.

The above is not meant to diminish the importance of protein; however, the reasons for
protein intake post-exercise probably lie more in tissue rebuilding. If you are going to eat a
meal following training, then you likely will be taking in some protein with that meal. This
protein, in combination with the carbohydrate, should be sufficient to meet your needs.

109
Post-Exercise Feeding
Replacing the energy lost during the exercise session is the critical component for preparing
for training later in the same day or training/competition the next day. The muscles seem to
be very receptive to storing glycogen after exercise.

Immediate Following Exercise (30 Minutes)

1.0 g CHO/kg TBW
This intake should focus on higher GI foods in the recovery period. High GI foods include
breads, potatoes and sports drinks.

Repeat that every two hours or until a full meal can be consumed.

An alternative strategy is to consume 50 to 75g of moderate to high glycemic index

carbohydrates every 2 hours until a total of 500g is consumed or until a large high
carbohydrate meal can be consumed. 26 With optimal carbohydrate intake, muscle glycogen
stores are replenished at a rate of 5% to 7% per hour.

There has been some evidence that protein consumption with CHO following exercise
increases the rate of glycogen synthesis following exercise. In this study, Zawadzki, et al., fed
subjects a mixture that had a 4:1 ratio of CHO to protein. The protocol involved 112 g
CHO and 41g protein immediately after exercise and another feeding 2 hours later. The
increase in blood glucose and insulin levels indicated a condition that could increase the
activation of converting glucose to glycogen. However, a criticism of this 4:1 ratio is that the
total energy intake (612 Calories) might have shown an improvement and that a similar
amount of energy from CHO alone would have had the same effect. More recent research
showed that consuming 5g of CHO led to similar muscle glycogen replenishment as the
CHO: protein combination. The energy content of 4g CHO and 1 g protein equals the
energy content of 5g of CHO. In reality, an athlete will often eat a meal with a mix of
carbohydrates, fats and proteins anyway.

The post-race protein intake may play a role in muscle recovery and should not be ignored.
Current recommendations suggest adding 0.4 g of protein/kg total body weight to the post-
race feeding of carbohydrate.

Hydration Issues
Water has several important functions in the body and its importance cannot be
overemphasized. Just to show how important and multifunctional water is, consider this list
of its functions in the human body:

 Providing the building material in the fluid of the cell (the protoplasm);
 Protecting vital tissue such as the spinal cord and brain from compression (water is
incredibly difficult to compress);

110
  Controlling the balance between electrolytes (sodium, potassium, etc) in the body;
functioning of the senses (hearing, eyesight, smell);
 Maintaining a healthy body temperature (thermoregulation); and
 Providing the main component of blood that is critical for transporting oxygen,
nutrients and other functions in the body.

During a normal day with little activity you are losing 2.0 to 2.8 liters of water a day (males
lose more than females, typically). Water is lost primarily through urination and perspiration
(even if you do not realize it, you are perspiring all the time and lose about 0.6 liters of water
through this unnoticed activity). If one adds a large volume of exercise or high intensity
exercise such as cycling training, the loss of water increases. It is not unusual to have athletes
lose 1 to 2 liters/hour while training or racing (some people may lose even more).

How Does Water Affect Performance?

Athletes competing in endurance events (> 15 minutes duration) are likely to be affected by
dehydration. Water loss can affect you by decreasing cardiovascular function and altering
body temperature maintenance (thermoregulation). Loss of water (hypohydration) of three
percent of total body weight can cause a decrease of maximal aerobic power (VO2max) by 4
to 8% during exercise in a neutral (not too hot, not too cold) environment. The loss of
water means a loss of plasma volume (the fluid in the blood that is not red blood cells) that
reduces the amount of blood and plasma that the heart can circulate. This loss of body
water also reduces the blood flow to the skin that decreases sweating and impairs the body’s
ability to get rid of heat that increases body temperature.

Since the sweat rate for an athlete can be 2 L/hr, it will not take long to lose 3% of body
weight in water. A 150-pound (68.2 kg) cyclist losing 2 L/hr would lose 3% total body weight
in one hour. The rate of loss will depend on numerous factors such as the temperature and
humidity of the environment (higher temperatures mean faster rate of water loss), how
acclimated you are to the hot conditions (one effect of acclimating is increasing water
retention), and the volume/intensity of the exercise.

Assessing Fluid Loss During Exercise

To assess fluid loss during exercise, try this simple method (a typical water bottle holds 0.5
liter):

Before you ride, empty your bladder and weigh yourself (preferably nude). After exercise,
empty your bladder again, towel off any sweat and weigh yourself again (preferably nude).
The difference in weight is your net loss of water. Each kilogram (2.2 pounds) of weight loss
equates to a loss of 1 liter (~1.1 quart) of water. Your goal should be to drink 1 liter of
water for every kilogram of lost body weight during post exercise time (or 1 quart 2 pounds)
to regain your proper hydration level. If you drink fluids during the ride, add 1 kg for each
liter of fluid consumed to your post-exercise weight.

So the formula is:

Pre-exercise weight – (post-exercise weight + fluid consumed)

111
To calculate your sweat rate, subtract the post-ride weight (in kg) from the pre-ride weight
and add the amount of water (in liters). This was you gross water loss. Divide the gross
water loss by time. For example:

Pre-race Post-race Fluid Intake (L) Time (hours) Sweat rate

weight (kg) weight (kg) (L/hr)
65 63.5 2 3 [(65-63.5)+2]/3= ~1.2

If you track sweat rate with the weather conditions, you can estimate how much fluid you
need to consume based on conditions such as temperature, duration and intensity.

Another method (albeit not as scientific) to assess if you are consuming enough fluid is the
color and frequency of urination. If your urine is clear and you are urinating frequently, you
should be close to maintaining adequate hydration levels. However, this may give a false
sense of security after exercise. If you are drinking a lot of water, your kidneys will pass the
water so that the urine is clear or light in color, but the retention is not very high (see the
section on electrolytes and water retention). A recently published study27 showed that
consuming large quantities of water after exercise produced clear urine but that was not
indicative of increased body water volume.

The following sections deal specifically with fluid consumption before, during and after
exercise.
Fluid Consumption Prior to Exercise
It is important that you be properly hydrated before beginning a ride or a workout. This
means following the instructions for rehydrating after exercise and consuming fluids
throughout the day and evening. Drinking 0.3 to 0.5 L (1/2 to 1 water bottle) of cold fluid
(water or sport drink) 15-30 minutes before exercise should be sufficient to “top off the
tank” as long as you are hydrating regularly.

Fluid Consumption During Exercise

If you are not properly hydrated at the beginning of an exercise bout, then you have already
created a deficit and are behind the replacement curve. Noakes reports that most endurance
athletes drink less than 0.5 liters of fluid per hour yet lose 1.0 to 1.5 l/hr in sweat in 20-25
C environments28. In a study of cyclists, Sanders et al29 found that ingesting 1.2 l of water or
saline solution (100mEq sodium) reduced end of exercise heart rates by roughly 10
beats/min during a 90 min ride in 30-32 C (86 to 90 F) environments. The same
study2 9 found that ingesting no water reduced plasma volume by an average of roughly
14% while the exercise with water ingestion resulted in a plasma volume decrease of only
roughly 10%. Plasma volume plays a role in VO2max and in reducing the effects of cardiac
drift (the increase in heart rate found during prolonged exercise without an increase in
intensity).

27 Kovacs, E.M.R., Senden, J.M.G., and Brouns, F. Urine color, osmolality and specific electrical conductance are not
accurate measures of rehydration status during post-exercise rehydration. J Sports Med Phys Fitness, 39: 47-53, 1999.
28 Noakes, T.D. Fluid replacement during exercise. In: Exercise and sports science reviews, Holloszy, J.O. (ed). 21: 297-
330. Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore, 1993.
29 Sanders, B., Noakes, T.D., and Dennis, S.C. Water and electrolyte shifts with partial fluid replacement during exercise.
European Journal of Applied Physiology, 80:318-323, 1999.

112
Fluid Intake During Exercise
The following suggestions apply to fluid intake during exercise. While individuals will vary
in some specifics, these guidelines should assist you in making sure that your athletes are
consuming adequate amounts of fluids.

 Drink cold fluids: They tend to be more palatable and athletes seem to drink more
when the beverage is cold than when it is warm. It has been said that colder fluids
empty from the stomach faster than warmer beverages; however, it appears that the
beverage temperature has little effect on gastric emptying.30
 In events >60 minutes in duration, solutions that are 6-8% carbohydrate such as
Gatorade® and contain 400-1000 milligrams (mg)/liter (L) of sodium and 120-225
mg/L of potassium may be of benefit31;
 The fluid should be palatable so that you drink more of it. Carbonated beverages
will regulate body temperature as well as non-carbonated during submaximal
exercise but one researcher found that subjects consumed less of the carbonated
beverages. Also some sweeteners such as citric acid may slow absorption. Drinking
“de-fizzed” carbonated beverages may be acceptable if the acidity is not upsetting;
 Every 10-15 minutes of exercise drink about 200 ml of fluid (~1/2 of a water bottle)
or 1 L/hr spread evenly over the hour;
 Start drinking early in endurance events. The tendency is to wait for thirst to
trigger the drinking response; however, the impulse to drink will occur after you are
on your way to dehydrating yourself.
 Avoid large doses of caffeine (>2 cups of coffee or 2 cans of soda in a day) since it
may have a diuretic effect. If you are a caffeine user, consider slightly increasing the
water intake.
 Practice drinking during training. Set a timer to remind you to drink every 10 to 15
minutes. Arrange for replacement water bottles during the ride or plan stops where
sports drinks can be bought and water bottles refilled. Consider using a large
capacity hydration system.

Fluid Consumption After Exercise

Begin replacing lost fluid as soon as possible after training. Drinking sports drinks or energy
replacement drink can aid in rehydration and carbohydrate replacement. Continue to drink
fluids until you have regained all the weight lost during training. The rehydration process
should be spread out over time. Do not attempt to drink 2 L of fluid in 30 minutes!

Some recent research has shown that consuming sodium with your post-exercise fluids may
aid in rehydration. The added sodium may increase fluid retention by the kidneys so that
you do not urinate as much. The amount of sodium recommended is very low and can be
included in most post-exercise meal or sports drinks. Since replenishing glycogen stores
should also be a part of one’s post-exercise ritual, the fluid intake with the meal should be a
normal part of the post-exercise ritual.

30 Leiper, John. B., Gastric Emptying and Intestinal Absorption of Fluids, Carbohydrates, and Electrolytes. In R.J. Maughan & R.
Murray (Eds), Sports Drinks: Basic Science and Practical Aspects (p105). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. 2001.
31 Williams, M. H., Nutrition for Fitness and Sport, 4 th ed. Brown and Benchmark, Madison, WI. 1995.

113
Using A Sport Drink
The following guidelines can be used in determining fluid and carbohydrate (CHO)
consumption during and after exercise. Remember to use the replacement procedures
during training to see how they need to be modified for you. The race is not a time to
experiment with new fluids, foods or replacement procedures! You might need to consume
more (or possibly less) than the guidelines recommend based on body size, intensity and
duration of the exercise session and weather conditions. That is why it is important that
cyclists have a good idea of how much sweat they can lose during training and competition.
(See section on assessing fluid loss during exercise.)

The typical rate of sweat loss during exercise can be 1 to 3 L/hr, depending upon the
athlete’s fitness, body size, and genetic predisposition to sweating, clothing, and
environment. (Note: 1 kilogram (kg) = ~2.2 pounds, 1 liter (L) = ~ 1 quart, and 1 water
bottle = 0.5L). Fluid losses of as little as 1% of total body weight can negatively impact
performance. This constitutes an ever-present problem because the body’s thirst mechanism
tends to respond slowly to the need for fluids. The “rule” is that by the time you are thirsty,
you are already dehydrated. Replacing fluid loss during and after exercise is essential to
assure excellent performance and recovery. Replacement of lost fluids should begin at the
start of exercise (assuming that the athlete is well-hydrated at the start of the event) and
continue until fully hydrated after exercise.

Sport Drink Use During Exercise

While water may be sufficient for short-term exercise (e.g., <1 hour) under relatively mild
conditions (cool and dry), as exercise intensity and duration increases, the need for CHO
and electrolytes becomes more important. However, do not discount the need for a sports
drink in events lasting less than an hour, especially when exercise is intense.

During exercise exceeding one hour in duration, it is recommended that you ingest CHO
with fluids. Waiting later to begin fluid replacement puts you behind the curve in replacing
fluids and CHO. The fluid and CHO intake should also be spread evenly over time.

Sport Drink Use After Exercise

Beginning immediately after exercise, fluids, electrolytes, and CHO have to be replaced
to assure rapid and complete recovery. However, the characteristics of the fluid changes
from the fluid consumed during exercise. One can increase the CHO content of the
fluid because rapid absorption is no longer a concern. The electrolyte content of the
beverage is important for fluid retention. Drinking only water after exercise is less
efficient in replenishing body fluid than drinking a sports drink with some CHO and
electrolytes.

For those cyclists who finish training or competition dehydrated, post–exercise fluid
consumption must exceed total lost body water regardless of the added ingredients. For
every 1 kg of body weight lost, fluid consumption should be 1.5 L (2 water bottles). The
fluid should contain 400-1,000 milligrams of sodium and 120-225 milligrams of potassium
per liter. Drinking water with a meal will adequately replace lost fluid as long as fluid intake
exceeds fluid loss and the electrolyte content of the meal is adequate. Keep in mind that a
dehydrated muscle cell is a catabolic cell, that is, a cell that favors the breakdown of glycogen
and protein. A well-hydrated cell is an anabolic cell, a cell that is well suited for glycogen
restoration and protein synthesis and repair.

114
Replacing glycogen soon after exercise has been shown to increase the capability of the
muscles to store glycogen. The first 2 to 4 hours post-exercise seem to be the prime time to
“load up” the muscles. During this time, the recommendation is to consume 1 gram CHO
per kg total body weight immediately after exercise and again every two hours. Solid food
such as complex carbohydrates can be used. One of the advantages of a liquid CHO
replacement over solid food is when food is not available or desired after exercise.

Sport Drink Characteristics – What To Look For

- Palatable: it should taste good to you. If you do not like the taste, chances are you
will not drink much of it. Regardless of how well the beverage meets the criteria for
an “ideal” sports drink, it does no good sitting in the bottle;
- CHO concentration: 6 to 7% (14 – 15 g CHO/8 oz.) is the ideal range for
replacing CHO quickly during exercise. Higher levels of CHO slow down fluid
absorption and can lead to nausea and bloating. A higher CHO concentration can
be used after exercise;
- Electrolytes: Sodium and potassium are the main two. Having some sodium
increases palatability, encourages drinking, and promotes rapid rehydration. Far
more sodium than potassium is lost in sweat, so sodium replacement is key;
- Fructose: although each person is different, this usage should be ingested in small
quantities since it may cause discomfort. Most sports drinks have some fructose,
but fructose should not be the first CHO listed on the label; and
- Temperature: the beverage should be cold (refrigerator temperature). People tend
to consume more of a cold beverage.

Gastric Emptying
Fluids are not available immediately upon swallowing. The speed at which ingested
materials are available depends upon the rate at which the fluids, carbohydrate, electrolytes,
etc. pass through the stomach and into the intestine. Gastric emptying generally is
considered to be a limiting factor in the availability of ingested fluids. If gastric emptying is
faster than the capacity of the small intestine to absorb the fluids, diarrhea will occur 30. As
with most issues surrounding gastric emptying, individual variation is great and an athlete
should experiment in training or perhaps even low priority races to see what effect, if any, a
specific drink or food has on performance and how the gut responds.

A key factor in gastric emptying is the volume of fluid in the stomach. One element is that
the higher the volume in the stomach, the higher the rate of emptying. So as the stomach
empties, the rate also decreases. For this reason, starting exercise with a nearly full stomach
and continuously adding fluid regularly during exercise is one method to maintain a high
rate of gastric emptying. Each person needs to learn for him or herself how much fluid the
stomach can hold without negatively impacting performance.

A second key factor is the composition of the ingested fluids. Gastric emptying is slowed if
fluids are highly hypertonic in relation to the osmolality32 of body fluids. The emptying rate
is slowed in proportion to the glucose concentration. However, while emptying rates are
slowed, the rate of delivery of carbohydrate is increased. In response, some sport drink
manufacturers have replaced some glucose with maltodextrins (short chain glucose polymers)

32 Osmolality is the concentration of active particles in a solution.

115
in hopes of increasing the emptying rate by reducing the osmolality while maintaining total
carbohydrate content. Most commercial sport drinks have an osmolality within an
acceptable range.

At one time much attention was given to the effects of carbonation and temperature on
gastric emptying. More recent research has concluded that these two aspects have little
impact on gastric emptying; however, they do impact taste, and taste can play a role in how
much of the fluid is consumed. Individual reaction will vary.

Exercise intensity does play a role in gastric emptying as one might expect. During exercise,
fluids and blood supply are shifted away from the gastrointestinal tract to the working
muscles. If fluids that are high in osmolality are introduced, water from the body is diverted
to the intestine to “dilute” the fluid. The better-designed studies have found that gastric
emptying is not adversely affected at intensities lower than about 70% of VO2max.

Exercise duration also plays a role as does the conditions under which one is exercising. A
training session or competition lasting an hour or less on a hot, humid day would place a
higher priority on fluid replacement and less on carbohydrate replacement. For this session,
a slightly diluted sport drink might be a better choice. For longer duration exercise in very
cold weather such as a cross country skier might experience where loss of fluids from sweat
losses might be low, the priority might be on carbohydrate replacement. In this scenario, a
person might choose a more concentrated carbohydrate source as high as 10 to 15%
carbohydrate (if tolerable by the athlete). In most cases, a commercial sports drink of 5 to
8% carbohydrate solution will serve most purposes.

Weight Management
There are several components to weight management and nutrition. Your weight may cycle
up and down throughout the year depending on training volume, training intensity and
energy intake. It is not unusual to gain weight during the off-season and this may be
beneficial to you. The “extra” weight (if it is fat) will usually melt off once training resumes
even if there is no change in energy intake.

To maintain weight one needs have the energy intake match the energy expenditure. To
lose weight the equation needs to be tilted so that expenditure is greater than intake. This
can be done by increasing training volume or intensity and maintaining energy intake, or by
maintaining training status and decreasing energy intake. For most cyclists, the former
occurs throughout the training program.

One consideration in athletes is the need to consume enough energy to train and also to
meet the demands of physical development. For this reason, specific weights should not be
imposed on athletes. Body composition should only be used to establish nutritional
guidelines and as a part of an assessment should performance begin to decline. Each athlete
has an optimal weight and body composition at which he/she will perform optimally. Below
this weight and performance and/or training may suffer. A lower weight might impair
training through increased risk of illness or reduced carbohydrate intake that leads to
glycogen depletion over time.

116
Another concern in the weight management area is increasing the risk for disordered eating
in athletes who might have body image issues or personalities that lend themselves to
disordered eating. By focusing on weight rather than performance, the shift might lead the
athlete to reduce energy intake below that needed for training. This can be a vicious cycle
that leads the athlete into serious health risks and possibly out of sport forever. Another
aspect of disordered eating is excessive exercise rather than reduced energy intake. These
athletes may ride longer than is scheduled to “lose a little more weight”. These athletes are
often held up as examples of “going the extra mile” which may reinforce the behavior. Too
much training can harm the athlete whereas too little training will only harm performance.

Body Composition
Percent body fat is a common measurement for athletes and people seeking to lose weight. In the
athlete’s case, he/she may be looking for a competitive advantage in that losing some fat mass will
make the athlete faster. For the person seeking to lose weight, body composition can be used to
track changes. However, some considerations should be reviewed before suggesting a person get
body composition assessed.

Why are you (or the athlete) seeking this information? What are the benefits of knowing body composition? If
an athlete has been racing well and is healthy, a reason to gather body composition might be to
understand what an “ideal” racing weight and body composition is. For a person seeking weight
loss, body composition may be considered a starting measurement and can be used to assess how
much fat is being lost.

How will the information be used? Some coaches will have a number in mind that athletes should be
at for body composition. Where did this number come from and why should it apply to everyone? Will the
information be used to punish or keep an athlete from competing or making a team?

What if the results are worse than expected/desired? How are you going to deal with breaking the news to the
client/athlete that he/she is fatter than he/she thought? This is where understanding the number and
how it was arrived at can be beneficial. (People rarely get upset when the body composition comes
back better than expected).

Consider the dangers in comparison to other athletes or peers. Often the body fat percentage of
elite athletes is listed (one needs to be concerned that the numbers may not be “true”), first always
be suspect of body fat percentages listed in a lay publication. You do not know how the
measurements were done or by whom. Also, if a junior sees that a senior, mature elite athlete has
a body fat percentage of X%, the junior may aspire to have that same body fat percentage even if
that body fat percentage is not optimal for the junior.

What is available to me? Whether doing a “one-off” test on an athlete or a series of measurements
on the same athlete(s), availability is a major factor. Cost is a consideration as is the expertise of
the person administering the measurements. Another consideration is future access. In some
cases, getting the same technician to do the follow up measurement(s) is going to be a factor.

117
A danger of body composition is the athlete becoming so focused on "the number" that he/she
loses sight of training and eating properly. Another issue is that there is no ideal body fat
percentage (BF%) that works for everyone. When you read of elite athletes' BF% you need to keep
in mind that 1) it might not be accurate; 2) you are dealing with mature athlete in many cases and
not a junior; and 3) that each of them has found a BF% that is appropriate for him/her. It is
possible to get too low and compromise one's ability to recover properly from training and/or to
get the immune system compromised. For women, there is a risk for disruption of the menstrual
cycle although low energy intake may be a larger concern.

There are exceptions to this such as when a person is seeking to lose weight/fat mass. There is a
way to get an estimation of a healthy weight for that person using BF%. It might also be useful for
people looking to gain lean mass--although this is not often a goal of endurance athletes.

If you are going to get your body fat estimated (and it is an estimate) and done serially (over time),
then you should have it done in the same manner each time, and in many cases by the same
person. The reason for this recommendation is to provide for consistency.

You also need to realize that there is error in any of the methods. The error can be in the
technician conducting the assessment, the participant (you), the protocol or the formula used to
estimate BF%, or a combination of any and all. The only way to measure actual BF% is by
chemical analysis of the body. Basically melting the body. You need to be dead for that; and if
you are dead, who cares what your BF% is?

Keep in mind that each method has error so while a BF% might be reported as say 15%, in reality
with the Standard Error of Estimation (SEE) think of the range. For instance, if the SEE is 2.5,
then that 15% might be 12.5 to 17.5%. That means that 2/3 of the people measured using this
method with 15% as the result will fall somewhere between 12.5 and 17.5. However, a full 1/3
will be <12.5 or >17.5.

Along those lines, when one sees very small changes in BF% one needs to consider the SEE for
instance a change of 1 percentage point (say 15% to 14%) is well within the SEE. In fact, there
may have been no change at all.

The methods below are only the most common.

Compartment Models
Body composition is usually considered in compartment models. The simplest is the two-
compartment model where the body is composed of fat mass and fat-free mass; the latter is
muscle, water, bone, organs, etc. The model assumes that all the fat-free mass has the same
density. The three-compartment model has fat mass, bone mineral density and fat-free mass.
Strength of the three compartments is the separation of bone from the rest of the fat-free
mass. The model recognizes that bone is denser than other organs. Another compartment
model further separates fat-free mass by distinguishing fat-free mass into total body water,
bone and other organs so that four compartments are considered. To get more
compartments requires more technology and higher cost.

The most common methods of estimating body composition are skinfold measurements and
bioelectrical impedance.

118
Skinfold Assessment
The methodology here is pretty simple: a technician literally pinches a hunk of skin and measures
the size of the pinch with a set of calipers. Total BF% is then estimated using the sum of all the
measurements via one of several standard and widely accepted formulae that are sex and ethnicity
specific (in some cases the latter is available). The measurement is of the fat just below the skin
(subcutaneous).

While one site may be measured and used, it is far better to use 3, 4 or 7 sites. The sites are quite
standardized. The most common sites for measurement are the triceps, on the back just below the
scapula, on the chest between the armpit and the nipple, on the side of the body between the
armpit and the hip, just above the hip, near the belly button (umbilicus) and the thigh. All
measurements are done on the right side whenever possible.

The benefits of skinfold measurement include the low cost of the equipment, its portability and
little stress on the subject (other than having a strange person pinching him/her). There can be
modesty issues, as the subject must expose some skin or parts of the body to the
technician. Generally women will assess women although it depends on the subject's comfort
level. The calculation can be done with electronic calipers, by hand (not recommended!), using
commercial software or something like an Excel spreadsheet with desired formula. There is little
the subject can do to screw up the test.

The biggest source of error lies with the technician. Knowing the proper sites to "pinch" and
applying the right amount of "pinch" are required. For some very fat people, skinfolds may not be
possible as the size of the pinch might exceed the calipers range or the inability to grasp the skin in
some over fat subjects. (NOTE: if someone is that fat, BF% is meaningless. They likely know they
are over fat (if not morbidly obese) so quantifying it makes little sense.)

The SEE of skinfolds is 3.5 so a 15% might fall between 11.5 and 18.5%.

Bioelectrical Impedance
Bioelectrical impedance (BIA) involves sending an electrical current through the body; the
amount of electricity is very, very small such that you are not even aware of it. The
technology is based on the fact that fat mass and fat-free mass contain different amounts of
water that affects the conductivity. The current flows more freely through the more watery
fat-free mass. The device (there are several systems) measures how much current was
transmitted and the strength of the current that “returns”. The amount of current lost then
can be calculated into an estimated body composition.

The assessment is pretty simple with some systems requiring one merely step on a scale-like
device. However, the subject (athlete/client) has to be aware of the factors that can affect the
measurements and follow the manufacturer’s instructions regarding when to take
measurements in relation to exercise, eating or other factors including hydration status.
(Being hypo hydrated can lead to a situation where the conductivity will be reduced and one
will get a high body fat percentage value.)

119
Nutrition Considerations for Younger Riders
The basics of nutrition still hold true in that these young riders should get a preponderance
of energy from carbohydrates. Carbohydrates are the major source of energy for exercise and
are in limited quantities in the body. It should be noted that studies of kids performing
prolonged exercise that fat may be a larger contributor to both aerobic and anaerobic exercise
compared to adults33. In short, high intensity exercise children seem to rely more aerobic
metabolism (fat being a major source) than on anaerobic metabolism (muscle glycogen being
the major energy source).

In addition to being active athletes, kids and adolescent riders are also developing and
growing, the nutritional recommendations for them may differ slightly from that of an adult.
In addition, the challenges of feeding an active young athlete may differ from feeding an
adult. These athletes are most likely in school much of the day and may not be able to
access snacks or even fluids on a regularly basis. School cafeteria meals may also present
challenges as does packing a lunch for the athlete. This section seeks to provide some tips
for fueling the young rider. Because few studies exist on young athletes, and specifically
related to cycling, the recommendations are based what we know about adults and kids and
making some educated guesses.

The young athlete should strive towards consuming34:

 Sufficient food energy to support exercise needs, physical growth and development;
 A high carbohydrate diet since carbohydrate is the primary fuel source for all sports;
 Ample protein to build and repair body tissues as well as support physical growth
and development;
 A moderate to low-fat diet to ensure readily available energy from carbohydrates and
lean protein;
 Loads of liquids required for all bodily functions and to prevent hyperthermia;
 A varied diet to provide all essential vitamin and mineral needs; and
 Frequent meals and snacks to sustain optimal energy levels.

There are reasons to assume that recommendations for youth energy recommendations
differ from those as adults. For one thing, kids are growing which demands more energy
than a mature adult. Even looking at the basic Recommended Daily Allowance (RDA) for
protein shows an adjustment for age. Whereas the recommendation for a female adult is 46
grams per day and male adults at 56 grams per day, children ages 9-13 are recommended 34
grams per day. Girls age 14-18 are recommended 46 grams per day and boys age 14-18 are
recommended 52 grams per day. Adults who participate in strenuous exercise may benefit
from a higher protein intake, but no similar data exist for children. Assuming that kids need
more protein just based on growth needs, it may be safe to assume that adding strenuous
training might increase the need for protein above the RDA.

The Sport Nutrition Advisory Committee of Canada suggests that active children may need
500 to 1,500 (if not more) kilocalories (kcals) than their inactive peers34. The Committee

33 Nutrition for Child and Adolescent Athletes, Sports Science Exchange, #77, Vol 13 (2000), #2, Gatorade Sports Science
Institute, www.gssiweb.com
34 Fueling the Young Athlete. Sport Nutrition Advisory Committee, www.coach.ca

120
also recommends monitoring the weight of the child and adolescent every month or so to
make sure the athlete is gaining weight.

In some activities35 kids may expend more energy to complete the same activity as an adult.
If kids are expending more energy that also means that they are generating more metabolic
heat. As mentioned in the section on thermoregulation, about 75% of the energy the body
produces becomes heat. If a child needs 25% more energy to walk at a given pace that
means more heat will be produced. The need for fluid replacement (and proper hydration
at the start of exercise) becomes more critical in kids whose ability to dissipate heat is less
than an adult’s.

Supplements
Supplement use for children and adolescents should be limited at best36. First, there is the
issue with supplements that might contain prohibited substances37 that could lead to a
doping control penalty or suspension. Second, the efficacy of many supplements has not
been established. However, another consideration is giving the kids a false sense of security38
that their morning dose of a supplement gives them all the nutrients they need; they may
then make poor nutritional choices during the day. Another risk is that they will attribute
improvements with the supplement and not the hard work of training. The focus should be
on “real” food. The saying “Only eat what your grandmother would recognize as food” has a
lot of merit!

While dietary supplements39 are a concern that does not mean that supplementing one’s diet
is not necessary. For instance, studies report that kids may be deficient in iron, calcium and
certain vitamins. Iron is necessary for transporting oxygen in the blood along with some of
the energy metabolism pathways and even cognitive processing. Calcium is necessary for
proper bone growth. Diets low in dairy and/or red meat can lead to deficiencies in calcium
and/or iron. In addition, females can lose iron through menses. Iron supplements should
only be taken if a diagnosis by a medical professional has been made and only under the
supervision of a medical professional40.

Other areas of deficiency in kids can be in riboflavin, folate, B 6 and B1238. Riboflavin plays a
key role in energy metabolism, but it can be low in children who restrict energy intake.
Folate, B6 and B12 are needed because of their roles in growth and development; however, all
three are often deficient in adolescents.

Kids (and parents) often are concerned over the amount of fat in a diet. Generally speaking
fat should not exceed 30% of one’s daily energy intake with unsaturated fats being the

35 Research has shown that for a youngster to run or walk at a given pace, the youngster will expend more energy than an
adult walking or running at the same pace; the same relationship has not been shown to exist in cycling, however.
36 Multi-vitamins, energy bars, sports drinks do not really fall into this category for the sake of this discussion.

37 Visit the US Anti-Doping Website ( www.usada.org) for more information on prohibited substances
38 Youth in Sport: Nutritional Needs. Sports Science Exchange Roundtable, #30, Vol 8 (1997) #4
39 See the nutrition section and USA Cycling statement on dietary supplements elsewhere in this manual for more
information.
40 Excessive iron intake may damage organs; a genetic condition called hemachromatosis can lead to an accumulation of iron
in the blood with a key effect being liver damage.

121
dominant form. However, an obsession over fat can lead to problems with disordered
eating. Fats play key roles in the body.

Practical Applications
 Get the kids involved in the menu planning, food selection and meal preparation;
 Coaches and parents should serve as good nutrition role models;
 While young athletes will generally consume adequate protein, special attention
must be paid to athletes who limit their intake to maintain or lose body mass. Such
athletes may incur a net loss of body protein and lean mass; a situation that can
compromise health, training and performance. Athletes who choose to limit their
intake of protein through diet restriction (i.e., vegetarians or non-red meat eaters)
may also need instruction on getting adequate protein;
 If using an adult table to estimate energy expenditure for an activity (as can be
found on the internet), increase the expenditure by 20-25% for children 8 to 10
years of age and 10-15% for children 11 to 14 years of age;
 Children will often underestimate their fluid needs and intake. Because of the
thermoregulation issues with kids, reinforce fluid intake and make fluids available.
In addition, breaks in training should be allowed for fluid intake and those breaks
may need to be lengthened or made more frequent under thermally stressful
situations;
 As with adults, weighing children before and after training sessions to measure fluid
loss41. Children should be able to return their body weight to normal before the
start of the next practice session or competition;
 Monitoring hydration status using urine color is applicable to children. As with
adults, the urine color should be light (straw yellow, pale or clear); and
 Flavored beverages and cooler beverages (especially when ambient temperatures are
high) will increase palatability and increase the likelihood of the beverage being
consumed. Sugar and salt are common additions to improve taste.

Nutritional Periodization
If you are familiar with the concept of periodization of training whereby the training
stimulus is altered periodically to induce a new training stress followed by a period of
recovery that leads to super-compensation, or improved performance/fitness, you should be
able to conceptualize nutrition periodization. Periodizing nutrition involves altering the
intake of nutrients to meet the training load of a particular phase of training. At its
simplest, you eat more when training “hard” and eat less when training “easy”. The most
basic goal is to have energy intake meet energy demands so as to train and/or compete
optimally.

At a deeper level, macronutrient intake will be altered depending on the training phase.
Altering the intake will help to meet the goals of that training phase. Bob Seebohar, in
Nutrition Periodization for Endurance Athletes, gives a more detailed explanation of how
nutrition periodization matches with training periodization.

41 The vast majority of weight loss during exercise is fluid loss.

122
Preparatory Phase
Training during the preparation cycle most often includes increasing volume but relatively
low intensity as you move from the transition (off season) phase. One goal of the
preparation phase is to ready the body for higher intensity training later. Another goal often
is to lose fat mass gained during the transition period. Active weight loss during the early
weeks of the preparatory phase is preferred to active weight loss as one nears the pre-
competition phase.

A distinction must be made between active and passive weight loss. Active weight loss is
characterized by a reduction in energy intake in order to facilitate weight loss. Many people
will find that exercise alone, especially low intensity exercise indicative of a traditional
preparation phase; will not lead to significant weight loss or a very slow rate of weight loss.
In order to lose weight, people will reduce energy intake.

In the past, recommendations were made in terms of percentages of daily energy intake. For
instance, past recommendations (that one still sees) were to consume ~60% (or more) of
daily energy intake from carbohydrate, no more than 30% from fat and about 10% from
protein. A major problem with using percentages is that you also must set the daily energy
intake. For example, an athlete can report that he/she is eating a diet that is 70/20/10.
However, the athlete seems to be losing weight (when weight loss is not needed). If the
athlete is ingesting less total energy than he/she needs to maintain body mass, then the
athlete is adhering to the recommendations while not fueling properly for training. For this
reason, all recommendations are in grams per kilogram42 body weight.

Recommendations for energy intake during the preparation phase can be summarized
below.

Macronutrient Intake Range (g/kg)

Carbohydrate 5 to 7
Protein 1.2 to 1.7
Fat 0.8 to 1.0
Fluids Enough to maintain euhydration (pale yellow urine color)

Please note that if the athlete is doing some higher intensity or longer duration days within
the preparatory cycle, carbohydrate intake either on that day or prior to that day should be
increased to meet the increased demand.

For a 110-pound (55 kg) female, the table above might look like this:
Macronutrient Intake Range (g)
Carbohydrate 275 to 385
Protein 66 to 94
Fat 44 to 55

42 1 kilogram (kg) = 2.2 pounds (lbs.)

123
Fluids Enough to maintain euhydration (pale yellow urine color)

The timing of nutrition intake also is a consideration. The table below looks at
recommendations for pre-training, during training and post-training nutrition during the
preparatory phase. For the sake of this discussion, immediate post-training refers to the first
hour after exercise.

Macronutrient Pre-Training During Training Post-Training

Fluid 15-20 oz. 2 hrs. prior 7-10 oz. every 15-20 20-24 oz. per pound
min lost
Carbohydrate ? 30 to 60 g/hr 1.0 g/kg each hour
until meal
Protein Not necessary Not necessary 6-20 g immediate post-
training
Fat Not necessary Not necessary Minimal during post-
exercise period

As for the question mark surrounding carbohydrate intake prior to training during this
phase, that recommendation may vary from day to day and also depends on when training is
done relative to eating a meal. During the early part of the preparatory phase, carbohydrate
intake before training might not be necessary, but as the training load increases later in the
phase, carbohydrate intake might need to increase. Also, if an athlete is training within a
short period of time of eating a meal, that meal is likely to include a good deal of
carbohydrate.

The preparatory period can be a time to try new foods especially those foods that you might
encounter during racing or traveling. The preparatory phase is also a good time to
experiment with new or different energy bars, gels, or sports drinks.

Pre-Competition Phase
Traditionally during the pre-competition phase, intensity increases and volume may also
increase resulting in an increased training load. This is not the preferred time to be
reducing energy intake if the athlete is seeking to lose weight as the athlete needs to fuel the
training. The flipside is not to consume everything in sight either just because your training
load has increased.

The table below gives an overview of the daily nutritional needs during this pre-competition
phase.

Macronutrient Pre-Training During Training Post-Training

Fluid 15-20 oz. 2 hrs. prior 7-10 oz. every 15-20 20-24 oz. per pound
min lost
Carbohydrate 1 to 4 g/kg over 1 to 4 30 to 60 g/hr 1.0 g/kg each hour
hrs. prior until meal
Protein Not necessary Debatable 6-20 g immediate post-
training

124
Fat Not necessary Not necessary Minimal during post-
exercise period; 0.8 to
2.0 g/kg/day

The differences compared to the preparatory phase lie in carbohydrate intake prior to
training. This area deserves more explanation. The guidelines call for taking in 1 to 4 grams
of carbohydrate per kilogram body weight 1 to 4 hours prior to exercise. The guideline
should be read as follows (CHO= carbohydrate; BW= Body Weight):

4 g CHO/kg BW 4 hours prior to training, OR

3 g CHO/kg BW 3 hours prior to training, OR
2 g CHO/kg BW 2 hours prior to training, OR
1 g CHO/kg BW 1 hour prior to training

So, if you are going to train at 6pm, then you might eat a meal at 2pm that has 4 g CHO/kg
BW (plus other macronutrients). However, let’s say you ate lunch at noon, you might
choose a snack of 1 g CHO/kg BW to be eaten at 5pm. Naturally, you might find that you
can eat a certain amount but that you need more time between eating and training. For
instance, for the 55kg woman, her gut might not be able to handle 55 grams of carbohydrate
one hour prior to training, but 90 minutes before training that volume is fine.

Along those lines, the choice of foods may play a role. As one gets closer to training, the
meals or snacks should be lower in fiber and perhaps even more on the processed end. For
instance, rather than brown rice (higher in fiber), the athlete might choose white rice. The
white rice will be absorbed faster and typically reduce the risk of gastrointestinal issues
during training. As one gets closer to training time, choosing a fluid source whether a sports
drink or even a “recovery” beverage might be a better option.

The athlete might also want to pay special attention to meeting carbohydrate needs on the
day(s) before high intensity training and to pay close attention to replenishing muscle
glycogen stores following training sessions.

The athlete should also keep in mind that increased training means an increase in fluid
losses and potentially an increased need for sodium.

In selecting foods for training (and competition), keeping a good record of what seems to
work well and what does not is important. This can be a good thing to note in a training
log.

Protein during exercise has a question mark in the table above. Under most exercise or
competitive situations, protein contributes very little in terms of energy (ATP) production.
Protein’s contribution is basically ignored in the energy calculations. For this reason,
protein is not considered to be necessary during exercise. Since BMX races are very short in
duration, the protein intake would take place during recovery between motos or intervals in
training.

Another issue with the CHO+protein studies involve the total energy consumed; some early
studies that supported adding protein to a carbohydrate beverage did not control for total
energy content such that the CHO+protein beverages had higher total energy than the

125
carbohydrate only drinks. Later studies that were equal in energy (isocaloric) did not tend to
support the notion of protein during exercise as being ergogenic.

Some researchers argue that taking in protein can speed up recovery and reduce tissue
(muscle primarily) damage. However, there is contradictory evidence in the scientific
literature as well.

At this time, the best recommendation is that if the athlete is ingesting sufficient
carbohydrate during exercise and adds protein and can tolerate it there is probably little
harm in adding protein. No studies have shown a decrement in performance.

Competition Phase
In most cases, the competition phase involves higher intensity training load from the racing
but a decrease in training volume in order to regenerate. Generally speaking, most bike
racers can follow the guidelines for the pre-race phase. However, ultra-endurance
competitors (events lasting 5 or more hours) may want to increase daily carbohydrate intake
especially in the days leading up to an event. The upper range can be along the lines of 12
(or more) g carbohydrates per kilogram body weight per day. For our 55 kg female rider,
that might mean 660 g carbohydrate per day (~2600 kcal/day just from carbohydrate).

The increased need for carbohydrate lies in the relationship of exercise intensity to fuel
(substrate) utilization. Once you are above about 75% VO2max you are relying heavily on
muscle glycogen and carbohydrate taken in during exercise (exogenous carbohydrate). The
diagram below shows that relationship.

During the race, hopefully ingesting carbohydrate through gels, sports drinks or food will
improve performance. The vast body of evidence shows that fueling with carbohydrate
during an event improves performance.

Another difference in this phase relative to the pre-competition phase is that daily fat intake
can go as high as 3 g/kg BW as overall energy demands increase.

Transition Phase
After a long season, the transition phase offers a break from the stresses of competition both
from a mental as well as physical perspective. Training load during the transition phase is

126
generally low relative to other phases. Athletes may take this time to get completely away
from the bike but maintain some general fitness with other activities. Some athletes will take
the time to recover from injuries that need time to heal.

From a nutritional standpoint, the transition phase should be a time to minimize weight
gain or if the athlete thinks (with reason) that he/she needs to lose weight, the transition
phase could be a good time to focus on that goal. A common error in the transition phase is
not reducing the energy intake to match the reduced energy expenditure with the result
being unnecessary and excessive weight gain. This is not to say that gaining a few pounds is
a bad thing, but gaining 20 pounds might be!

Daily nutritional needs include 5 to 7 g/kg BW for carbohydrates, 1.2 to 1.4 g/kg BW for
protein and about 1 g/kg BW for fat. The recommendation to maintain straw, or pale
yellow, colored urine remains the same as in all phases. Since the training load is generally
low, nutrient intake prior to, during and post-exercise is minimal. Basically one wants to eat
meals and avoid snacks or spread the lower energy intake across those meals, but the athlete
wants to reduce the total daily energy intake.

The transition phase might look like the table below.

Transition Phase Training Nutrition

Macronutrient Pre-Training During Training Post-Training
Fluid 15-20 oz. 2 hrs. prior 7-10 oz. every 15-20 20-24 oz. per pound
min lost
Carbohydrate None None None
Protein None None None
Fat None None None

During the transition phase, avoid any energy bars, gels, etc. and use whole, “real” foods to
feed yourself. Try new foods and avoid overeating. The transition phase often comes during
the major holidays that present nutritional minefields. Social gatherings often center on
food (and maybe alcohol) and the temptation (and proximity) can lead to overindulgence
and weight gain. Be proactive with holiday gatherings. Eat a healthful meal before
attending a party to reduce the food intake and to have better control over your food
options.

Getting Help
While there is very good information on nutrition at a variety of website and in books, there
are times when an athlete needs individual directions. Seeking assistance from someone
trained in sports nutrition can be challenging. Many organizations certify sports
nutritionists; however, some of the qualifications might be less than ideal. A safer route is to
look for a person who is registered dietitian (RD). However, not all RD’s are well versed in
sport nutrition as many work in a clinical setting with sick individuals. Look for RD’s with
the CSSD (Certified Specialist in Sports Dietetics) designation. A listing can be found at
www.eatright.org, the website for the American Dietetics Association.

127
Summary
Meeting the nutritional needs of children and adolescents present special challenges as
outlined above. Aside from the above factors some kids can be picky eaters or eat a
monotonous diet that does not provide all the nutrients needed for growth and
development much less training. The message about nutrition needs to be appropriate to
the age and knowledge of the recipient; for kids, this can mean no bombarding them with
numbers.

Another key component is that when discussing nutrition with youngsters, the parents must
be included. The parents are, most likely, the ones buying and preparing the food. Getting
the parents on board is critical.

While most of the dietary guidelines one sees for adults are applicable, children and
adolescents are not just miniature adults and some adjustments need to be made.

Fluid and carbohydrate intake can be a critical factor in training and performing well.
Chronic dehydration means that training cannot be optimized; dehydration during a race
can lead to impaired performance. Dehydration can also have an impact on being able to
cool the body. Lack of carbohydrate intake can also lead to a decrease in performance.
Making a plan to get fluids and carbohydrate during training and racing should be a part of
your overall training and racing strategy.

128
 10
Chapter

Sport Psychology

A chieving peak performance requires the integration of technical and tactical

knowledge with physical as well as psychological strengths and skills. Despite the
importance of all four of these components, cyclists and coaches often overlook or
neglect the psychological side of performance. So while many athletes may have
the physical strengths, tactical knowledge, and technical skills they need for success, they may
not have the important psychological characteristics necessary to achieve peak performance.
The listing below reviews the mental profile of a psychologically well-rounded athlete created
by researchers studying successful elite collegiate, national and Olympic champions.

Performance of Mentally Well-Rounded Athlete

Calm
Confident
Physically relaxed
Thrives on challenge
High intrinsic motivation
Practices with race intensity
Achievement centered motivation
Ability to set challenging and realistic goals
Prepared for obstacles and distractions
Good sense of emotional control
Focused on the present
High positive energy
Competitive
Optimistic

The model in Figure 2 depicts how important mental skills and strengths come together to help athletes
achieve peak performance and success. At the top of the pyramid is peak performance, such as delivering
the goods at the Olympic trials or achieving a personal record in a 40K time trial. This performance
pinnacle will not happen just because an athlete trains for and participates in an event. Three sets of
psychological factors need to come together in addition to a well-designed training program to help
athletes achieve peak performance. The base, personality and motivational factors, and the two sides,

129
peak performance strategies and coping with adversity skills, of the pyramid, represent these building
blocks of high performance.

An athlete’s unique personality and motivational factors form the base of the peak
performance model. Athletes who achieve success have been found to be highly motivated.
They tend to be optimistic (see the athletic glass half full as opposed to half empty), have
positive self-esteem, and are very passionate about what they do. High achievers also
perform because they want to and not because of expectations or pressures from others.

Unfortunately, being a positive upbeat person with a love of cycling is not enough to insure the ability to
achieve personal peak performance. Achieving success requires athletes to know how to psychologically
‘set the table’ for success. In addition to understanding the importance of these skills, athletes need to
develop and consistently use the psychological skills and strategies necessary for enhancing performance
(see the left side of the pyramid). Peak performance strategies include skills such as the ability to focus in
the face of distraction, developing and adhering to pre-competition routines (physically and mentally
preparing for events), determining optimal pre-competition arousal levels, setting effective goals, and
focusing on positive versus negative self-talk – especially during the heat of competition.

The final component necessary to complete the pyramid of success is the ability to cope with
adversity (see the right side of the pyramid). Elite level performers learn how to successfully
deal with all types of adversity, including losing, injury, disappointment, and excessive media
attention. For example, when things go wrong with his performance and a sense of panic
starts to set in, an elite performer uses coping skills he has learned and practiced, such as
relaxation and refocusing, to help recover his composure before it can have a negative
impact on his performance. Overall, the peak performance model provides a blueprint of
components necessary for achieving peak performance in addition to the riggers of physical
training.

Many coaches and athletes are aware that strong mental skills can determine the difference
between two individuals who are well matched physically, technically, and tactically.
Unfortunately, many issues and misconceptions about sport psychology and mental skills
training still prevent athletes and coaches from incorporating the learning and practice of

130
these skills into their training regimes. Some of the more common misconceptions are
outlined and discussed below.

Misconception #1: Mental skills training can take the place of physical
practice.

While it is true that mental skills training can enhance an athlete’s ability to train effectively
and use consistent use of mental skills can help enhance performance, mental skills can not
replace physical training. Physical training stresses the body and facilitates physiological
adaptations that mental skills training alone can not do. However, good mental skills will
enhance an athlete’s ability to train and race, as well as provide him or her with the coping
skills necessary to handle the stresses associated with training and competition.

Misconception #2: Only “sick” athletes need sport psychology or benefit

from mental skills training.

Mental skills training and sport psychology can help enhance performance and increase
participation enjoyment of athletes seeking to get more out of their sport experience.
However, neither mental skills training nor sport psychology can provide the support or the
skills necessary for someone dealing with serious psychological issues such as eating disorders
or depression. Athletes suffering from serious concerns that negatively impact their
performance and lives outside of sport require professional services from a licensed
counselor or psychologist.

Misconception Mental skills training will only enhance the

#3:
performance athletes who have already reached an elite level of
performance.

The sports media and popular press have increasingly noted the integration of mental skills
into the training of athletes at national and international levels. Many people wrongly
assume that mental skills are the final building block to be added to training in the quest for
elite performance. While elite performers can and do benefit from mental skills training
that does not preclude its usefulness for athletes of all ages and at all levels of participation.
The same skills that help an elite level performer to excel at high levels of training and
competition can help beginners learn skills more efficiently and competitors at the local level
reach their full potential.

Misconception #4: Mental skills training can provide a quick fix or the
last minute magic needed for success at an important competition.

Unfortunately, there is no magic involved in learning or using mental skills. Mental skills
are just that: skills, and like physical or technical skills, individuals will naturally excel in
some areas while needing practice in others. Just like an athlete may be a “natural” on the
jumps, while needing a lot of practice to achieve a powerful start, she might also be able to
easily monitor and regulate her pre-competition anxiety but require more work on her ability
to focus on important and relevant cues while racing. This athlete would need a strong
emphasis in training on improving her start and on learning focusing techniques. Moreover,
just because this athlete is good on the jumps and good at arousal regulation doesn’t mean

131
that these areas would be left alone. The athlete and the coach would work together to
further enhance these strengths. Mental skill development works in much the same way as
physical skill development with athletes demonstrating natural skill strengths and
weaknesses, all of which can be developed, coached, practiced, and reinforced in the quest to
achieve peak performance.

Misconception #5: Mental skills’ training is not useful, nor is it really

necessary for achieving success.

Many people still feel that mental skills’ training is not a useful or necessary component of
training in the quest for peak performance. However, in the past 30 years the study of sport
psychology and the importance of mental skills training have gained an increased respect in
the scientific community and with sports organizations such as the United States Olympic
Committee and USA Cycling. The important role that psychological skills and strengths can
play in enhancing performance and achieving success has been recognized at all levels of
participation through the inclusion of mental skills training in coaching education, junior
development programs, life skills development, and athlete training programs. Moreover, in
recognition of the importance of strong psychological skills and mental skills training in
attaining peak performance, the registry of certified sport psychology consultants was created
by the USOC in 1983 to ensure that American Olympians have access to qualified
professionals in the field.

Misconception #6: Good mental skills mean never feeling anxious,

nervous, or experiencing a bad race again.

Elite competitors and cyclists with strong mental skills still experience symptoms of anxiety
and nervousness, and they still experience the frustrations and disappointments of racing.
These emotions and experiences are a normal part of the competitive experience. However,
how these feelings and situations are perceived will vary greatly between an athlete with
strong mental skills and an athlete who does not have good skills. An athlete with strong
mental skills will be better equipped to positively reframe negative thoughts and experiences
and will have the skills necessary to reframe and positively counter the negative emotions so
that the potentially negative impact on performance can be reduced or eliminated all
together.

Understanding the common misconceptions about sport psychology and mental skills
training will help you recognize reasons why your athletes may resist incorporating
psychological skill development into their training programs. Additionally, it will provide
you with the knowledge necessary to educate your athletes about what enhancing their
mental skills can and cannot do in their quest to achieve peak performance.

The Coach’s Role and Sport Psychology

This section will expand on areas of sport psychology and will provide exercises designed to
help you explore and develop different skill areas with your athletes. Understanding the key
concepts of sport psychology and mental skills training will enhance your effectiveness as a
coach and integrating mental skills training into your everyday coaching practices will help
your athletes capitalize on their strengths and improve weaker areas. Additionally, using a

132
working knowledge of sport psychology and mental skills training in your coaching will
enhance the coach athlete relationship as well as bolster athletes’ training efforts and
consistency, competitive readiness, overall confidence, and training and competition
motivation. As a coach you are in the unique position to help athletes achieve the extra edge
and to realize their full potential both as individuals and as athletes. Mental skills training
can be used with athletes of all levels and in all aspects of the sport to help them achieve
increased self-awareness and strengthened important psychological skills that will add to
their enjoyment and personal success in cycling. Beyond understanding the general
principles of sport psychology, coaches need to be aware of the unique nature of each
individual’s personality, motivation level, degree of commitment, capacity to handle stress,
their available resources (e.g., family support, financial support), and the environment in
which he or she lives and trains. In studies done examining the nature of the coach-athlete
relationship, it was found that coaches typically do a terrible job predicting their athletes’
level of anxiety or reading their emotions. Additionally, athletes surveyed have indicated
that having a coach who takes interest in them as people beyond just their athletic identity,
who listens and respects their opinions, and who individualize their approach to training
with the athlete are some of the most important components in a strong coach-athlete
relationship. Taking the time to get to know your athletes and understand their
psychological strengths, weakness, demands, available resources, and needs will better equip
you to provide a training plan tailored to meet his or her unique requirements and abilities,
psychologically as well as physically. The list below provides key points to keep in mind
when getting to know your athletes and as you incorporate mental skills training into your
coaching program.

Key Points for Effective Use of Mental Skills Training as a Coach

 Practice good communication skills. Listen carefully. Make sure that your messages
are both received and understood.
 Respect the confidentiality of the coach-athlete relationship.
 Tailor your coaching to each individual athlete’s unique style and needs. Be aware
that as the season progresses, an individual’s needs may change.
 Be a good observer. Often more can be learned through listening and watching
than through talking.
 Seek to create a strong partnership with your athletes based on mutual respect.
While you may be a coaching expert, the athlete is the best expert in regards to his
or her own body and how she or he responds to training and competition.
 Educate your athletes. The better an athlete understands his or her own strengths
and weaknesses, the better he or she will be able to communicate his or her needs
better to you. Ultimately, enhanced communication and more complete feedback
will enhance your ability to help your athletes achieve personal peak performance
and success.

133
  Know your own limitations. Surround your self with knowledgeable people and
information. When in doubt seek the help of those around you.

A Brief Introduction to Key Components of Mental

Skills Training
Self-Confidence
A positive sense of self-confidence has the power to facilitate concentration, heighten effort,
arouse positive emotions, and influence the setting of meaningful and challenging goals.
Individuals with a healthy sense of self-confidence believe in themselves and in their ability
to acquire the skills necessary to handle challenges, both planned and unexpected.

Self-confidence research has demonstrated that individuals have an overriding or global

sense of self-confidence that can be broken down into area specific confidence. Thus it is
possible for an athlete to demonstrate high self-confidence in one area (e.g., hill climbs)
while displaying low or diminished confidence in other areas (e.g., the field sprint). It is
important to identify and understand where an athlete’s confidence strengths and
weaknesses occur as strengths can be used to help strengthen weaker areas, while the
weaknesses, if not addressed, can erode positive confidence in other areas. Overall,
achieving a positive sense of self-confidence requires that athletes have a healthy realistic
sense of their abilities and of their readiness. The listing below provides general suggestions
regarding how coaches can help enhance a positive sense of self-confidence in their athletes.

Fostering Positive Self-Confidence

 Use coaching language that focuses on skill growth rather than on skill deficiencies. For
example say, “You can improve your field sprint by…” and provide specific skill
suggestions rather than saying, “Your sprinting ability is terrible.”
 Encourage your athletes to think positive and help them learn to reframe negative
thoughts.
 Encourage your athletes to use positive language. For example, encourage the use of ‘I
can’ rather than ‘I can’t’ language.
 Be honest and realistic with your athletes when discussing their training and their
potential.
 Encourage your athletes to be honest and realistic with themselves in assessing their
commitment to train, their training, and their potential.
 Emphasize the importance of physical conditioning and preparation.
 Focus on performance accomplishments rather than just outcomes.
 Model confidence as a coach (and as an athlete if you still compete).
 Acknowledge athlete strengths as well as weaknesses.

Despite the recognized importance of a healthy sense of self-confidence, self-confidence

issues are not uncommon among athletes of all levels. Low confidence in one’s abilities
diminishes enjoyment, as well as undermines the possibility of achieving one’s full potential.
Conversely, false confidence or overconfidence creates a situation where an athlete over-

134
 estimates his or her abilities and readiness, leaving him or her under-prepared for achieving
peak performance. Common confidence issues that you may encounter as a coach are
outlined below along with suggestions for dealing with each issue.

Common Self-Confidence Issues

Make sure the  Self doubt regarding ability (e.g., “Can I really do this?”).
athlete is setting  Systematic training coupled with an understanding of how the athlete is doing
both outcome and will prepare him for competition and will help enhance confidence.
performance goals.  Worrying about the outcome (e.g., winning or losing) rather than the
Emphasize the performance components necessary for achieving a positive outcome (e.g.,
important role that maintaining smooth cadence).
achieving process  Belief that a problem or mistake in one area (e.g., jumping) implies lesser ability
and performance in other areas (e.g., the inability to compete well).
focused goals will
play in reaching an Goal setting can be used to help the athlete work towards improved skills in areas of
outcome. weakness. Positive self-talk skills can be used to help the athlete remind himself of his
strengths in one area and of the work he is doing to improve other areas rather than fixating
on weaknesses.

Expectations and Self Confidence

Performance and outcome expectations can both increase an athlete’s anxiety and enhance
his or her confidence depending on how realistic and achievable the individual believes the
expectations to be. Expecting to win a national title without feeling one possesses the
necessary physical talent or expecting to complete a multiday stage race knowing the training
base isn’t there will not only undermine self-confidence but will negatively impact the
athlete’s motivation level as well. You can assist your cyclists by helping them clarify their
training and competitive expectations and make sure they have the resources and skills
necessary to believe in these expectations.

Exploring an athlete’s expectations (see below) will also provide you an opportunity to
address any unrealistic ideas the athlete has about what the athlete can really achieve within
the parameters of their available resources and abilities and what a training program can
help them accomplish. Clarification of an athlete’s expectations is also an excellent way to
enhance the athlete’s self-awareness and to introduce and explore mental skills such as goal
setting and concentration. As a coach, asking cyclists key questions and exploring their
responses will give you an opportunity to provide education about mental training and what
the athlete needs to invest into the program for success.

Clarifying Expectations
Explore these expectation clarification questions with your athletes. Use each question as the base for
further discussion. Doing so will help foster realistic expectations and role clarity for both you and your
athlete.
1 – What are your goals this season?
2 – What are your long-term goals as a cyclist and as an athlete?
3 – What do you feel it will take to achieve these goals (personally, in terms of
support and resources, etc.)?

135
 4 – What do you feel you have to invest in the quest to reach your goals (personally,
in terms of support and resources, etc.)?
5 – What are your strengths as a cyclist? How will your strengths help you reach your
goals?
6 – What are your weaknesses as a cyclist?
7 – How might your weaknesses get in the way of you reaching your goals?

No matter how realistic an athlete’s expectations are, they will need a plan they can believe
in, as well as the motivation, and commitment in order to successfully follow the plan.
Exploring expectations is an excellent way to open up a discussion on what it will take to
meet those expectations and create the proper plan. This will allow both you and the athlete
to gain a better understanding of the athlete’s commitment level and it will help increase
athlete’s awareness of their own responsibility to the training process.

In addition to his or her own expectations, a cyclist’s sense of confidence and ability to
perform is influenced by the expectations of others, including those of parents, teammates,
sponsors, and coaches. Because of the influence of the coach’s expectations can have on
their athletes, coaches need to be especially careful when communicating with their athletes.
Avoid forming preconceived notions about an athlete’s disposition or potential prior to
being in a new coach-athlete partnership. Entering into a coach-athlete relationship with a
predetermined perception of the individual will have a strong impact on how you approach
working with them and how you design their training plan. For example, relying on reports
from other people that a particular athlete is difficult to deal with may negatively bias the
way in which you approach and communicate with that athlete. Additionally, if an athlete
you work with believes that you, as the coach, do not believe in his or her ability to succeed,
this can greatly impact his or her self-confidence and the likelihood he or she will be able to
achieve success. Thus the athlete’s performance may become a self-fulfilling prophecy based
on his or her perception of your assessment.

In an effort to avoid creating a self-fulfilling prophecy, it is important to carefully consider

any sources (e.g., other athletes’ or coaches’ opinions, athlete’s physical size, gender, race,
and reputation) you use when assessing athletes and their abilities. Are your sources reliable?
Accurate? Pay attention to the information you receive and how this information influences
your expectations and ultimately your interactions with the athlete in question. Make a
conscious effort to periodically update your expectations by objectively testing athletes,
conduct timely goal evaluations and thorough systematic observations. The listing below
provides additional expectation clarification question that can be used to help explore the
impact your coaching expectations have on your athletes.

Further Expectation Clarification

Explore the impact your expectations have on your athletes using these clarification questions with your
athletes. Use each question as the base for further discussion. Doing so will help foster realistic
expectations and role clarity for both you and your athlete. (Expectation clarification questions can also
be used to explore the role that the expectations of parents, sponsors, teammates, the media, and other
influence sources play in influencing athlete confidence and performance.)
1 - Why do you want to work with a cycling coach?

136
 2 – What do you expect from the coach athlete relationship?
3 – What do you need from me as a coach (e.g. a training plan, different levels of
support, daily contact, and/or a training push now and then, etc.)?

Motivation
Traditional or ‘typically’ cited reasons individuals participate in cycling include for the
challenge or stimulation, health benefits, group affiliation, to achieve a specific outcome (e.g.
national pursuit champion, category upgrade), to enhance self worth, or to please others.
However, the combination of reasons why an athlete trains and competes will be as different
and unique as the individual themselves. As a coach, understanding the nature of each
individual’s motivation to train and race will assist you in writing training plans suited to
meet his or her needs. Furthermore, knowing why your athletes train and compete will
provide you with the information you need to help them stay motivated through daily
workouts, over the course of the season, and when they experience motivational lulls.

Athlete’s motivational sources can be classified as either intrinsic or extrinsic in nature.

When extrinsically motivated, athletes strive for rewards and acknoweldgements from the
environment around them. Extrinsic sources of motivation include trophies, money,
recognition, and to please others. Intrinsic motivational sources come from within the
athlete and include sources such as self satisfaction, pride, and the love of the activity.
Successful athletes are motivated by a mix of both intrinsic and extrinsic sources of
motivation.

Motivational problems can occur for a number of reasons. When an athlete is motivated for
mostly extrinsic reasons, they are more likely to experience frustration and loss of
motivation. Extrinsic motivational sources typically center around things that are beyond an
athlete’s control. For example, an athlete who is motivated primariy to win can prepare
perfectly and have the best race of his or her career and still not win depending on who else
is in the race and other factors beyond the athlete’s control. Often athletes who are initially
motivated to train and participate because they want to win will experience motivational
problems as they encounter tougher competition and winning becomes more difficult.
Coaches can help these individuals by emphasising the importance of enjoying and focusing
on the process, and by helping them develop an intrinsic sense of motivation using
performance based goals (see Goal setting section).

On the other hand, athletes motivated by challenge and the internal satisfaction they gain
from participating and competing will remain motivated as they encounter and rise to higher
and higher levels of challenge. Ultimately, most athletes are motivated by both intrinsic and
extrinsic factors. The key to maintaining motivation over the course of the season is to make
sure that athletes are motivated by a mix of both intrinsic and extrinsic factors.
Additionally, helping atheltes set goals that are suited to their motivational needs will help
enhance motivation in both training and competition. The listing below provides
suggestions for helping athletes understand and foster positive motivation.

137
Tips for Enhancing Athlete Motivation
 Help athletes explore and understand why they ride and why they compete. A thorough
understanding of athletes’ motivation will help you work together and develop effective
strategies for dealing with the occasional lulls in motivation that all athletes experience.
 Provide successful experiences in training using performance-based goals (see the goal setting
section). Experiencing success in training will not only enhance athlete motivation but it will
also prepare your athletes for experiencing success in competition.
 Involve the athlete in decision-making regarding training. Offer your athletes choices
and provide them with opportunities to make decisions regarding their training.
Making choices regarding their own training program will help enhance athlete’s
investment in the process.
 Keep training from becoming routine. Variety within each training cycle, as well as
throughout the year, will enhance an athlete’s motivation. Remember that variety can
mean different training tasks as well as different focus points within the same training
tasks.

As a coach, you play a central role in helping your cyclists understand their motivation and
in helping them maintain their motivation over the course of the season. Your enthusiasm,
interest, and attentiveness or lack there of will be noticed and interpreted by the athlete. Be
aware of your actions and inactions and the influence they have on different athletes. For
instance, failing to follow up with athletes in a timely manner may be perceived as lack of
interest rather than being attributed to your busy schedule. Explore your own motivation to
coach and look for ways you can enhance your motivation so that the athletes are aware of
your passion for what you do. Perceiving your positive motivation will not only help
enhance your athlete’s level of motivation but it will also help enhance their confidence in
you as their coach and can it can help strengthen the coach athelete relationship.

Aside from being aware of your own actions, talking to your athletes will enhance your
ability to create a training environment designed to foster their motivation. Take time to
understand the individual training preferences of each cyclist. Even with elite and highly
dedicated athletes, occassionally providing alternative workout options will enhance
motivation. Additionally, the opportunity to make training decisions will enhance athlete’s
involvement and investment in training. Ultimately, if working out ceases to be enjoyable
an athlete’s motivation to train and eventually compete will suffer. While occasional short
term motivational blips are a part of every athlete’s training experience, long term
motivational lapses can lead to burnout and even leaving the sport all together. Well placed
workout variations, such as giving a BMX rider a day on the mountain trails, or encouraging
an alternative day of swimming or hiking, can help athletes maintain motivation during
demanding and taxing periods. Team motivation can be enahnced with alternative activities
such as playing ultimate Frisbee®, soccer, etc.

138
When a cyclist suffers from motivational problems, coaches can help the athlete regain their
passion to train. Occasionally athletes will need to be reminded of their goals and their
reason’s for participating. Exploring these issues early in the season will provide you with
the necessary information about why an athlete rides and what they are working towards.
An understanding of why an athlete rides can be gained through conversation or through an
intake form that asks athletes questions pertaining to why they ride, what they want to
achieve, etc.

When an athlete experiences ongoing or frequently reoccurring motivational problems, it

may be necessary to help the athlete re-examine their goals, their commitment to their goals,
and the resources they have available. On-going motivational issues can be rooted in an
imbalance between what the athlete thinks is required for achieving goals and the resources
the athlete has available. For example, a motivation of an athlete whose season goal is to win
the series may be negatively impacted if the athlete has family responsibilities and a 60 hour
a week job in addition to trying to maintain the training schedule necessary to race at the
level he is striving towards. As a coach, it will be necessary to help athletes plan for and
achieve a training/life balance that is in accordance with their goals and resources.
Deliberately designing a training plan that helps an athlete achieve a sense of balance will
help enhance their training motivation as well as increase their confidence regarding their
ability to reach their goals.

Focus and Concentration

Cycling requires athletes to constantly attend to many different cues in daily training and
during competition in order to remain safe as well as to perform optimally. For example,
during the course of a training ride on the road, riders need to focus on and assess things
such as ‘Is the car passing me going to make a right hand turn?’ ‘Do I need to hydrate more?’
‘Is that glass on the road ahead’? The inability to focus and concentrate can mean missing a
break, bonking, or even crashing. Many factors, such as dehydration, exhaustion, and
work/family stress, cause distractions that can potentially disrupt concentration.

Beyond being aware of the importance of good focus abilities, athletes need to know what to
focus on and to be able to sustain their concentration over time. Four different areas of
attentional focus necessary for achieving peak athlete performance have been identified.
Each of these areas is important for attending to and assessing different cues within the
athletes’ environment. A broad external focus provides the athlete with a situation overview
and is used when a rapid assessment of the athletes’ surrounding or the situation is needed.
For example, when riding in a pack an athlete needs to be able to quickly assess what the
field is doing. A broad internal focus is used when an athlete assesses his or her race plan
and how he or she is feeling overall. A narrow focus on external cues is important for
assessing specific things happening outside the athlete (e.g. assessing the parked car up
ahead, watching a particular rider in the field), while a narrow internal focus allows an
athlete to key in on specific cues happening within them (e.g. assessing heart rate,
monitoring hydration). The listing below provides coaching tips for enhancing athletes’
focus and concentration.

139
Focus and Concentration Enhancement
 Help your athletes review their training and racing experiences to determine times
and circumstances when they have trouble maintaining their focus and
concentration.
 Incorporating basic concentration techniques into athlete’s training is the best way
to improve their abilities to choose and attend to the proper cues. Helping athlete’s
to ‘overlearn’ their concentration and focus skills by using them often in training
will allow them to begin to perform these skills automatically.
 As the coach, help your athlete create situations in training where concentration
skills can be practiced. Incorporate short 20 second ‘focus sessions’ into workouts
where the athlete can practice concentrating on specific aspects of their
performance (e.g., spin, assessing self fatigue, increasing intensity, awareness of
competing rider positions). As the athlete’s ability to concentrate improves
gradually increase the time they practice concentrating.
 When athletes can maintain their focus for at least 45-60 seconds, assign
concentration-switching tasks in training. Have the athlete practice switching their
focus initially between two different areas before expanding to multiple areas of
focus.

In addition to being able to focus on the right things in a race, it is crucial that athletes are
able to focus at the right times. For most athletes focusing at the start of the race and in the
final sprint is not difficult. However, these are not the only times a cyclist needs to focus.
Losing concentration in the middle of a race can mean crashing, getting boxed in, or
allowing one’s intensity to drop. Concentration cues can help athletes become focused at
crucial times and focus on command. Have your athlete choose a cue word such as ‘Up’ or
‘Go’ that they associate with the situation requiring him to remain focused. Once the
athlete has chosen a word, have him practice consciously using this concentration cue word
during selected workouts. Assign your athlete to use his cue word in workouts that require a
conscious increase in effort and intensity, such as repeated high intensity intervals. For
example, if your athlete’s focus cue word is ‘Power’, have him incorporate the use of this cue
word into a workout. At the start of each effort, have the athlete repeat his cue word as he
concentrates on the effort and intensity he is putting into the interval. Initial practice
should be done at predetermined time or distance points in routine rides so the athlete
learns to associate the word with increased focus and concentration. More advanced
practice should be incorporated into fatiguing workouts when it is more difficult to maintain
concentration and focus. As the association between the work and focusing becomes more
automatic, the athlete will be able to use the word as a wake-up during predetermined points
in a race or whenever he or she perceives the need for increased focus.

In addition to practicing focus and concentration skills, athletes need to be able to cope with
unexpected problems and obstacles that threaten to distract their overall competitive focus and
concentration. Things like arriving late to a race, unexpected bad weather, or a flat in a race can all
undermine an athlete’s composure and his or her ability to use focus and concentration cues
effectively. Worksheet one provides an example for athletes so they can preplan for focus/refocus
needs to enhance their ability to cope with unexpected events. Planning for potential distractions
will not only improve an athlete’s ability to focus but it will also help enhance his or her feeling of
preparation and readiness, thus enhancing his or her motivation and confidence as well.

140
Self-Talk
As discussed in an early part of this manual, communication plays an important role in
working effectively with people. The information we send to others and the messages we
receive provide vital connections to the outside world. In addition to person to person
communication, it is important to consider the messages we consciously and unconsciously
send ourselves. How individuals send and receive their internal dialogue can have a positive
or negative impact on training and competing, depending on how it is interpreted, used or
misused. For example, an athlete telling herself, “The pack is speeding up” can be helpful if
it is seen as a non-emotional assessment of the race situation and the need to tactically
adjust, however it can be negative and inhibit confidence if this information is used to scold
or berate oneself.

Negative self-talk, the most common way many individuals communicate internally, can
erode self-confidence, motivation, and performance. Most individuals would never think of
saying to a teammate the destructive things they will say to themselves. Identifying negative
thoughts or stinkin’ thinkin’ is the first step in learning to stop and redirect them.
Common nonproductive forms of self talk include focusing on weaknesses, on what others
think, on factors beyond one’s control, on the outcome excessively or exclusively, and on
past or future events, rather than remaining present focused.

As a coach, listen carefully to your athlete as they discuss their training and their competitive
efforts. Listen for statements such as “I have to win”, “I hate riding in the rain”, “I can’t
believe I messed up”, “I really suck”, and other negative statements and self-putdowns.
Negative comments spoken aloud are commonly an indication of a more negative internal
dialogue that is undermining the athlete’s ability to achieve their peak potential. Athletes
are often unaware of destructive power of their negative self-talk and may not even be
completely aware of the negative things they are saying because it has become a habit.
Pointing out the negative nature of their statements and educating athletes on the damage
that a negative internal dialogue can have will help your athletes become more aware of what
they say internally and the impact it has on their performance.

Some of the stinkin’ thinkin’ athletes engage in focuses on things that are beyond their
control, such as the weather or competitors actions. Remind your athletes to focus their
efforts on the factors they can control (e.g., their effort) and help them recognize those
things beyond their control (e.g., the weather). Being able to identify performance and
learning factors within their control will enhance athletes’ ability to choose positive self-talk
statements regarding things they can control in a manner that will increase their confidence.

Another common mistake that athletes make is getting caught up in focusing on events that
are in the past or ones that are too far in the future to be useful. Self-talk such as saying “I
really blew my start” or saying “I knew I wouldn’t be able to get in a good position for the
field sprint, I never can” are negative and self-deprecating. Additionally statements like these
also prevent the athlete from focusing on what needs to be done at the moment. Encourage
athletes to use their self-talk to focus on their immediate performance. For example, instead
of saying, “I can’t believe I didn’t clear that!” they might say, “Relax and watch the trail.
What is coming up next?” Remind the athlete that race analysis should be done after the
race. Furthermore, when athletes get caught up in past or future events they lose the ability
to focus on what needs to be done now.

141
Common Stinkin’ Thinkin’ Mistakes and Positive Counterstatements
Negative Thought Positive Counter Statement
 This cross wind is driving me crazy! “STOP - Maintain a steady effort -
everyone has the same
wind.”
 Yikes this is where I went down last year... “STOP - Here and now, I am riding
well today.”
 I need to win this event to make the
podium at the end of the series “STOP - Smooth steady start”

Unfortunately, replacing negative with positive thinking is not as easy as just saying happy
things, especially when one is fatigued, frustrated, or discouraged. Therefore, like other
mental skills, re-directive thinking must be consciously practiced in order to be effective
during the stress of competition. The listing above provides a sample of some negative
thoughts athletes might have and re-directive statements that can be used with each.

The first stage of learning how to redirect or reframe negative thinking is to be aware of
negative thoughts as soon as they occur. Have your riders take some time to identify when
and in what training and competition situations they experience negative thoughts.

Next, have your athlete choose a verbal or visual reminder such as ‘Halt’ or a red traffic stop
sign to use whenever stinkin’ thoughts surface. The athlete should use this stop cue
whenever he or she realizes they are engaging in negative self-talk. The cue word will create a
break in the negative thought pattern.

It is important that the negative thought is replaced immediately with a relevant positive
statement that helps the athlete re-direct his or her thinking. For instance, an athlete who
finds herself saying “I can’t do this” when trying to sustain a high intensity interval, would
immediately say “Stop” and then replace the thought with the statement, “You’re strong,
focus on cadence.” The re-directive thought is both positive and provides the athlete with an
important focal point for her thinking that will help her through the interval.

When creating positive replacements for negative thoughts it is important to be as detailed

and specific as possible. For example, when replacing the negative thought, “Man, I suck on
hills”, the statement “Keep going” is too general. A better replacement thought might be
“Spin steady” which provides a detailed and specific task to focus on. The re-directive
statements need to be realistic, positive, and believable as well. For example, “I am done, I
can’t do this” could be replaced with “I trained for this and I am going to leave it all on the
track”, provided that the athlete believes in the training they have done. Worksheet two
provides an example of an exercise athletes can do to help prepare their positive re-directive
thoughts to use when they experience stinkin’ thinkin’.

Your coaching language will also have a significant impact on the type of language that an
athlete, particularly a novice or young athlete, uses with himself or herself. Avoid excessive
outcome centered language (e.g. just talking about winning) and negative statements. Focus

142
instead on performance effort, ‘striving for your best’ language, emphasizing what needs to
be done in an effort to achieve an outcome, and positive statements. Not only will this
encourage the use of positive self-statements but it will also send positive messages to your
athletes regarding your confidence in their abilities.

Anxiety and Arousal

Arousal occurs when any of the body’s physical or psychological systems are activated (e.g.
sweating, increased urination, high energy). Different people experience different types and
varying degrees of pre-competition arousal symptoms and each individual interprets these
symptoms differently. These symptoms of arousal become anxiety and are potentially
detrimental to performance when they are perceived as signs of less than optimal readiness
for the upcoming task. For example, some see butterflies in the stomach and the constant
need to urinate prior to the competition as signals of excitement and readiness, while for
others these symptoms are seen as anxiety that can negatively impact performance.

Knowing how an athlete perceives pre-competition arousal as well as what his or her optimal
pre-race arousal symptoms are allows you to work together with the athlete to create an
individualized optimal warm-up routine. When an athlete is under-aroused for competition,
they wouldn’t feel ready to compete and may not be ‘ready’ until it is too late. An over-
aroused athlete will not be able to properly concentrate and will make errors as a result. The
key to properly preparing for a competition requires an athlete to be aware of his or her own
optimal level of arousal, as well as to understand how he or she can best achieve this level.
The list below provides tips for helping athletes understand their optimal pre-competition
arousal levels and worksheet three provides an example of how coaches and athletes can
explore optimal competitive arousal levels.

Understanding Optimal Arousal

 Have your athletes assess their pre-race arousal symptoms and anxiety levels prior to
both good and poor competitive experiences to create an individualized optimal pre-
race state profile.

 Athletes who have a hard time managing their arousal levels or who interpret all
arousal symptoms as negative need to learn how to reinterpret these symptoms.
Training series races can provide athletes with less stressful opportunities to practice
reassessing the arousal symptoms they experience.

Dealing with arousal levels and learning how to either increase or decrease the symptoms
experienced, requires that an athlete has a good sense of what his or her arousal and anxiety
symptoms feel like. Understanding how he or she feels prior to great performance
experiences and poor performance experiences is the first step in being able to re-creating
this state on a consistent basis. Learning skills such as centered breathing, relaxation, and
energization will help an athlete achieve his or her optimal pre-competition state. The
listings below outline the procedures for learning centered breathing, energization, and basic
relaxation. With practice, all three skills can be useful in learning how to manage and
manipulate one’s arousal level.

143
Centered Breathing Technique
Learning the centered breathing technique will provide athletes with a quick and efficient way to
calm down when they feel overexcited or above their optimal level of arousal. This skill should be
practiced first in a calm relaxed atmosphere, and as the athletes’ skills improve practice can be
moved to more demanding situations. Once mastered, centered breathing can be used both pre-
competition and during competition to regulate arousal.

1. Breathe in slowly to the count of three. As you breathe in feel the air slowly filling your
stomach.
2. Slowly breathe out to the count of three– letting the anxiety and stress flow out. As you
breathe out, calmly and slowly say to yourself “Relax”.
3. Scan your body and mind to assess your level of arousal. If it is still too high repeat step
one.

Energization Technique
Learning the energization technique will provide athletes with a quick and efficient way to psych
up when they don’t feel they have reached their optimal level of arousal. Like Centered Breathing,
initial practice should be done in a relaxed quiet atmosphere before working up to more
demanding situations.

1. Inhale and exhale rapidly three times.

2. As you inhale feel the air filling your body bringing with it a surge of energy.
3. Exhale quickly and forcefully – saying the word “Go” or “Power” to yourself each
time you exhale.
4. Scan your body and mind to assess your level of arousal. If you need a higher level
of arousal repeat step one.

An Introduction to Relaxation
Relaxation is an extension of the Centered Breathing Technique and is a more involved way to regulate
arousal. Initial relaxation practice should be done in a quiet calm place. As relaxation abilities improve,
practice should be done in a variety of settings to practice relaxing despite distractions.

1) Get physically comfortable in a seated up-right position (you don’t ride lying down).
Close your eyes and uncross your legs and arms. Initially you want to be in a quiet calm
setting free from distractions. As your skills improve vary practice – more distracting
locations, eyes open, and when your skills are very good practice while actually riding.

2) Begin by concentrating on your breathing. Concentrate on inhaling slowly and deeply

and exhaling slowly and completely. Focus on your breathing until it is smooth,
comfortable, and natural.

3) Start at the top of your head and work your way to your toes. Concentrate on breathing
slowly and smoothly as you find tension and stress in different areas of your body. Breathe
slowly and say “relax” as you concentrate on the tension melting away or flowing out of your
body.

4) Once your body is in a relaxed state return your full attention to your breathing.
Concentrate on inhaling slowly and deeply and exhaling slowly and completely. Keep your

144
mind free from distracting thought by failing to acknowledge them, letting them pass
through, or mentally ‘putting them in a box’.

5) When you feel completely relaxed slowly open your eyes.

Stress Management

Many of the individuals you will work with will have multiple responsibilities and roles in
addition to being competitive athletes. They will be husbands, wives, mothers, fathers,
employees, employers, and caretakers for elderly parents. They will have financial,
emotional, and social responsibilities and concerns in addition to those associated with
being a competitive athlete. Even professional athletes aren’t free from everyday stresses and
responsibilities; in fact they often have the additional stress of sponsor pressure and constant
media attention. It is also important to acknowledge and help athletes cope with the
environmental and personal sources of stress that they face daily if they are going to train
and compete effectively and successfully.

All situations place demands on individuals, and individuals try to adapt to meet each
demand. The science of physical training is based on this principle by intentionally stressing
an athlete’s physiological systems in order to force adaptations that result in increased
strength, speed, or endurance. Psychological forms of stress work in much the same way.
How well or poorly an individual is able to cope with the demands of each situation and
how well he or she is able to adapt will depend on his or her perception of the situation, the
resources he or she has available, the event importance, the degree of uncertainty associated
with the situation, and the individual’s disposition.

Overwhelming stress from any one source or from a combination of sources (physical, social,
or psychological), has the potential to decrease life enjoyment, self satisfaction, motivation to
train, and ability to properly recover and adapt to training. Moreover, overwhelming stress is
the result of the accumulation of all the stress an athlete experiences. This means that even
if an athlete has an appropriate training load, if he or she is experiencing excessive stress in
other areas of life, the cumulative effect of the physical stress of training in combination with
the other stressors can result in decreased motivation, physical illness, or other negative
stress consequences.

Thus, understanding the nature of stress and stress appraisal will improve your ability to
properly adjust training based on an athlete’s needs and environment. Coaches need to be
aware of the stressors in their cyclist’s life as well as his or her capacity to cope with those
stressors. Common sources of stress that athletes experience in addition to the physical
stress of training include: academic or career obligations/ concerns; lack of support
(emotional, financial, etc.); injury; illness; conflicts of interest between life priorities; family
obligations/ concerns; sponsor obligation/ concerns; economic problems; and time
management problems. Additionally it is important to remember that stress can be created
by both positive and negative events (e.g., moving, a new baby, a new job) and it is the
individual’s perception of that stress that is important. Finally, remember that each athlete
will respond to the same stressors different. One rider may perceive more stress and
experience more negative consequences than another rider – even when they have the same
stress management resources available. In other words, some riders will be, by nature, ‘high
strung’ and others ‘laid back’. Changing an individual’s natural disposition towards stress is

145
highly unlikely; however, it is possible to work towards changing an individual’s perceptions
of stress as overwhelming while increasing his or her coping resources. These steps will help
the negative impact that stress has on his or her ability to perform.
As a coach you have the ability to help athletes deal with the sources of stress in their life.
Strategies are provided below that you can share with your cyclists to help them diminish the
negative impact that stress can have on their training and their lives. These tips can also be
helpful in dealing with the stress that a coach faces daily fulfilling the many roles they play in
their lives.

Helping Athletes Cope with Stress Strategies

 Prioritize – take time to decide what matters now and what can wait until later
in the day, later in the week, or later in the season. (However, don’t use
prioritizing as an excuse to procrastinate – this will only increase stress
levels rather than reducing them.)
 Plan – schedule time for your various responsibilities, including routine tasks
such as going to the grocery store, and stick to it. Pay attention to the
things that waste time in your schedule and do what you can to eliminate
them.
 Learn to say ‘No’ – again prioritize and don’t obligate yourself to things that
don’t fit into your schedule or your priorities.
 Share your goals with others – other people will be better equipped to help you
if they know what you are trying to accomplish.
 Look around – identify hidden resources in your environment (e.g., grocery
delivery to reduce the errands you need to run).
 Ask for help – no one can assist you if they don’t know you need it.

Mental Skills Training and the Whole Team

Working with a whole team means working with a group of individuals with collective as
well as personal goals and needs. Individuals sharing a team name and jersey do not
automatically form a team or function effectively together. Turning a group of individuals
into a team that can work together to achieve common goals takes effective leadership,
patience, and conscious effort.

In order to bring a group together to form a team it is important to consider and incorporate
several key components. To start, it is necessary to create a collective identity that will
separate this group from all other groups. For example, distinctive name or sponsor identity
such as the Seattle Spinners or the US National Team helps team members feel a part of a
distinctive group and fosters a sense of pride and belonging. Next, good communication
pathways between the athletes, coaches, support crew, and any administrative bodies are
critical for team success. Occasionally this may happen naturally, however, it usually
requires careful planning and work on everyone’s part. Third, it is important to clarify clear
group goals that all group members believe in and can work toward. As the coach, it will be
necessary for you to assist individuals in understanding how their individual goals can be
worked on and achieved in conjunction with the team goals. It is also important to make
sure that all team members feel that they are able contribute something important to the
team’s effort in reaching these goals. And finally, although personal friendships on a team
are nice, it is more important to team success that the athletes are able to get along in
training and competition, are committed to the team objectives, and can work together

146
successfully. Tips are provided below to help coach a team successfully and worksheet four
provides an example of the steps used in bringing a group together to form a team.

Tips for Coaching a Team Successfully

 Help the team create a mission statement that espouses what the team stands for
and what they want to accomplish.
 Make sure you know the members of the team individually and you let them know
they are valued.
 Plan activities that encourage interaction between teammates, both on and off the
bike. For example, advocate group stretching before and after rides and have
occasional team get-togethers that include the other important people in the
athletes’ lives such as parents or spouses.
 Avoid excessive turnover of team members, especially during season. When new
members do join the team, provide them with opportunity to become invested in
the team.
 Encourage immediate and positive conflict resolution – don’t let problems fester.
 Clearly identify team roles so that each individual knows where they fit in, what
their contribution is, and what they are responsible for.
 Help individuals on the team understand his or her role in helping the team reach
the collective goals.

Goal Setting
When asked, almost all coaches and athletes will say they set goals. Goal setting is one of the
most frequently used mental skills, both in and outside of sport. Goal setting can help
improve performance in practice and competition, enhance learning, heighten challenge,
increase intrinsic motivation, and prolong effort, as well as increase personal pride,
satisfaction, and confidence. Goal setting has been shown to be an effective way to learn
both psychological and physical skills at all levels. Having goals can keep a cyclist going in
the face of training tedium and frustration. However, when goal setting is done improperly
it has the potential to have a negative impact on motivation, performance, achievement, and
ultimately confidence and participation. Given the importance of this topic, the process of
effective goal setting will be explored in depth.

Types of Goals
Most athletes have an ultimate long-term goal, something they dream about, such as racing
in Europe, joining a pro-team, or winning a national title. As a coach it is important to
know and understand your athlete’s dream goal. Knowing your athlete’s long term focus is
an important first step in determining how to design their training program – do they have
their sights set at the local, national, or international levels? For example, the training plan
for a junior cyclist aspiring to become a pro will be very different than the training plan for a
seasoned veteran rider who races on the local track. Based on the nature of dream goal an
individual has, it may be something that is one, five, or even ten years down the road. Thus,
dream goals provide a focal point for setting short term or stepping stone goals that athletes
can focus on as they strive towards their long-term objectives. Setting shorter-term, more
immediate goals will provide coaches and athletes a means for measuring progress towards
achieving a longer term, larger goal, while also enhancing day-to-day practice motivation.

Stepping stone goals can take two different forms, each with a different focus and each
having different impacts on athlete motivation and performance. Goals that focus on

147
measurable competitive results such as placing in the top five in a race or winning the season
points series are outcome goals. Outcome goals provide tangible feedback regarding
performance and are often grounded in extrinsic rewards such as recognition from others or
the cash purse offered for the race. However, despite the athlete’s focus and effort, the
ability to achieve outcome goals is not something completely within their control. The
ability to achieve an outcome such as a specific place in a race or a spot on a team can be
undermined by factors beyond the athlete’s control such as weather, mechanical problems,
or plain bad luck. Unfortunately, many athletes set solely outcome based goals that can lead
to frustration and decreased motivation if they are not achieved because they provide only a
rigid definition of success such as winning.

Performance or process goals focus on a more subjective aspect, the process of performing an
activity (e.g., maintaining good form when climbing, keeping up a high cadence on the
track). Despite the fact that performance goals aren’t as objective as outcome goals, they can
provide specific stepping-stones that will lead towards larger longer-term goals. For example,
focusing on maintaining a minimum cadence of 110 during winter workouts is a stepping
stone goal towards improving pedal efficiency and when combined with other stepping stone
goals can help a rider achieve a larger season goal. Additionally, performance based goals
enhance intrinsic motivation, increase confidence, and improve satisfaction by providing
athletes with another way to enhance their self image as a successful cyclist.

Goal Setting 101: How to Set Goals Effectively

Given the widely acknowledged power of goal setting, considerable research, both in and out
of sport, has been devoted to determining the best way to set and use goals effectively. Each
of the different goals, process and outcome, play a role in effective goal setting. Long term
goals provide the information necessary for establishing an effective training plan and
provide the focus required to follow that plan. When clarifying a dream goal with an athlete
it is important to make sure he or she believes the goal is realistic and achievable and knows
that you feel the goal is believable and realistic. If the goal is something that either you or
the athlete has trouble believing in (e.g., feeling a dream goal is too challenging or too easily
accomplished), it will become a problem down the road. Make sure you discuss any
concerns regarding the dream goal before you use it as a foundation for a training plan.

All goals that athletes set, especially the long-term goals, need to be set by the athlete for him
or herself and not something that someone else (e.g., a parent, sponsor, or significant other)
wants. Individuals are motivated to work harder to achieve goals that are personally
meaningful than they are motivated when working towards goals set by others. Clearly, a
well- defined personal goal will help athletes maintain focus and motivation during training,
especially when training gets tough. Guide your athletes through the goal setting process but
make sure that the goals they set reflect what they want to achieve – not what you or their
parents or anyone else wants them to achieve.

Short-term specific goals that lead to long-term goals that ultimately build towards the
athlete’s dream goal should be used throughout the course of the athlete’s training. The use
of these stepping stone goals will provide the athlete with a sense of purpose in their daily
workouts and with continued practice motivation. As the coach, you need to help the
athlete set and evaluate their short-term goals. Make sure the athlete remains centrally

148
involved in the process of both setting and re-evaluating these goals, as their involvement in
the process is critical in order to enhance their investment in achieving them.

Be sure that the goals you and the athlete set are of both performance and outcome in
nature. Having both measurable and subjective components provides the athlete with
multiple ways to define and achieve success. For instance setting time, place, and self-
challenge goals (e.g., finish the race feeling like you left it all on the track) would provide an
athlete with several ways to evaluate their performance based. Worksheet five provides an
example of a goal setting worksheet that can be used to help athletes explore their long term
and seasonal goals. Working together with your athlete to help them complete this
worksheet or reviewing it together after the athlete has completed it can help ensure that you
are both aiming for the same things with the athlete’s training. Additionally, knowing the
athletes’ dream, seasonal, and shorter-term goals you can help them by incorporating small
task specific goals into daily workouts to help the athletes achieve the larger stepping stone
goals they have set for themselves.

Important Goal Setting Principles

 Start with small manageable goals so the athlete does not become overwhelmed
with the process. More goals can be worked into the training plan as the athlete
becomes more familiar with the process.

 Keep track of the goals you set with your athletes and have the athlete write all
his or her goals down. Writing goals down will enhance athlete investment.

 Evaluate athlete’s goals and goal progress periodically. It may be necessary to

reassess and restructure an athlete’s training program and his or her longer term
goals based on current goal performance. Be flexible and change goals based on
progress evaluation not the timeline that was set pre-season.

 Goals should be moderately difficult but realistic. Goals that are too easy to
achieve provide no motivation and goals that are unattainable can leave an athlete
feeling frustrated.

Common Goal Setting Problems

While goal setting offers many potential benefits for enhancing performance, it can also
create problems when not done properly. When beginning a new training program or at the
start of a new season coaches and athletes often to set goals that cover everything. This
creates an overwhelming situation for both the athlete and the coach. Prioritizing goals and
working on a few at a time will enhance athletes’ focus and their ability to reach their goals.

Athletes commonly focus on outcome-centered goals like winning a particular race. Because
such outcome-focused goals are influenced by many factors outside the athlete’s control, goal
achievement can be difficult. The frustration of not being able to achieve outcome goals
despite being well prepared will ultimately undermine an athlete’s confidence. Additionally,
outcome based goals do not help provide athletes with a plan of action for improvement like
performance based goals do. Be sure to include both outcome and performance based goals
in an athlete’s training program.

149
Considering all the effort that goes into setting goals and working towards achieving them, it
only makes sense to evaluate the process. Yet this crucial step is often overlooked, leaving
athletes working towards something without a way to evaluate their progress until after the
season is over. All goals, especially short term stepping stone goals, should have evaluation
dates. When setting evaluation dates, it is important to remain flexible. Flexibility will allow
changes to be made if unplanned obstacles arise or if progress is made faster than
anticipated. As a coach, take time to help athletes evaluate and reset goals as necessary
during the course of the season. When an athlete reaches a goal sooner than planned, new
goals need to be set to provide a new level of challenge and to maintain motivation. On the
other hand, if a goal has not been achieved by an evaluation date it may be necessary to re-
assess and possibly change the training plan to help the athlete make progress and to keep
the athlete from becoming discouraged.

The final frequently encountered goal setting problem is the lack of clearly identified
strategies for achieving the goals athletes have set. Failure to create a goal achievement plan
will lead to anxiety and frustration when athletes are unable to achieve their goals. With
your coaching expertise you can assist your athletes in brainstorming ways to reach his or her
goals. Help them explore different options and resources available. Have your athletes
chosen the pathways that he or she feels best suits his or her style and circumstances?
Involvement in the goal setting process will increase their investment as well as enhance their
commitment level.

Overview
This section of the coaching manual has identified many of the important concepts of
mental skills needed for peak performance and ways that coaches can use these concepts in
their coaching to help athletes achieve success. While these principles provide sound
guidelines for coaching, it is crucial not to overlook the unique individual nature of each
athlete you work with. Therefore, as coaches, it is important to get to know and seek to
understand each athlete as an individual with different strengths that can be capitalized and
weaknesses that need to be addressed. Worksheets six and seven at the end of the section
provide templates designed to help athletes with pre-competition planning and post-
competition analysis. These worksheets will also help bring together the four important
aspects of cycling, the technical, tactical, physical, and psychological skills in a way that will
help increase athlete self-awareness and will help provide you with a clearer picture into your
athlete’s needs in striving to achieve peak performance.

150
Worksheet 1: Focus/Refocus Plan
This worksheet provides you with several situations when a cyclist might lose his or her
concentration and focus during competition. Create a plan to deal with each that will allow you to
block out or move past distractions and refocus. Use the focus techniques you learned in training
and consider ways you can reframe each situation and find something to refocus on.

Example: Non-Ideal Competition Conditions

In order to deal with bad/poor road conditions on the course I will:

1. Spend time pre-race considering how the conditions will change my focus and race
strategy.

2. Replace negative thoughts with, “Everyone has to race this same course.”

3. Pay extra attention in warm-up finding the best line and note the worse spots in the
pavement.

Arriving Late

Delay in Start

Bad Weather

Poor Fueling

Mechanical Trouble

Adapted from Orlick T. (1986). Psyching for Sport. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics

151
Worksheet 2: Reframing Self-Talk
1. Identify a situation where you commonly say negative things to yourself. (For example,
when tired, during jumps, or when you encounter a specific opponent, etc.)

2. Negative Self-Talk: Use the space below to list your negative thoughts and self-talk.

3. Blocking Word: Choose a word or image that you can use as a mental stop sign as soon
as negative thoughts occur.

4. General Positive Statement: Write one general positive statement for this situation.

5. Positive Counters: Write a statement that is positive and motivational for each negative.

6. Practice: Use these statements and counters in practice situations before you use them in
competitive situations.

Reminder: Each counter statement should be positive and believable.

General Positive Statement for the Situation:

Negative Thought 1:

Positive Counter 1:

Negative Thought 2:

Positive Counter 2:

Negative Thought 3:

Positive Counter 3:

152
Worksheet 3: Competitive Reflection –
Determining Your Optimal Environment
Consider your best and your worst performance and answer the following questions. Review your
answers with your coach to help determine how you can best prepare for competition.

I. Think of your all time BEST performance(s) and answer the following questions:

1. How did you feel just before the event (on a scale of 1 to 10)?

Very physically charged 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Very physically relaxed

Very mentally charged 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Very mentally relaxed

Nor very worried/anxious 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Very worried

2. What were you saying to yourself shortly before the start of the event?

3. What were you focused on prior to the event?

4. What things in your environment (music/people/etc.) were helpful?

5. What kind of warm-up did you do?

II. Think of your all time WORST performance(s) and answer the following questions:

1. How did you feel about the event (on a scale of 1 to 10)?

Very physically charged 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Very physically relaxed

Very mentally charged 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Very mentally relaxed

Nor very worried/anxious 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Very worried

2. What were you saying to yourself shortly before the start of the event?

3. What were you focused on prior to the event?

4. What things in your environment (music/people/etc.) distracted you?

5. What kind of warm-up did you do?

III. Now compare your responses to these two scenarios and think about and discuss with your
coach how you would like to feel prior to competition and ways you can achieve your optimal
arousal levels.

Adapte d fr om Or lick, T. (1986). Psyching for S por t: Mental Tr aining for Ath letes . Leisure Press: Champaig n, IL.

153
Worksheet 4: Creating a Team
Work individually or in small groups to fill this worksheet out and then come together as a group
to discuss the questions and your responses to each item.

What is our team identity? What makes us unique?

What do we want other teams/magazines/coaches to say about us as a team at the end of the
season?

List all the individuals on the team, including teammates, managers, mechanics, coaches, and
other assistants. What does each bring to the team? What unique role does each individual have
as part of this team?

What goal would we like to accomplish as a team this season? Be as specific as possible. Make
sure this goal is something challenging and realistic that everyone agrees on.

List the things the team will need to do in order to accomplish our goal.

What things might get in the way of our achieving this goal and what can we do to avoid these
distractions?

INDIVIDUAL QUESTIONS:

What is my role on this team? How can I help the team reach its collective goals?

154
Worksheet 5: Effective Goal Setting
My dream goal as a cyclist is:

What will it take to achieve this dream goal? Be as specific as possible.

Based on my dream goal, my long-term goal for this season is:

What will it take to achieve my goal this season? Be as specific as possible.

Based on what it will take to achieve the season goal, set shorter-term goals and include how
and when each goal will be evaluated.

What resources (people, services, financial, etc.) can be enlisted to help achieve your short –
term goals?

Look over the goals you have set. If you can’t answer yes to each question, try resetting or
restating your goals so that you can.

_______Are the goals I set specific?

_______Are the goals I set challenging?
_______Are the goals I set realistic given the resources I have available?
_______Are the goals I set observable or measurable?
_______Do these goals deal with factors within my control? (Note: Make sure you identify
all goal factors that are not within your control so you can properly focus on the factors you
can influence such as intensity.)
_______Are these goals ones I have personally set and ones I am committed to achieving?

155
Worksheet 6: Preplanning for Competition
Race name, location, time and date:

Am I going to pre-register? N / Y

Transportation to the race?

Before leaving for the race

 Review race bag checklist to make sure I have all equipment.




Once I arrive at the race site

 Check in and get race number, official start times, and any relevant information




My warm-up routine – what I need to do to get properly prepared and how much time do I
need to do so?

My competition goals are (performance and outcome):

My race plan is (how you plan to accomplish your goals):

What are possible distractions and what will you do about them? (i.e. arriving late? Flatting
in the race?)

156
Worksheet 7: Post Race Reflections
Review your prerace competition plan and then consider your race objectively as possible. Use this
sheet to help further understand the things that help you perform well and the things that get in
your way.

Race Name:

Weather Conditions:

Length of Race:

Course Conditions:

Field Size:

Placement:

How did you perform during the race? Were you able to accomplish your race goals?

What things positively impacted your ability to perform?

What things negatively impacted your performance and what could you do to prevent or deal with
these things in the future?

What did you learn from this performance? Physically, technically, tactically, mentally?

What would you do the same to prepare for your next competition?

What would you do differently in preparing for your next competition?

157
About the Author
Kristen Dieffenbach wrote this chapter on Sport Psychology. Kristen received her Ph.D. in
Exercise and Sport Science with an emphasis in Sport and Exercise Psychology from the
University of North Carolina Greensboro. Her dissertation was entitled “Overtraining and
Under Recovery: Antecedents and Consequences for the Junior Elite Athlete.” Her areas of
concentration include performance enhancement, talent development and overtraining and
under recovery. She received her M.S. in Physical Education with an emphasis in Sport
Psychology from the University of Idaho in 1998 and her BA in biology from Boston
University in 1992. She has worked on grants and projects for the United States Olympic
Committee (USOC), United States Tennis Association (USTA), USA Cycling, and USA
Water Polo. Kristen is an Association for the Advancement of Applied Sport Psychology
certified consultant and she has coaching credentials with both the United States Track and
Field Association (USATF) and USA Cycling. Dr. Dieffenbach is a Level I USA Cycling
certified coach. Currently she teaches at West Virginia University, coaches and does
coaching and parenting education seminars with the non-profit group, the Positive Coaching
Alliance. Additionally, she provides performance excellence consulting for athletes, teams,
coaches, and businesses through her company, Mountains, Marathons, & More. A former
collegiate runner and cyclist at Boston University, she now competes in a wide variety of
running, road and mountain bike events, with an emphasis on endurance and ultra
endurance endeavors and expedition length adventure racing.

158
 11
Chapter

General Principles of
Training

“T he objective of training is to bring an athlete to peak fitness level at the

proper time, with all the requirements for good performance brought into
balance.” David Martin, Ph.D. and Peter Coe, Better Training for Distance
Runners.

Periodization
Periodization is a method for long term planning of training and competition. All facets of the
cyclists’ preparation can be periodized. Most coaches tend to think only in terms of periodizing the
physical training of an athlete, but psychological, tactical, strategic and technical facets can also be
included in a periodized manner. Periodization can reduce the risk of injury, illness and
overtraining. Periodization ensures that a proper mix of training stressors permits a balanced
progression.

While organization and a good plan is critical to long-term development, it is impractical to write
out every workout for an entire year when beginning the planning process. The plan must have
some flexibility to account for:43

 Variable rates of adaptation to specific training

 Small setbacks such as minor injury or illness

 Personal issues that need temporary increased attention

The training year is usually divided into smaller and smaller periods of alternating weeks, sessions
and bouts of high intensity or volume with low intensity or volume. Over the long term, athletes
are able to progress to very high levels of performance.

43 Martin, D. and Coe, P. Better Training for Distance Runners. Human Kinetics, 1997.

159
Adaptations to Training
David Martin, Ph.D., in Better Training for Distance Runners proposes that periodization takes into
account several adaptations to training and these principles apply to any sport:

 Initial tissue catabolism that occurs from the load applied (cycling, weight lifting, etc.) and
causes an initial reduction in performance capabilities.

 Adaptation to the stress of training as a result of tissue recovery and improved mental
outlook from having successfully completed the work.

 Retention and likely improvement in such performance characteristics following a

tapering of training.

 Reduction in performance if training volume is decreased for too long a period.

Martin further notes the cyclic and somewhat repetitive nature of periodization where a period
“…of hard work (with fatigue), recovery (regeneration), improvement in performance (for a brief
period), and a brief layoff (for mental and physical rest) to permit another cycle to repeat.”

Training Plan Objectives

Six objectives should be considered prior to developing the annual training plan. Individual
coaches may add objectives they find important. These items include tests and standards;
physiological preparation; technical preparation; tactical preparation; psychological preparation;
and events and performances. The items below are not listed in any particular order of
importance.

Tests and Standards

The benefits of physiological testing or field-testing need to be determined. What information are
you as a coach looking for and how is the data from the test to be used? Tests should be scheduled
when athletes are rested and the athlete is moving from one training phase to another. Testing can
provide motivation for the athletes and allow the coach to evaluate the completed training phase.

Testing should meet the following criteria:

 The test should be valid. Validity means that the test measures what it is designed to
measure. For instance, having an athlete sprint 40 meters would not be a valid indicator
of the athlete’s intelligence.

 The test should be reliable. Reliability means that if the test were repeated numerous
times under the same conditions, the results would be the same. For instance, if an adult
were to take an IQ test on five consecutive days, the results would be identical (within
reason) on all tests.

 The test should be practical and repeatable. If you have the opportunity to have an
athlete test in a lab but cannot ever have access to that lab again, you will have a hard
time measuring changes over time. However, if you have access to a facility that is the

160
 same from day to day and can control for conditions like temperature and wind, an
indoor testing facility has an obvious advantage.

 The data should be used. The data collected from the test should be used to adjust
training intensities and to assess how well the most recent training phases met its goal.
For instance, a training program designed to increase anaerobic work capacity should
show an improvement in average power output.

Physiological Preparation (Training)

Development of various energy systems may differ in priority depending on specific strengths and
weaknesses of each athlete. The priorities of training may also be affected by the disciplines in
which the athlete participates.

Technical Preparation
Establishing priorities regarding skill training will depend on the different levels of competencies.
Deficiencies in competencies need to be addressed while other skills that are more developed can
be refined. Equipment needs can be addressed along with bike fit.

Tactical Preparation
Practice of individual and team tactics and strategies needs to be scheduled throughout the
training year and within an annual plan. A coach can instill in the athlete an awareness of correct
position and use of tactics and strategy during training rides or less important races or events.

Psychological Preparation
Coaches often ignore sport psychology but it is an area that can prove to be an effective tool for the
athlete and coach for improving performance. Assessments can be informal or formal and can be
conducted at various times throughout the training plan. Individual and team needs can be
addressed. Everyone has psychological strengths and weaknesses just as each athlete has physical
strengths and weaknesses. For more information, please see the Sport Psychology chapter.

Events and Performances

The last objective may be the most important. Time standards or power output need to be set for
goals for specific events established. These events will help you establish peaking and tapering
strategies for training. These may be revised as you and your athlete progress through the annual
plan. (See the Goal Setting section for information on this aspect of planning.)

The Annual Plan

Macrocycles
Once you have established the training objectives, you can now start to plan the training year. The
most common training plan is the annual plan. In terms of periodization, the annual plan is
referred to as a macrocycle or the largest unit of the training plan. However, macrocycles could be
of any length. For example, a macrocycle could be four years in length for a potential Olympian.
For competitive cycling, the annual plan begins at the end of one season. However depending on
your season and discipline focus, an annual plan could start at any time.

The macrocycle is usually divided into three separate training phases: preparation, competition
and transition/recovery. The preparation phase is further subdivided into two smaller phases:

161
general preparation and specialization. Below you will find a description of each phase and their
characteristics.

General Preparation
Objective: To establish a training foundation
Characteristics:
 Volume increases progressively throughout the phase from moderate to high volumes
 Intensity is low to medium throughout the phase
 Emphasize development of general physical performance
 Improving endurance and include cross training
 Strength and power (weight lifting)
 Speed
 Flexibility
 Maintain and refine technique

Specialization
Objective: Development of cycling specific performance capabilities
Characteristics:
 Volume continues to increase through the middle of the phase
 Volume decreases from middle of phase to the end of the phase
 Intensity increases from the middle to the end of the phase
 Emphasize development of cycling specific fitness through individualized training
 VO2 workouts
 Lactate threshold
 Sprints
 Tempo
 Develop new skills
 Increase competence of old skills

Competition Phase
Objective: Approach performance capability through progressively increasing competition intensity
and/or volume
Characteristics:
 Relative volume is moderate
 Intensity is moderate to high
 Conditioning is maintained
 Emphasize refinement of cycling specific activities
 Time trialing
 Sprinting
 Attacking
 Climbing
 Descending
 Individual and team tactics and strategies
 Peaking is introduced for important competitions

162
Transition / Recovery
Objective: Significant reduction in training volume and intensity to allow for physical and psychological
recovery in anticipation of next preparation phase
Characteristics:
 Medical evaluation
 Volume is low to moderate
 Intensity is low
 Introduce cross training activities
 Review season
 Training compliance/effectiveness
 Race performances
 Begin planning for the next season

Mesocycles
The training phases described above are composed of one or smaller units defined as mesocycles.
Depending on the objectives of the training plan, mesocycles can be as short as three to four weeks
or as long as seven to nine weeks.

Mesocycles usually are designed to address specific training objectives by manipulating the training
load. The training load is the combination of volume (time or miles), intensity, frequency, and
technical and tactical skill development that ultimately causes adaptation and improves
performance. Some mesocycles are designed to optimize the development of a specific energy
system while others may emphasize enhanced tactical awareness and strategic sense through
frequent racing.

The training load is relative and dependent on the combination of the aforementioned variables.

Microcycles
Most coaches use the seven-day week to further subdivide a mesocycle into smaller units called
microcycles. Microcycles usually revolve around the races on the weekends in which the cyclist is
participating. A microcycle is further subdivided into daily workouts that can be single sessions
each day or double sessions (morning and evening) each day.

As in mesocycles, variations in the training load are apparent in microcycles. These variations may
be in volume or intensity (or both) depending on the specific training objectives of a given
mesocycle.

Peaking, Tapering, and Overtraining

A description of the periodization method would not be complete without a description of
peaking and overtraining. Peaking is defined as the planned achievement of exceptional athletic
performance and is a major component of the periodization method. Taper is a reduction in
training load prior to a competition with the goal of optimizing performance. Overtraining can be
defined as the unplanned demise of performance and training and is a risk of inappropriate
application of the periodization method. See the following chapter for more information on
overtraining.

163
Peaking
Implementing appropriate peaking strategies usually results in the athlete’s best performances of
the year. Unfortunately peaking is a temporary state of training and cannot be maintained
throughout the competition phase. However, a number of guidelines can be used to optimize the
effect of peaking when developing the training plan for your athletes. Tudor Bompa lays out
several guidelines for periodization in his book, “Theory and Methodology of Training: The Key to
Athletic Performance”:

 Seven to ten competitions are sufficient to reach a high state of readiness for major
competitions

 Most elite athletes require 32-36 microcycles to reach a peak performance.

 Peaking can be reached after 65-80 percent of the total training days of a macrocycle.

 200 days of training may be needed before reaching an adequate physical and
psychological capacity for peaking.

The greater number of important competitions or peaks per year, the less the number of training
days needed.

Planned peaking can be a very powerful part of the periodization approach. The annual plan must
be a plan that provides form and guidance while being flexible enough to be changed based on the
athlete’s response to training and racing.

Tapering
Coaches can be quite insecure about tapering an athlete and relying on tradition and/or trial and
error for what to do in the weeks leading up to a major competition.44 Mujika and Padilla define
tapering as:

... A progressive nonlinear reduction of the training load during a variable period of time,
in an attempt to reduce the physiological and psychological stress of daily training and
optimizes sport performance.

The goal of the taper is to “…reduce the negative physiological and psychological impact of daily
training (i.e., accumulated fatigue), rather than achieve further improvements in the positive
consequences of training (i.e., fitness gains).” Performance gains from tapering in swimmers appear
to come from a reduction in the negative effects of training.45

Some physiological markers that change with tapering include an improvement in the ratio of
anabolic hormones (i.e. testosterone) and catabolic hormones (i.e., cortisol). The increase in
anabolic hormones could be a result of improved pituitary gland response from the previous

44Mujika, I. Nad Padilla, S. Scientific bases for pre-competition tapering strategies. Medicine and Science in Sports
and Exercise. 35(7): 118201187, 2003.

45Mujika, I., Busso, A., Geyssant, F., Barale, F., Lacoste, L., and Chatard, J.C. Modeled responses to training
and taper in competitive swimmers. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 28: 251-258, 1996.

164
training46 or from a decrease in cortisol concentration that might be a result of recovery and
reduction in cumulative fatigue.47 Other studies report that red cell blood volume, hemoglobin,
and hematological factors such as haptoglobin and reticulocytes improve during a taper. It appears
the production of red blood cells (erythropoiesis) exceeds that of the breakdown of red blood cells
(hemolysis) during a tapering period. A muscle enzyme, creatine kinase, that when found in large
concentrations in the blood indicates muscle damage has been shown in a number studies to
decrease with a reduction of training load.

Psychologically, the taper brings a reduction in perception of effort, global mood disturbances,
perception of fatigue and an increase in vigor. Sleep quality has been reported to improve in
competitive swimmers during the taper.48 Athletes may also benefit from a reduction in training
volume in being able to do non-sport related activities that are relaxing. It might be a good thing
for an athlete to do things that do not stress the body and can take the athletes’ mind off of the
upcoming event for a short period of time.

Detraining
A balance must be found between reducing the training load and yet not allowing detraining to
occur that would impair performance. For instance, a 21-day taper that involved no training at all
might leave the athlete feeling well and eliminate fatigue but the loss of training stimulus would be
detrimental to performance. Detraining is a loss of training induced adaptations. Detraining
reverses gains made in the training-induced adaptations.

Tapering Strategies
The concept of reducing training volume while maintaining some intensity is well accepted.
Mujika and Padilla report that in runners, a high intensity, low volume taper provided the
following benefits compared to tapers of low intensity, moderate volume and rest only:

 Increases in total blood volume

 Increases in red cell volume
 Increased citrate synthase activity
 Increased muscle glycogen concentration
 Improved muscle strength
 Improved running time to fatigue

How much training volume should be reduced during tapering?

Coaches have employed several methods of volume reduction (in relation to normal training
volume) during a taper. Some coaches have used a linear reduction where training might be
reduced by the same amount every day. For instance, volume might be reduced by 25% each week.

46Mujika, I., Goya, A., Ruiz, E., Grijalba, J., Santisteban, J., and Padilla, S. Physiological and performance
responses to a 6-day taper in middle-distance runners: influence of training frequency. International Journal of
Sports Medicine. 23:373-376, 2002.

47Mujika, I., Chatard, J.C., and Geyssant, A. Effects of training and taper on blood leucocyte populations in
competitive swimmers: relationships with cortisol and performance. International Journal of Sports Medicine.
17:213-217, 1996.

48Taylor, S.R., Rogers, G.G., and Driver, H.S. Effects of training volume on sleep, psychological and selected
physiological profiles of elite female swimmers. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 29:688-693, 1997.

165
Other coaches use an exponential taper where the reduction in volume is much slower where the
reductions might be 25% for week one of the taper 50% for week 2two and 75% for week three.
The exponential and linear methods can be fast or slow. A fast “decay” might go from 90% of
normal training volume down to 20% of training volume over 14 days while the slow decay might
go from 90% to 30% over the same period of time. The step taper is another option where the
volume is reduced by a set amount. For instance, the entire taper period might be reduced by 30%
of the normal training volume.

Mujika and Padilla report on one study comparing an exponential and step taper where the
researchers concluded that the fast exponential taper is better than a slow exponential taper and
both are superior to a step method.

The way to achieve a reduction in volume appears to be reducing the daily training volume but
training every day during the taper. The authors in one study using runners (and similar thoughts
concern swimmers) conclude that the athletes lose the “feel” for the sport when frequent days off
are inserted into the taper. Whether this applies to cyclists is not known. Anecdotally, coaches
report that riders taking the day off before a race felt that they didn’t have “good legs” or “snap” in
them. The reasons for this loss of “feeling” are not known.

When should the taper begin?

Coaches struggle with when to begin the taper. The answer to this question is the old favorite: it
depends on the individual athlete. The coach is encouraged to experiment with each athlete and
to keep meticulous records of training during tapering (as well as at other times) to asses how a
taper impacts performance.

It is suggested that the combination of training volume and intensity (training load) prior to the
taper plays a role in how long the taper needs to be. For instance, an athlete who has trained in
large volumes with lots of intensity may need a longer taper (and recovery) than those who trained
less and at a reduced intensity.

How much can one expect to improve after the taper?

Some studies assessing tapering have used lab or field tests as the performance criterion while
others have used competitions. A criticism of using competition is not all competitions are equal.
Imagine the potential for improvement (or a decrease in some cases) that an athlete might gain
from being at a national championship (or Olympic Games) compared to a local competition.

The range of improvement for competition based performance assessments is 0.5 to 6.0% and can
reach 25% for lab or field test criterion. Mujika, et al.49 reports that swimmers improved
performance by 2.2% during the weeks prior to the 2000 Olympic Games. Mujika and Padilla
note that the improvement in performance of 2.2% is greater than the difference between the gold
medal winner and fourth place and the difference between the bronze medalist and the last
swimmer in the finals.

Applications
Mujika and Padilla offer the following suggestions for tapering to optimize performance:

49 Mujika, I., Padilla, S., and Pyne, D. Swimming performance changes during the final three weeks of training
leading to the Sydney 2000 Olympic Games. International Journal of Sports Medicine. 23:582-587, 2002.

166
- Minimize accumulated fatigue without sacrificing the adaptations made in training prior
to the taper.

- Training intensity must be maintained to avoid detraining as long as other training is

reduced to allow for sufficient regeneration.

- Reductions in training volumes of 60 to 90% can induce positive physiological,

psychological and performance responses.

- Training frequency needs to be maintained in highly trained athletes; moderately trained

individuals can maintain even with a reduction in training frequency.

- Tapers lasting 4 to 14 days in endurance cyclists can lead to positive physiological and
performance. Complete inactivity is counter productive.

- Progressive, exponential (nonlinear) reductions in volume appear to be superior to an

across the board reduction (step taper method).

- A realistic performance goal for an improvement is 3%.

It is important for the coach and athlete to keep detailed records of training leading into the taper
and the taper itself. If performance is good, the information can be used for the next taper. If the
results are less than what was expected, coach and athlete can look at training and the taper and
make a decision on what to do the next time. If the coach and athlete think the training went well,
the coach might adjust the taper in some way.

Summary
Writing training programs is the reason most athletes hire a coach and what most coaches in
cycling enjoy doing. A well-designed training program can take an athlete who was training
haphazardly to new levels in most cases. Since athletes develop at different rates, no training
program can be a one size fits all. A coach can certainly use one training program for all athletes
but chances are that many cyclists will not progress either because there is too much stimulation or
not enough. For this reason, develop a training philosophy that can guide you but each person will
need an individualized program to optimize his/her performance.

Program Design
General Principles of Training
Progressive overload is the concept that the body will improve through adaptation to stresses that
are applied progressively. In this concept, training must follow a pattern of “loading” and
“recovery” where loading is training (stressing the body) and recovery is a period of reduced
training during which the body is able to rebuild it. However, stress without adequate recovery can
lead to a drop in performance (overtraining). Also, too much training can stress the system so
much that it cannot rebound quickly. Progressive overload must take into account all of the
demands of the targeted event. Overload can be increased volume, increased intensity, increased
skill development, etc. An example of where progressive overload is not being applied would be if

167
a cyclist is doing the same interval workout (duration, power, number of repetitions, etc) in July as
he/she was doing in February, overload is not being applied properly.

Training programs must take into account the specific needs and abilities of the athlete in the
program. Individualizing a training program for an athlete is one of the great advantages in hiring
a coach. A coach can assist the athlete in reviewing abilities and establishing a training plan for
that athlete. The following items should be considered when designing the program for the
individual:

- What is the current fitness level of the athlete?

- How long has the athlete been cycling (training age)?

- What is the athletic background of the person?

- What are the limitations of the athlete (physical, time, psychological, etc.)?

Since everyone differs in terms of physiological capacity to train along with differences in neural
and hormonal regulation, a training program must take these into account. Also different athletes
on identical training programs might respond differently. One athlete might flourish while a
second struggles and a third stagnates. The second cyclist might be taking on too much in terms of
volume or intensity. Perhaps he/she does not have the cycling background of the other two. The
third stagnates because the training volume or intensity is not overloading his/her system; perhaps
this cyclist has bee competing for a while and is well developed.

The training must be specific to the sport or discipline; an extreme example would be training to
train a BMX racer by having them swim everyday. The training program needs to stress the
physiological, biomechanical and skill competencies needed for the event. Training adaptations
are specific to the type of activity and to the volume and intensity of the training. The nervous
system must be trained as well so that motor neurons are recruited and activated. Skills must also
be developed since many of them require motor neuron recruitment.

The adaptations of training are subject to reversal if a maintenance program is not incorporated.
Training programs must have some form of sport specific maintenance so that fitness does not
decrease too greatly during “off” periods. Several studies on fit but not elite people have shown
that as little as one week without exercise can lead to a decrease of VO2max.

In order to adapt to training, the body will alter its structure or function to cope with the added
stresses. Examples of these adaptations include increased energy reserves and functional capacity
used during exercise. Structural improvements will include increased mitochondria, increased
enzymes, and increased capillary density. Typically, the body takes 24-48 hours to recuperate from
exhaustive exercise; during this time energy reserves and cellular structures increase to levels greater
than the levels prior to exercise. The greatest training adaptation to the training stress takes place
when the athlete is best prepared to tolerate the training. The next training session should occur
when the athlete is almost fully recovered. As adaptation occurs, recovery should occur more
quickly. Illness, injury, travel or life situations can throw a monkey wrench into the recovery
process that need to be addressed.

Performance is directly related to the energy system involved. In order to increase performance
through a training program, you must define the energy system(s) that will dominate the event.

168
The metabolic capacities of the muscles develop specifically to the training applied. Understanding
the metabolic demands of the event should drive the training program.

The table below provides a general idea of the energy demands of each type of training.

Percentage of development during specific training

Type of Training ATP-PC % Anaerobic % Aerobic %

Low intensity (continuous) 0-2 5 93
Medium/high intensity 2 8 90
(continuous)
Intervals 10-30 30-50 20-60
Repetition 10 40 50
Short sprints 98 5 0-2
Moderate distance sprints 10-30 70-80 2-8

Training intensities for energy system adaptation

ATP-PC Anaerobic LT VO2 Aerobic

Heart rate (%HRmax) N/A N/A 84-90 >92 65-80
Blood Lactate 14-20 10-14 2-4 6-10 <1.5
(mM/L)
Muscle type effort Fast B Fast A Slow Slow/Fast A Slow
Perceived Effort 20 20 14-16 18-20 9-13

Intensity of Training
Intensity refers to the qualitative components of training. It is work performed in a specific period
of time. High intensity is characterized by more work being performed in a given amount of time,
or the same amount of work being performed in less time. For instance, if you were told to move a
pile of bricks, you could take all day to move them or you could move them in an hour. Moving
them in an hour would be a higher intensity exercise. Intensity of training is a function of the
strength of stimulation to the nervous system. The strength of stimulus is dependent on the
training load, cadence, and the duration of intervals and rest periods. Intensity can be measured by
velocity (kph or mph), power output (W), work completed (kilojoules), heart rate (bpm) or cadence
(rpm). For BMX racers, heart rate is not a very useful metric since the efforts tend to be relatively
short (even if they do not feel like that at the time); there is a lag in heart rate response. It can take
as long as two minutes after the onset of high intensity exercise for the heart rate to “level out”
(called steady state).

Measuring volume is relatively easy and most often involves time or distance in training. However,
measuring intensity is a bit more problematic although it can be done well with a power meter.
One can also use perceived exertion.

Rating of Perceived Exertion (RPE) Scale

The rating of perceived exertion (RPE) concept is very low tech but quite useful. Basically, RPE
asks the athlete to describe the total body perception of the difficulty of the exercise session or
parts of a training session. Athletes can describe the intensity from easy to very hard. RPE can be

169
used with beginning cyclists who are not ready to purchase more expensive equipment such as a
heart rate monitor or power-measuring device.

There are two versions of the RPE scale: the Borg 6 to 20 point scale and the 10-point scale. A
newer version of the RPE scales uses 1 to 10. All of these scales are valid in the sense that they all
are a subjective measure of how the athlete perceives the intensity of the exercise. As long as you
use the same scale with each athlete for each test or training session, you can count on the RPE
scale as a reliable measure of how your athlete perceives the exercise.

In practical terms, if an athlete responds that a workout feels like a 13 when “normally” the level of
exertion is an 11 for that athlete, it can be a sign that the cyclist is fatigued and not adequately
recovered. Several studies in the scientific literature suggest that RPE is stable for an athlete. For
instance, if an athlete reports a RPE value of 17 at a relative intensity (say 92% of peak power
output), that athlete will report a 17 at that same relative intensity regardless of the actual power
output.

Borg Scale Chart. The 10-point chart.

Scale Number Verbal Descriptor

6
7 Very, very light
Scale Number Descriptor
8
0 Nothing at all
9 Very light
1 Very light
10
2 Fairly light
11 Light
3 Moderate
12
4 Somewhat hard
13 Somewhat hard
5 Hard
14
6
15 Hard
7 Very hard
16
8
17 Very hard, strenuous
9
18
10 Very, very hard
19 Extremely hard
20 Maximal

Heart Rate Training Zones Using Maximal Heart Rate

Heart rate training zones are used to define aerobic training intensities. Anaerobic training efforts
are not based on heart rate. Anaerobic efforts mainly stressed muscle action; anaerobic efforts
often are of fairly short duration so heart rate does not reach a steady state or lags behind the
effort.

Since heart rate is related to oxygen consumption in a linear manner up to maximal values for
each (where the relationship “flattens out”), using heart rate to measure intensity makes sense. It is
also important to note that the zones are not as clearly delineated as the descriptions often show.
The energy systems of the body are a continuum where the “flow” is such that moving from the
high end of a zone to the low end of the next higher zone is not as clear as many would like.

170
Power Measuring Devices
In recent years, the availability of inexpensive power measuring devices is on the rise. What
used to be a tool used by highly elite athletes or affluent, power meters are now available to
everyone and are a proven useful tool in assisting training.

Power is the rate at which energy is used over time and is measured in watts. It’s a snapshot
of the work an athlete is producing at any given moment. And it’s the building block from
which all power-based training programs start.

Power is what drives the bike. The power measurement is not affected by ambient conditions
as heart rate can be. Since power is directly related to speed (once aerodynamics are
accounted for), it offers a new paradigm for training. Since basing a training program solely
off of heart rate can pose problems, a watt is a watt regardless of conditions.

Since athletes with a power meter can measure their power outputs during a race, a coach
can design a training plan to meet those demands. It can also allow for coaches to use the
bike as a testing platform to see if an athlete’s power has improved.

While power is an important factor, heart rate and rating of perceived exertion should not
be ignored since those measures can tell a lot about how the athlete is functioning and
responding to their training. An athlete might be able to produce the same power output
required, but the effort is more difficult and the stress is higher.

Considerations in Program Design

Coaches and scientists now have a better understanding of how the human body responds to an
acute bout of exercise and also how it responds to chronic exercise. A well-designed training
program should utilize the science available, the experience of the coach and feedback from the
athlete. A well-designed training program should include the following:

- Gradual progression;
- Periodization;
- One stage of development should be based on a previous stage;
- Progressive overload; and
- Individualized for the athlete based on training age, ability to handle the training load,
and goals of the athlete.
-
The key concepts of an effective training plan are:

- Knowing the principles of training;

- An understanding and application of periodization;
- Application of training loads (stimulus);
- General guidelines for training program development;
- The components of training;
- Determining the demands of the event to be raced;
- Evaluation of the cyclist’s current physical abilities;
- Establishing of athletic goals;
- Determining the time available for training;

171
- Determining the competitive cycling season for the discipline and/or your geographic
area;
- Structuring training periods into an annual program;
- Structuring weekly training sessions into a training period;
- Structuring daily training sessions into the training week (microcycle); and
- Developing competencies in the athlete.

Developing the Training Program

How much time does the athlete have? Time available for training is often the biggest limiting
factor.

Evaluate the athlete: What is the athlete’s history; present status and most importantly, what are
the athlete’s goals?

Define the present microcycle: What are the goals of the coming year? What are the target events
for the coming year and how do they fit into the goals? Determine the dominant energy system of
the event(s). Apply progressive overload, maintenance and specificity for each training phase.

Determine the various numbers of macrocycles the training program will involve: Start with
defining the length of the competitive phase in each macrocycle.

Display the mesocycle for the present macrocycle: Show what training phases the coach will
prescribe and how long each phase will be. Be careful of the reversibility training principle so you
allow the athlete to keep from completely losing their level of fitness they will achieve for the year.

Determine the mesocycle: Exhibit the general training volume, intensity and skill for each
microcycle. Keep in mind progressive overload and adaptive mechanism principles during this part
of the process so you allow for some recovery along with the increasing progression of the training
load.

Determine the makeup of the training sessions throughout each week: Remember the general
periodization of the number of training loading sessions per week along with applying proper
specificity, overload, and adaptive mechanism.

Training Loads: Internal and External

The athlete needs to be exposed to various levels of intensity in training. The adaptive mechanism
acts to increase the physiological changes, especially heart rate, allowing detection and monitoring
of the training program by the coach.

To produce the training effect, training intensity must reach or exceed a threshold level after which
significant gains occur. Low levels of intensity in a training program will produce a relatively slow
rate of improvement. The low intensity training allows the athlete sufficient time to adjust to the
training load and ensures consistency of performance. Higher intensity levels will give quick
progress but less stable training adaptation and less consistency. Because of this instability, a
program with only high intensity training is not the most effective means of training. The training
volumes and intensity must be altered throughout the year beginning with low intensity, high
volume training at the start of the training year and increasing the training load as a base of
training has been established.

172
In applying new training loads to the athlete, the trap of too much intensity must be avoided.
Recovery must occur before training to exhaustion again. Adaptations to new loads take a
relatively long time and further increases may have negative effects.

External Loads
External loads refer to the physical demands placed on the athlete. An external load might be the
number of intervals and their intensities.

Internal Loads
Internal load refers to the physiological and biomechanical results of external loading. Internal
loading is the changes in hormone levels, metabolic pathway alterations, enzyme levels, etc. These
can be measured using blood testing.

Optimal adaptations, avoiding overtraining and minimizing injury require attention to the
internal loading. Coaches must consider the time course of acute responses to work stress and the
recovery needed from this stress. In addition, the interaction of all other stresses must be
considered including school, sleep, work, social life, travel, etc. Application of external loading and
recovery should be considered as a single process and represent the basic training unit.

Monitoring internal loading during training, competition and recovery helps quantify the
immediate external loading. Monitoring also allows for a feedback loop that can be used to set
intensity and duration and recovery. Coaches and athletes must walk a fine line between
overtraining and optimal training. Overtraining arises partly due to the fact that coaches fail to
recognize that maximum loading show approach the capacity of the system, but not exceed the
limits of positive adaptation.

Volume of Training
Perhaps the most difficult part of establishing a training program for an athlete is to calculate the
total volume of training. Each athlete will respond in his/her own way to a given volume of
training; for this reason, the volume must be based on the individuals’ ability to handle a given
volume. In a real life scenario where you are working with athletes who are not making a living
riding a bike, the volume will be dictated by the time available for training. Designing a great
program that requires 15 hours per week of training will be useless to the athlete who has 10 hours
a week available.

Determining a realistic amount of time available for training during the week is critical and should
be considered the first step. Have the athlete calculate time for sleep, commuting, eating, and
anything else that is a part of his/her life. The chart below might give some ideas for beginning
such an assessment.

Sample: How many hours?

Activity Hours per day Weekly Total
Sleep 8 56
Work/Commute (including preparation for 10 50
work)
Socializing/Family Time/Misc chores 3 21
Relaxing 1 7
Eating (and meal prep) 2 14
Totals 24 148

173
Since a week has only 168 hours and 148 are accounted for in the example above, the athletes is
left with 20 hours remaining for training and other life tasks. You might not be able to count on
20 hours of time for just training if one takes into account regeneration and travel to training rides
or sessions. Also, consider the distribution of hours. It might be difficult to work in a long ride
during the week without giving up something else.

Using volumes from previous years can assist in developing a training volume for that athlete. An
analysis of the training log from previous years can be priceless in determining monthly or weekly
volumes. For instance, if an athlete has shown that 10 hours per week is sustainable, the coach
might consider increasing the weekly volume (assuming that is possible). If the athlete has shown,
or begins to show signs that he/she is overly fatigued from a given volume, that information needs
to be noted for future reference and the training volume adjusted. Often the “ten percent” rule is
invoked that sets a 10% increase in volume from year to year (or any time period). While this is
certainly a good guideline, it needs to be applied in the context of the individual athletes’ response.
Some athletes might be able to increase volume faster than the rule would allow.

In most cases, being conservative regarding volume increases will be better than overly
aggressive. Increasing volumes too quickly and before the athlete is ready can lead to
overtraining.

Volume of training is composed of the duration of training, distance covered and the number of
repetitions in a session. The sum of these variables is the total quantity of the activity performed in
training. Athletes must perform a high quantity of work that must progressively increase over the
training year and career. Physiological adaptation will not be achieved without increasing the stress
while allowing for adequate regeneration. The process of recovery is also accelerated as a result of
adjustment to an increased volume of work.

Warm Up
This section will deal with the published scientific literature on warming up. The examples
provided may not be directly cycling related and the subjects in the studies may not be trained.
However, the principles are worth studying.

Warm up routines are widely accepted and practiced in athletics. Despite limited scientific study
and little evidence to support the effectiveness of a warm up, coaches and athletes intuitively
understand the need for a sufficient warm up. Studying warm up is difficult since warm up
routines vary so much from sport to sport and between athletes in a sport. Environmental
conditions under which the warm up occurs varies; and it would be considered unethical by some
scientists to ask people to perform maximal effort tasks without a warm up since the risk of injury
is perceived to be higher.

The possible effects of a warm up include:

- Decreased resistance of muscles and joints;

- Greater release of oxygen from hemoglobin and myoglobin;
- Speeding of metabolic reactions;
- Increased nerve conduction rate;
- Increased thermoregulatory strain;

174
- Increased blood flow to muscles;
- Elevation of baseline oxygen consumption;
- Post activation potentiation; and
- Psychological effects and increased preparedness.

Warm up techniques can be broadly classified into active and passive categories. The passive
category (which will be discussed in a limited manner in this manual since they are not used often)
involves raising muscle and core temperature by an external means: sitting in a hot tub, shower or
sauna. The upside to a passive warm up is that it does not deplete energy stores as an active warm
up would; however, care must be taken not to enter a hypo hydrated state that could increase the
risk of dehydration and impair performance. Another potential negative effect of a passive warm
up is that heat storage capacity may be reduced; such an increase in thermoregulatory strain could
impair performance. The same potential drawback could occur in an active warm up.

Temperature Effects on Muscle

As the term “warm up” implies, one of the goals is to raise the temperature in the muscle and the
body. The physiological basis for the potential to improve performance lies in decreasing the
viscous resistance in the muscles. A “cold” muscle does not “slide” as well as a “warmer” muscle.

Research shows that muscle temperature (Tm) rising quickly from resting levels, Tm reaches or
exceeds core temperature (as measured rectally) within 3 to 5 minutes of beginning exercise and
after 10 to 20 minutes reaches equilibrium. Despite this change in Tm, the effect of the muscle
elastic properties appears to be small.

Increasing body temperature shifts the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve (Bohr Effect) to the right
so that oxygen is released from the hemoglobin to the muscles. At an oxygen partial pressure of
30mm Hg, hemoglobin releases twice as much oxygen at 41oC (~105oF) as at 36oC (~97oF) and
gives it up twice as quickly. One wants to make as much oxygen as possible. The warm up also
increases hydrogen, CO2, pressure and 2, 3-diphosphoglycerate (2, 3-DPG); these changes shift the
oxygen dissociation curve to the right.

The elevated temperature can also increase vasodilation of blood vessels allowing blood flow with
less resistance (since the “tube” is less narrow); the vasodilation should allow blood flow to the
muscles to increase.

Effects of Warm Up on Oxygen Consumption

A warm up allows the performance to start with an elevated VO2. The idea here is that less
anaerobic capacity will be used so that it can be conserved. Anaerobic capacity is a well-defined and
limited entity. Sparing the anaerobic capacity could improve performance when anaerobic
metabolism makes a significant contribution to the event. The key to sparing anaerobic capacity
may lie in the period between the end of the warm up and competition; VO2 is likely to return to
normal values after about 5 minutes.

Effects on Muscle
Post activation is “…the transient increase in muscle contractile performance following previous
conditioning contractile activity.” An active warm up involving a sprint element or maximal efforts
may improve performance as a result of increasing muscle contractile properties. However, the
period between warm up end and start of competition where a maximal effort needs to be

175
attempted should be between 3 and 5 minutes to allow for regeneration of the phosphocreatine
energy system.

A warm up is often said to make the muscle more pliable or flexible. Inactivity certainly can lead to
stiffness of the muscle. One factor that contributes to stiffness in the muscle is the “construction”
of stable bonds between actin and myosin filaments. When muscle becomes active, these bonds
are broken as the actin-myosin filaments are disturbed; once the warm up stops there is a rapid
increase in stiffness (which becomes more gradual). This “re-stiffening” is another reason to keep
the time between the end of the warm up and competition fairly short.

Thermoregulation Issues
It does need to be noted that increasing the heat of the body during warm up can impair
performance in hot conditions especially if the performance will be of long duration. The body’s
capacity to store heat seems to be a limiting factor in endurance exercise. For this reason,
adjustments in the duration and intensity of the warm up may need to be adjusted in
consideration of the ambient temperature during the warm up and those to be encountered
during the competition.

Energy Stores
An extensive, long duration warm up can compromise glycogen stores of high-energy phosphate
stores. While a warm up is not likely to deplete muscle glycogen, a long warm up could reduce the
stores to the extent that during the competition depletion (or at least reduction) could occur and
negatively impact performance. In addition, high-energy phosphate stores can be reduced. The
body requires a bit of time between the end of the warm up and the start of competition to
replenish those energy stores.

Short Term Performance Issues

The studies showing no improvement in short term performance (less than 10 seconds) such as
vertical jump or peak power on a cycle ergometer seem to carry a common trait: the low intensity
may not have been sufficient to raise Tm to the necessary level for an improvement to occur. The
studies not showing improvement also had a short recovery period between the end of the warm
up and the start of the task.

A moderate intensity warm up of three to five minutes appears to improve short-term

performance; the improvement seems to be associated with an increase in Tm. The recovery period
needs to be sufficient to allow for regeneration of high-energy phosphates.

Intermediate Performance Issues

Events lasting between 10 seconds and 5 minutes can also benefit from a proper warm up. In
addition to the temperature related benefits of a warm up, intermediate events may benefit from a
warm up through decreasing the oxygen deficit at the start of competition and raising VO2 level to
a new, higher baseline. The anaerobic capacity is spared. However, if the warm up is too long or
too intense and causes fatigue, performance can be impaired.

The studies showing an improvement in performance used a warm up of 15 minutes in duration

at 70% VO2max with a 5 minute recovery period. Other studies have shown that exercise at such
intensity and duration can increase VO2 for 6 minutes after cessation of exercise. As Bishop notes,
for a warm up to improve intermediate performance, the intensity and duration need to be such

176
that Tm and VO2 are elevated and that the athlete begins the competition or event sufficiently
recovered.

What Science Says About Designing a Warm Up Protocol

One of the qualities that science brings to coaching is the control science that seeks when studying
events and interventions to see what works. In order to determine what intervention or technique
works, science does everything the same each time and changes only one factor. This allows for the
scientist to determine what one change (or potentially a combination of changes) impacts
performance and by how much.

One consideration in putting together a warm up protocol for different athletes is their physical
capabilities. Two athletes of different abilities can use the same warm up protocol with varying
effects. For the less trained athlete, the warm up itself might create a state of fatigue before the
competition even begins. Well-trained athletes can also tend to have better developed
thermoregulatory systems such that a longer or higher intensity warm up might be needed to
increase muscle temperature.

Passive warm up techniques such as warming blankets may be necessary to maintain elevated
temperature in cases where a long delay might be necessary between the warm up to competition,
especially if the ambient temperature is cool or cold.

Intensity
A warm up at an intensity of about 60% VO2max has been shown to deplete high-energy
phosphate concentrations; if there is not an adequate recovery period (of about 5 minutes), the
concentrations cannot be sufficiently restored. If the warm up intensity is too intense and the
recovery period too short, the performance may be impaired as a result of depleted high-energy
phosphate and/or increased hydrogen ion concentration. For trained athletes a warm up intensity
of 70% VO2max may be optimal. When considering the warm up for an aerobic event (lasting less
than 30 minutes) where core temperature may be a limiting factor, the optimal warm up intensity
might need to be lower such that core temperature is not elevated too much above resting levels.

Duration
For short-term performance, the duration of the warm up needs to be sufficient to raise Tm. With
the onset of exercise, Tm increases quickly in the first 3 to 5 minutes and levels off after 10 to 20
minutes of exercise. Since, as noted above, a warm up intensity of less than 60% VO2max does not
deplete high-energy phosphates, but that intensity can increase Tm if exercise is performed for 10 to
20 minutes.

For moderate to long duration events, the warm up needs to be long enough to elevate VO2 while
being short enough not to cause a great deal of fatigue. If the intensity is moderate to heavy, VO2
will reach a steady state in 5 to 10 minutes. Studies show that a warm up of about 10 minutes at
60-80% VO2max can lead to improved performance. Bishop mentions that one study using a
warm up of 25 minutes improved performance for a long duration event; however, the potential
loss of muscle glycogen or decrease in heat storage capacity (depending on the ambient conditions)
might make the longer warm up less than ideal.

Recovery Duration
How long should the athlete wait between the end of the warm up and the start of the
competition? In some cases, this might be beyond your control. At some events, the start time will

177
be the time the introductions or other pre-race activities occur that could have the athlete standing
around for a period of time. The warm up should take these factors into consideration as much as
possible.

For short-term performance, a moderate to high intensity warm up followed by no recovery period
seems to lead to a sharp decline in performance. This decline is likely due to a shortened period of
time to restore high-energy phosphates. If for some reason, the recovery time between the end of
the warm up and the start of the competition is short, the warm up should be as brief as possible.

Bishop proposes that the recovery duration (the period between the end of the warm up and the
start of competition) may play a role in performance. Since resynthesis of phosphocreatine (PCr)
takes about 5 minutes, it would make sense that the warm up end 5 minutes before the start of a
short duration event where the high-energy phosphates are critical to performance. It should be
noted that complete resynthesis of PCr is not compete after 5 minutes, but waiting for complete
resynthesis, which can take up to 20 minutes, could compromise Tm.

For short duration competitions, the recovery period that seems to work best is 5 to 15 minutes.
This period allows for PCr resynthesis and for Tm to remain elevated.

For longer duration competition, the key factors at Tm and VO2, VO2 will return to baseline within
about 5 minutes of the cessation of moderate to high intensity exercise. Studies show that when
the recovery period is about 5 minutes, performance is not improved. The recommendation from
the literature is that for moderate and long duration competition that the recovery period be about
5 or fewer minutes.

Specificity
Coaches are fond of saying that the three most important things in training are “specificity,
specificity, specificity”. When it comes to warm up, the principle can be applied. First, the warm
up should focus on the sport to be performed rather than a general warm up like calisthenics.

The addition of some intensity specific to the task to be performed seems to improve performance.
Kayak athletes who included short duration, high intensity efforts during the warm up performed
better than those who merely warmed up at a lower intensity. In the kayak example, the athletes
warmed up at about 65% VO2max with 5 sprints of 10 seconds duration at 200% VO2max
separated by 50 seconds at about 55% VO2max. The mechanism for improvement using the
sprints might lie in increased neuromuscular activation. Caution needs to be taken that the
intensity is not too high that it leads to fatigue or that the recovery period is too short for high
energy phosphate resynthesis.

What the Research Says…

An optimal warm up depends on many factors such as the weather, the course, tactics, etc. It is
critical to keep good records to see what works and what does not work for each athlete. Two
athletes of similar ability may warm up very differently.

The research suggests that for short-term performance, a warm up of 40 to 60% VO2max for 5 to
10 minutes with a 5 minute recovery before competition will improve performance. The addition
of higher intensity efforts may be beneficial as noted above. The 5-minute break allows for
resynthesis of a majority of phosphate energy stores.

178
For longer-term efforts (intermediate and long term performance), research suggests that a specific
warm up of 5 to 10 minutes at 60 to 70% VO2max with a 5 minutes or less recovery. Adding
short, high intensity bursts should be beneficial. The research suggests that warming up for longer
than 20 minutes does not have physiological benefits associated with warming up (increase muscle
temperature). In addition, an extensive warm up can increase core temperature; if the competition
conditions are hot, this reduction in heat storage capacity could be detrimental to performance.

Psychological Considerations
The warm up routine can and should include a psychological component. Many athletes perform
some sort of mental preparation during the warm up; the athlete should monitor what he/she
does for mental preparation to adjust it just as one would do for the physical preparation. Some of
the psychological components can be done prior to the physical warm up. Below are some tips for
pre-competition sport psychology protocol:

Visualize the course or demands of the event. If the athlete could ride the course and know it, the
athlete can picture him/herself successfully negotiating tricky sections of the course, for instance.
The athlete can also visualize being successful. The athlete can focus on past successful races if the
athlete has competed successfully over the course before.

Reduce negative self-talk. If the athlete has competed on the course but has not been successful, the
athlete’s task will be to cease negative thoughts from entering their mind.

The athlete needs to manage his/her energy properly. Does the event require the athlete to get “pumped
up” or to be calm? During the warm up, the athlete will need to begin that preparation
accordingly.

Build confidence. One method for building confidence is to review the training log. Just flipping
through a training log (thus another important reason to keep one) and looking at all of the
excellent workouts done in the preceding weeks can boost confidence.

See the Sport Psychology section of this manual for more tips on mental skills training.

Real Life Considerations

Many factors, some of which do not relate to physiology, will determine the necessary warm up.
While this section has focused on the physiology of warming up, real life considerations and
personal preferences need to be considered and integrated. To some extent the guidelines and
examples in this section should be used as a starting point and adapted from experience. It is
critical that good records of warm up protocols and ensuring performance be collected so that
changes can be assessed.

It is not unusual for cyclists to warm up far longer than athletes in other sports. Some of this
protocol could be because of tradition (a very strong influence in cycling); cycling is not a high
impact sport so warming up on a bike will not induce muscle damage like running will, for
instance. Some cyclists will also feel the need to ride a lot even if the event is going to be short.

Psychologically, some riders will want to warm up for an extended period of time to allow
themselves the chance to prepare mentally for the competition. The intensity at the start may be
very low; it could be argued that exercise of such a low intensity might not even perform a
physiological function. However, it may serve as mental preparation for the competition.

179
A stationary trainer is a great tool to use during a warm up protocol. It allows the rider to control
their intensity and duration of the warm up far better than riding on roads. It also allows a rider to
avoid dangers such as cars and a potential tire puncture from debris. Warming up on the trainer
also allows the rider to avoid having to slow or stop traffic just when the athlete is to do a higher
intensity effort.

The athlete will also need to consider real life situations. For instance, in domestic mountain bike
racing, start positions are determined by a first come first serve basis at the start line. For this
reason, the “free range” warm up on the road is not practical, but the use of a trainer set up at the
start line is a wise tactic.

Cooling Down
The cool down is not as widely practiced as the warm up, but it is no less important. A cool down
involves a period of time where light exercise helps your circulatory, respiratory and metabolic
functions return to normal. An active cool down can also help prepare you for the next training
session.

Slowly taper the intensity of the exercise. Mild exercise (about 40% of VO2max) enhances the
buffering of lactic acid and lactate by maintaining high respiratory and heart rates that increases
the removal of lactate from the blood. Mild exercise also maintains the blood flow from the
muscles so that the contracting and relaxing of muscles improve blood circulation. Stopping
exercise suddenly can cause blood to pool in the legs.

At the end of a training session, the cyclist should add some stretching to increase flexibility and
reduce the risk of muscle soreness. During the cool down, the athlete should also be focusing on
beginning the replacement of fluids lost during training along with carbohydrate and perhaps
protein.

Monitoring Workouts
The Training Diary
Every cyclist is an individual and responds in a unique manner to training such that no single
training method can satisfy the training needs of every cyclist. Along these lines, following the
training program of one of the great cyclists is not a good plan since you or your athlete will
respond differently and have different needs. While this manual and other texts can serve as
guidelines, the coach must adjust the training to suit the needs and abilities of the individual. One
method that can assist the coach and athlete in developing and adjusting the training program is
keeping a detailed training diary.

The basis for the training diary is the daily record that details an athlete’s physical and even
psychological condition. The elements of the training diary will vary from coach to coach and
athlete to athlete. Some coaches and some athletes will not want to keep vast details; others will
want and keep very detailed records. However, if the training log is too complex or requires too
much time for a given athlete and the athlete is not filling in the training log and the
information is not being provided, then the log is useless. It may be necessary to modify the
training log from one athlete to another. Using “off the shelf” software for a computer or
developing a computer format might be an option as well.

180
A training diary gives a picture of the quantity and consistency of training. If the training diary
shows several weeks of high intensity training followed by illness, the coach can make adjustments
for more recovery/regeneration the next time a cycle like that is included. On a more positive
note, if the athlete responds to a block of training with a successful race or field/lab assessment,
the coach can make a note that the training period probably led to a positive adaptation.

Whenever possible develop short hand that allows the athlete to save time and for you to be able
to glance at the sheet and get key information. Using a grading type scale or setting up a system
where the athlete can merely circle a number or rating is one option.

Another key aspect is to use the data from the training log to adjust the training as needed whether
from week to week or year to year. If an athlete is having trouble one year but was successful
another, check the training log to see what is different (if anything).

The topics below might serve as a starting point for developing a training log:

- The training session: A description of the training session including duration, intensity,
heart rate, power, route, weather conditions, how the athlete felt during the training
(good, bad, average). In some cases, you might simply ask if the athlete completed the
scheduled workout and to rate the workout.

- Sleep: Detailing the number of hours spent sleeping and the quality of the sleep. Athletes
who are over-trained might begin going to bed later at night and sleeping less with lower
quality of sleep. The athlete then wakes up tired and not ready to train.

- Body Weight: Monitoring body weight can tell several things about an athlete. If the
body weight is a lot lower than the day before, the athlete probably is dehydrated and not
fully recovered from the previous day’s training. A sharp decline in body weight over a
short period of time might be indicative of the athlete not eating enough to be ready to
train hard. However, focusing too much on body weight can lead to body image issues
that could negatively impact training and performance.

- How does the athlete feel: The athlete can rate how they feel before and after training
sessions. One method is to use a scale of A to F (much like school grades) where A
denotes a day where the athlete was ready to go and felt like taking on the world. On the
other hand, F means the athlete is not feeling good and might suggest that training that
day will not be good. Notes for being sick can also be included.

- Waking heart rate: The simplest approach to measuring waking HR is to find the radial
or carotid artery and count the pulse for 15 seconds and multiply by 4 to get beats per
minute (bpm). However, a very accurate method would be to use a heart rate monitor.
Ideally this should be done when the athlete awakens without a startle (like an alarm
clock). A sharp increase in waking HR (>5 bpm) could be indicative of poor recovery
from the previous day’s training and would suggest a reduction in training. It could be a
warning sign of overtraining or illness and might indicate a longer term reduction in
training over several days.

- General comments: This section could be more free form where the athlete describes
any illnesses, injuries or observations about the mental state of the athlete.

181
- Race results and conditions: This section is the place for the athlete to record race results
and what happened during the race. The athlete might describe the field (size and who
was there), the course, tactics used (both those that worked and those that failed), and
general comments. Final placing should be included as well.

- Weekly summary: A cumulative description of the week including training volume for
the week and perhaps a running total of volume for the year.

- Medical or physiological testing: Keeping a record of medical tests and results along with
physiological tests. A file should be kept for the actual test results.

Most athletes keep their training log electronically and several companies offer computer software
that will keep the training log and automate some functions to speed entry. An advantage of some
of these programs is that training logs can be emailed to the coach for review from anywhere in the
world (practically). Some software training logs can even generate graphs and graphical
representations of the training information.

Mental Training Log

Keeping a workout diary with the items described above can be relatively easy. Just as the training
log tracks physical progress; the mental progress needs to be tracked as well. The mental training
log might include goals for the day, arousal levels and motivational statements. The mental
training log forces the athlete to record goals that can be motivating and also keep the athlete
focused.

The goals to include in the mental training log should include long-term goals as well as short-term
goals. By writing the goal down, the athlete has shown that he/she has thought it through to some
extent and a written goal holds the athlete more accountable.

The items below can serve as a guideline for the mental training log:

- Write goals and expectations for each workout and race;

- Record positive thoughts and feelings and what they did for the athlete;

- Write about motivation levels for each practice and competition;

- Report how energized they were for each workout or race (state of arousal); and

- Write a brief statement of how they mentally prepared for each workout and
competition.

Keeping track of mental training goals will give your athletes the mental edge. Since many cyclists
keep a training log on the physical side, adding a little bit of mental training should not be too
difficult.

Strength Training
Successful performance in cycling requires a combination of muscular strength, endurance and
power. Strength is the muscular force exerted against a resistance such as your foot against a pedal.
Power is work performed over a period of time. Both of these components stress the anaerobic

182
energy system. Endurance is the ability to sustain submaximal activity for a prolonged period of
time.

The event the athlete competes in will determine the strength training emphasis. Road and
mountain bike racing (and some endurance track events) require mostly muscular endurance, but
training for power is needed for steep hill climbs and sprints to the finish line. Events such as the
match sprint rely primarily on power for explosiveness. Most cyclists train adequately for the
endurance components, but for a complete training program to develop power and strength, a
strength-training program is needed.

The focus on strength training should always be on proper technique. During the first year of a
strength-training program or with young athletes emphasize developing the proper safe technique
for lifting so that as load is added safety is not compromised.

When someone is beginning resistance training such as lifting weights, technique development
should be the first consideration. Before moving on to heavier weights (or any weight at all), the
athlete should develop proper form and technique. Proper lifting technique should never be
forsaken to lift heavier weights or to complete additional repetitions.

Your coaching certification through USA Cycling does not qualify you to administer or design a
specific weight or off bike strength training program. The information offered in this chapter is a
general guide to assist you in working with a strength and conditioning specialist in designing
strength and conditioning program.

Core Strength
Core strength is a hot topic in the exercise world, especially the rehabilitation community dealing
with people who experience low back pain. The muscles of the trunk are the focus when one talks
about core strength with the abdominal and spinal musculature being the focus. Leimohn and
Pariser50 liken lower back pain to bending a paper clip where the more it is bent, the weaker the
clip becomes and eventually breaks. Lower back pain (LBP) is more likely to develop out of
repetitive motion (chronic) than a single event (acute). If a person has sufficient core strength and
endurance, he/she will be able to maintain neutral spinal position more easily for normal daily
activities.

The muscles of the spine of interest in terms of core stability include erector spinae, the multifidus,
and the quadrus lumborum; the abdominal muscles that are involved in core stability include the
rectus abdominus, internal and external obliques, and the traverse abdominus.

USA Cycling certified coaches are encouraged to work with a trained strength and conditioning
specialist such as a certified personal trainer (CPT) or certified strength and conditioning specialist
(CSCS) from National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA) or similar certifications
from other organizations such as American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM).

Injury Prevention
Resistance training will improve strength and power but an additional benefit could be in the area
of injury prevention. Strength training not only helps strengthen the muscles but also the tendons

Leimohn, W., and Pariser, G. Core Strength: Implications for Fitness and Low Back Pain. ACSM’s Health
50

& Fitness Journal. 6(5): 10-16.

183
and ligaments around the foot, ankle, knee and hip joints. Strength training can also correct
muscle imbalances. Cyclists may have very strong legs but underdeveloped lower back, abdominal
and upper body muscles.

Muscle size
While the evidence for increased strength in cycling has mounted, too many cyclists believe
strength training will cause an increase in bulk or muscle size (hypertrophy). Most of those who
argue against strength training focus on the premise that the cyclists will become muscle bound
and carry too much weight. However, the type of training program promoted here can avoid the
increase in weight gain by increasing strength.

Actual muscle growth comes from the type of training program, diet and muscle fiber type (the
latter a function of genetics). The cyclist should focus strengthening the muscles needed to cycling.

Terminology
Before we discuss the details of resistance training, it is important that you become familiar with
some of the basic terms using in strength training.

- Repetitions: the number of times a weight is lifted consecutively.

- Set: a group of repetitions performed in sequence; a brief period of rest follows each set
in order to recover.

- Volume: the total number of repetitions performed in a period of time (day, week,
month, and year).

- Load (tonnage): the total amount of weight lifted in a period of time.

- Intensity: average weight lifted (load/reps = intensity)

- Repetition Maximum (RM): the intensity associated with strength training is known as a
RM. The weight an athlete can handle for an assigned number of repetitions, but not
one more rep.

Determining 1RM
In determining your 1RM, the task involves the athlete starting with a light warm up load and
progressively adding weight until after five or six sets she/he arrives at 1RM. To be safe, the athlete
should approach the 1RM keeping in mind:

- The correct technique

- Careful selection of loads

- Using two minute rest periods between sets

- Using a qualified spotter

Unless the athlete is totally confident in his/her ability to perform the exercise properly or has
access to trained personnel who can teach proper technique, the athlete should NOT attempt a
1RM.

184
Load guidelines for establishing the 1RM are given for exercises that involve large muscle groups
such as chest, back and legs. Attempting 1RM for smaller muscle groups such as arms increases the
risk of injury since the joints may not be able to withstand the load.

Protocol
Warm up with a light load for 12 to 20 reps.
Rest two minutes.
Add a weight that will allow the athlete to perform 5 to 6 reps.
Rest two minutes.
Add a weight that will allow the athlete to perform about 3 reps.
Rest two minutes.
Add 10 pounds (roughly 5 kg) and complete 1 rep.
Rest two minutes.
Add 10 pounds (roughly 5 kg) and complete 1 rep.
Rest two minutes.
Continue to add 10 pounds until the weight cannot be lifted (also continue 2 minute rest
periods).
When failure occurs, reduce the load by 5 pounds and try to perform 1 rep.

Record the heaviest load as the athlete lifts as the athlete’s 1RM.

Adjusting the load

Once loads have been determined for the various exercises, the athlete commonly finds that they
are too heavy or too light and do not result in the desired number of reps that affects training. If
the athlete finds that this happens in one or more exercises, the athlete should follow the formula
below for correcting the load.

If the athlete can complete one to two reps, add 5 pounds.

If the athlete can complete 3 to 4 more reps, add 10 pounds.
If the athlete can complete 5 or 6 reps, add 15 pounds.
If the athlete falls 1 or 2 reps short, subtract 5 pounds.
If the athlete falls 3 or 4 reps short, subtract 10 pounds.
If the athlete falls 5 or 6 reps short, subtract 15 pounds.

Number of repetitions
It is essential to understand the benefits and logic behind the number of reps to be performed.
The number of reps performed will impact the results. Below are some guidelines along with the
anticipated results.

Performing 15 or more reps is associated with muscular endurance training. During the first few
weeks of a training cycle, using high reps is helpful in preparing the body for later training.
However, this phase of training should not be an extended period of time. Since this type of
training is related to muscular endurance, it can be performed on the bike.

Performing 8 to 12 reps are normally associated with hypertrophy. However, cyclists should not be
overly concerned with getting larger muscles unless several conditions are met. Muscle growth is
dependent on genetic potential, muscle fiber type and amount of exercise along with frequency;
intensity, time devoted to strength training and the type(s) of workout(s) the athlete is performing.
To look like a body builder, one needs to spend a great deal of time in the weight room!

185
Strength gains occur more quickly when reps are in range of one to six reps. High intensity
attempts can increase the risk of injury especially for those beginning a strength training program.
However, there is no need for a cyclist to be concerned with “maxing out” or performing one to
three RM movements.

Periodization
The real emphasis should be given to a using a proper resistance-training program planned for
cycling. Periodization (training differently for different results) is the missing link in most cycling
resistance training programs. The table below outlines the five phases in a periodized resistance-
training program.

Phase Benefit Days per Sets Reps Weight Length

week (weeks)
TransitionalPreparation 3 1-3 12-20 Light/moderate 2-4
Foundation Muscle 3-4 3-5 8-15 Moderate 4-8
Growth
Strength Get strong 3-4 5-7 6-10 Moderate/fast 4-12
Power Explosive 3-4 3-6 4-6 Heavy 4-8
force
Peaking or Maintenance 3-4 3-5 4 Moderate Season
Maintenance

During the year of training on the bike, cyclists will work at different levels of exertion at different
times. During the early season rides, it is common to train in the small chain ring and to maintain
a rapid cadence (90-100 rpm) at a relatively low intensity. However, if the cyclists trained this way
all year long, he/she would not be able to meet the demands of racing that requires the ability to
push a larger gear, accelerate the pace or sprint. Training gradually takes on more intense aspects
such as hill training, intervals and sprints.

Resistance training parallels the training pattern described above. A cyclist who always trains at 10
to 15 reps will miss much of the strength benefit of resistance training. Strength comes from
higher intensity and fewer reps. A strength athlete performs one to three reps while a match
sprinter or endurance track cyclist would perform four to six reps. High intensity training must
only occur after proper preparation of lifting lighter weights for higher repetitions.

Resistance training should also be varied over the year just as training for cycling. The training
program below is a guide to be used after one year of resistance training.

There are five phases to the periodization program for a year round schedule. The five phases are
transition, foundation, strength, power and maintenance.

Transition Phase
The transition phase is the period following the racing season and involves a few weeks of active
rest. This phase is a good time to begin a strength-training program since cycling volume will be
reduced and the athlete often seeks alternative exercises. The transition phase is the time to ease
into strength training. The emphasis is on getting started correctly with as little muscle soreness as
possible.

186
In many cases, the exercises you choose may include body weight rather than actually attempting
strength training on a home gym. This could include pushups, pull-ups, crunches, floor back
extensions and lunges. If the athlete cannot perform the desired number of reps, using a home
gym to perform exercises might be an alternative.

Two established training modes are circuit training and priority training. Circuit training involves
performing one set of exercise A, then moving to one set of exercise B, and then one set of exercise
C, etc. until all movements have been performed. The pattern is then repeated until all sets are
completed. The exercise sequence is varied so that emphasis is not maintained in a particular part
of the body. However, since rest is minimal between exercises and because the exercises vary
greatly, the standard benefits of resistance training are minimized. Circuit training is
recommended primarily for Transition workouts.

Priority training involves completing all the sets of movement before moving on the next
movement. Two-minute rest between each set is recommended. The athlete should move around
between the sets, get a drink of water, or complete the training log. The athlete will recover during
this respite and return for a hard effort on the next set.

Repetitions of muscular endurance exercises are in the 12 to 20 range during the Transitional
phase with each exercise repeated for one to three sets. Resistance is light to moderate. The
transition phase usually lasts two to four weeks.

Foundation Phase
High volume is the key to the Foundation phase. Weights are moderate with 8 to 12 reps and
three to five sets. The foundation phase is similar to the training mode of a body builder but do
not expect to see large muscles appear especially in endurance athletes. This phase is important for
preparing the muscles for the hard work ahead. The phase coincides with the long, slow distance
phase that occurs early in the season. In both cases, the volume is high and the intensity is
moderate. The foundation phase may last four to eight weeks.

Strength Phase
The objective here is to get stronger. The weights used become heavier with 6 to 10 reps and 5 to 7
sets. Before heavy weights are lifted, a proper warm up is essential. A good warm up involves lifting
lighter weights with the same movement as will be used with the higher weights. The strength
phase is similar to adding hill work to cycling. Without the proper transition and foundation
phases, injury risk in this phase increases. However, transition and foundation phases prepare the
muscles for the heavy loads. The strength phase lasts four to eight weeks.

Power Phase
Strength by itself is fine but power (the application of force x distance over time) is critical. Weights
and sets are reduced with each set having one to six reps. The main emphasis in the power phase is
speed of movement. The lifting motion should focus on quick movements with the recovery phase
of the movement slow and controlled. The number of training days per week can be reduced to 2-
3 days per week since riding volume will be increasing. The power phase lasts four to eight weeks.
Workouts during this phase will have less total volume of lifting, but the intensity will be higher.

Maintenance Phase
Once athletes start the racing season, a decision on continuing strength training must be made. It
is wise to maintain some strength work especially in the abdominals and lower back. The

187
maintenance phase reduces workouts to two times per week and each session lasts 20 to 30
minutes. Circuit training might be used since it tends to focus on muscular endurance. It is
important not to stop all resistance training too early and lose the benefits by the time the big
event arrives. Even small investments in terms of strength training can maintain the strength gains
or at least reduce the decline. Taper the resistance-training program beginning 7 to 10 days before
a major event in order to emphasize cycling. At least two days per week of strength training is
necessary to maintain strength/power.

Training Tips
In general, start with exercises that use more than one body joint and move to single joint
movements. Training single joint muscles first will cause fatigue that can interfere with more
complicated multiple joint movements.

Only use multiple joint movements during the strength and power phase. Your athletes will be
handling heavier loads or performing quick movements and performing these with only one joint
could lead to injury.

Normally workouts should occur 3-4 times per week with at least one day off between strength
training sessions.

As your strength increases as a natural outcome of strength training, a guideline to making load
adjustments is the “two for two rule.” Increase the loads when you are able to perform two or
more repetitions beyond the number listed in the last set for two or more workouts. Avoid
increasing weights by more than 10%.

Sample Workout Schedule

Transition Foundation Strength Power Maintenance

Day 1 Trunk curl Squats Push press Power clean Back
Dips Straight arm Power clean Dips extension
Leg curl pullover Squats Heavy partial Trunk curl
Leg Trunk curl Trunk curl squats Dips
Extension Calf raise Calf raise Trunk curl Pull ups
Pull ups Dips Bent rows
Back Back
extension or Extension
General Pull up
circuit
Day 2 Twist/side Dumbbell Bench press High pulls Partial squats
bend press High pulls Push press Dips
Leg press Hanging leg Barbell twist Squats Pull ups
Lat pull-down raise Partial squats Trunk curl Calf raise
Hanging leg Good
raise morning
Press or Leg Press
General Trunk curl
circuit Bent rows

Day 3 Trunk curl Squats Power clean Power clean

188
 Lunges Bent arm Speed squats Pull ups
Calf raise pullover Increased Heavy partial
Back Trunk curl press squats
extension Stiff legged Rowing Trunk curl
Upright rows dead lift
or General Pull ups
circuit Calf raise
Dips

Important Notes:
To maintain power during the Maintenance phase, power exercises such as Olympic lifts will need
to be included in the workout program.

Workouts of 80% of max will maintain strength.

Specific workouts will vary depending on the demands of the events or discipline. Cyclists and
coaches should consult with strength and conditioning specialists to assist in designing and
implementing strength training programs. Certified Strength and Conditioning Specialists (CSCS)
certified by the National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA) are an excellent resource
in this area.

189
 12
Chapter

Overtraining

O vertraining occurs when there is a mismatch between training and recovery. The
difficulty at times is recognizing the signs and symptoms, how overtraining is
reflected in physiological markers, and understanding how to cope with various
degrees of overtraining.

So what exactly is overtraining? There are three definitions that address the spectrum of
overtraining/overreaching. At the low end is Functional Overreaching, in the middle Non-
functional Overreaching and at the high end is the Overtraining Syndrome, with each one
being characterized by how long it may take an athlete to recover. Please see the definitions
below.

1. Functional overreaching (FOR) also known as short term overreaching is defined as

increased training leading to temporary performance decrement and improved
performance after rest. This is the basis for periodization training plans where a
training stimulus is applied to an athlete and after full recovery a super
compensation may occur. There is an overall positive outcome after days to weeks of
rest.
2. Nonfunctional overreaching (NFOR) is defined as intense training leading to a
longer performance decrement but with full recovery after rest. There is usually a
lack of improved performance after rest. This is often accompanied by increased
psychological and/or neuroendocrine symptoms. The overall negative outcome is
due to symptoms and loss of training time.
3. Overtraining Syndrome (OTS) is defined as extreme nonfunctional overreaching
with longer performance decrement (more than two months), more severe
physiological and psychological, neurologic, immunologic symptoms and additional
stressors not explained by other disease. The overall negative outcome is due to
symptoms and can be a possible career ending situation. This can take months
and/or years for full recovery. There is also a lack of improved performance after
rest and lack of full recovery after rest.

The nonfunctional overreaching and overtraining syndrome share a common theme: a decrease in
performance that is chronic or long-term where short recovery periods are not sufficient to return
the body to a performance ready state.

190
Despite early focus on physical and physiological markers, researchers cannot pinpoint the source
for the overtraining syndrome (OTS). Even with the inclusion of psychological factors, researchers
cannot offer a definitive marker before overtraining occurs however there are many signs coaches
can take note of. The regular monitoring of a combination of performance, biochemical,
immunological, psychological and physiological would seem the best strategy to identify athletes
who are failing to cope with the stress of training. Because training is a constant balance of
overload, recovery and adaptation (also known as periodization), the fine line between athletes
adequately recovering from training stimulus in the functional over-reaching stage and progressing
into the non-functional over-reaching stage can easily occur when signs go un-noticed. Left for too
long and non-functional over-reaching can progress into OTS.

The prevalence of OTS is debatable, as definitions will vary from study to study. Signs and
symptoms of NFO prevalence have been reported in 60% of elite male and female distance
runners over the course of their careers, compared with 33% in non-elite female runners51. A
multicenter, multi-country survey found that 35% of adolescent swimmers “over-trained” at least
once52. Estimates of “staleness” were reported in 5 to 30% of swimmers over a season53, and
in15% of British elite athletes54. In the most recent study of elite adolescent athletes, roughly 30%
reported NFO at least once in their career – they averaged two episodes lasting four weeks. The
risk was significantly increased in individual sports, low physically demanding sports (such as golf),
females and elite athletes55.

Markers of Overtraining
OTS is a complex syndrome with as many as 200 signs and symptoms (SAS) being associated with
overtraining. In addition to the large number of symptoms, the normal variation between
individuals makes OTS extremely complicated. Volume and intensity may affect the body
differently. SAS may include changes in mood, fatigue (malaise), sleep patterns (more or
insomnia), irritability, loss of body weight, loss of motivation, viral infections, etc.

Major Theories of OTS

While Einstein sought a universal theory for everything, sport scientists seek a universal theory of
OTS. In the meantime, Randy Wilber, PhD, FACSM, from the United States Olympic
Committee (USOC), summarizes the five major areas of exploration of OTS.

51
Morgan, WP., O’Connor, PJ, Sparling, PB. Psychological characterization of the elite female distance runner, Int. J Sports
Med. 1987 Nov; 8 Suppl 2 (): 124-31.

52 Raglin, J., Sawamura, S., Alexiou, S., et al. Training practice and staleness in 13-18 year old swimmers: a cross-cultural
study. Pediatric Exercise Science 2000,; 12:61-70.

53O’Connor PJ, Morgan WP, Raglin JS, et al. Mood state and salivary cortisol levels following overtraining in female
swimmers. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 1989;14(4):303-310

54 Koutedakis Y, Sharp NC. Seasonal variations of injury and overtraining in elite athletes. Clin J Sport Med. 1998;8(1):18-21

55Matos NF, Winsley RJ, Williams CA. Prevalence of non-functional overreaching/overtraining in young English
athletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2011;43(7):1287-1294

191
Biochemical Markers
Disruptions (most often deficiencies) in certain biochemical markers can be a symptom of
overtraining; however, these markers need to be elevated or suppressed for an extended period of
time as many of these markers will be affected by training. The difference is that when the athlete
is given a period of recovery, the markers return to normal (or close to normal).

The situations listed below are some of the markers that will fall into this category. Not all of the
markers are easily assessed even with blood work.

- Reduced muscle glycogen concentration

- Decreased serum ferritin (the storage form of iron), serum iron, red blood cell count, etc.
- Mineral depletion
- Decreased bone mineral density
- Menstrual cycle dysfunction
- Elevated enzyme and metabolic markers (creatine kinase, urea, ammonia, etc.)
- Elevated hormones such as cortisol, C-reactive protein6, epinephrine, and
norepinephrine
- Suppressed testosterone concentrations

Glycogen Depletion
Glycogen is the preferred fuel source for higher intensity exercise. A shortage of muscle (or liver)
glycogen for long periods of time may reduce the ability to train at a high level and, thus, impede
performance. In addition, low glycogen stores might impair the immune system. Extensive training
in connection with prolonged low carbohydrate status produces chronic muscular fatigue with the
result being overtraining. Although there is no support in the literature correlating low glycogen
and over-trained athletes, low glycogen can be correlated with decreased performance and exercise
induced fatigue. And athletes with normal glycogen levels can still become fatigued.

Immunosuppression
A high training load may lead to an impaired ability to fight off illness and decreased plasma
glutamine causes immune dysfunction and increased susceptibility to infection. The stress
hormone cortisol impairs the ability of the body to produce its natural disease fighting entities
such as neutrophils and monocytes. Nutritional interventions with sufficient carbohydrate and
sufficient protein to produce glutamine can reduce the risk of OTS from immune suppression.

Symptoms of immune suppression might include upper respiratory tract infection (URTI0, lymph
gland swelling, bacterial infections, abnormal white blood cell differentials, the slow healing of
minor cuts, or a combination of these. However, sometimes people get sick without being over
trained.

Central Fatigue
Exercise correlated with an increased 5-HT (tryptophan) and fatigue and SSRI decrease
performance and athletes receiving BCAA supplements had less fatigue. However, few studies
measured 5-HT directly. Mood changes and fatigue are difficult to study and mood/fatigue
influenced by other factors does not account for all symptoms. Ensuring adequate AA’s (mainly
BCAA’s, Leucine) on a day-to-day basis with intense training and surrounding training sessions to
reduce the chances of fatigue that may play into other variables leading to NFOR or OTS.

192
Elevated Cytokines
Cytokines are substances that are secreted by specific types of cells to carry signals between cells.
Too much stress on the muscles without adequate recovery can lead to chronic inflammation and
the production of monocytes and eventually production of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as
interleukin-6 (IL-6). An elevated level of IL-6 (and other cytokines) has been suggested to be a
marker for overtraining. Elevated cytokines can reduce appetite; increase the production of the
catabolic stress hormone, cortisol, and decrease testosterone production and muscle
anabolism/repair.

Elevated cytokines are touted by some as the unified theory accounting for the “why” of OTS
development. Inflammation and cytokine release cause most of the effects related to every other
theory. Cytokines activate hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal system (increases cortisol) and inhibit the
hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal system (decreases testosterone).

Autonomic Nervous System

The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is classically divided into two components: the sympathic
and parasympathetic systems. The sympathic system is traditionally thought of as the “fight or
flight” response where the body is prepared to either flee a situation or confront it. When the
sympathetic system is aroused blood flow to the muscles is increased (drawn away from the gut and
skin), bronchioles in the lungs dilate, arteries in the heart widen and food digestion is reduced (if
not halted completely). While many experts support the basics of autonomic nervous system OTS,
the exact mechanism has not been made clear.

The parasympathetic (sometimes referred to as “rest and digest”) response counteracts many of the
responses of the sympathetic system. Blood flow returns to the gut; bronchioles in the lungs return
to normal (as oxygen demand is reduced).

The ANS imbalance model suggests that extensive training and/or psychological stress can impair
the hypothalamus. Sympathetic OTS is often seen in athletes participating in “anaerobic” or
“power” sports such as weightlifting; parasympathetic OTS is more commonly seen in endurance
athletes with large training volumes. Impaired performance and lack of supercompensation are
common to both.

Selected Signs and Symptom of Autonomic Nervous System Overtraining

Sympathetic OTS Parasympathetic OTS

Restlessness, irritability Fatigue, depression, apathy
Disturbed sleep Normal sleep
Weight loss Normal weight
Increased resting heart rate Decreased resting heart rate
Increased resting blood pressure Decreased resting blood pressure
Impaired recovery Suppressed maximal lactate response

Psychological
The role of the brain and psyche in overtraining is still not well understood. However, some
outward behaviors or mood states may be indicative of overtraining. Some researchers suggest that
this alteration in mood state may be an indicator of the early stages of overtraining. Keep in mind

193
that some of these might be physiological, for instance an increase in serotonin might be a cause of
lethargy. Some common signs are listed below.

- General apathy and lethargy

- Lack of concentration
- Mood changes
- Decreased self-esteem
- Fear of competition
- Gives up when the going gets tough

As noted in the sport psychology chapter, some athletes may struggle with other stresses unrelated
to their physical training. These stressors can include academic or career obligations, lack of
support (emotional, financial, etc.), injury, illness, and conflicts of interest between life priorities,
family obligations, sponsor obligations, economic problems and time management problems. It is
important that you as a coach take these stressors into consideration when designing a training
plan. And remember that each athlete may respond to the same stressors differently.

Having an athlete complete a Profile of Mood Stages (POMS) assessment can set a baseline for
how an athlete deals with everyday stress. POMS is a standard validated psychology test formulated
by McNair et al56 in 1971 that contains 65 words/statements that describe feelings people have.
The results of the test score a Total Mood Disturbance (TMD) and provide an analysis of one’s
tension, depression, anger, vigor, fatigue, and confusion. The questionnaire yields a global
measure of mood. This test is easily repeated and can be compared to previous tests as a means to
track an athlete’s mood.

Unexplained Underperformance
Unexplained underperformance can be defined as decreased performance persisting despite weeks to
months of rest and recovery as well as disturbances in mood and lack of signs or symptoms of other
diseases. As a coach, you are not responsible for making a diagnosis but you could bring awareness to
these early signs of NFOR and check in with your athlete to prevent OTS from progressing.

Prevention of OTS
Since we cannot, with certainty, identify OTS before the athlete is well on his/her way down that
path, we must rely on our best information to prevent it from happening. Observation of the
training load, performance measures and mood questionnaires can help interrupt the progression
of FO to NFO/OTS57. Additional methods are listed below:

- A well-designed periodized training program with a good taper (for peak performance);
- Adjust training volume and intensity based on performance and mood;
- Detailed monitoring of the training response;
- Nutritional and hydration interventions;
- Assessing biochemical markers;
- Managing illness;

56McNAIR et al. (1971) Manual for the Profile of Mood States. San Diego, CA: Educational and
Industrial Testing Service.

57 Kreher, J., Schwartz, J. in Overtraining Syndrome: A Practical Guide, Sports Health 2012 Mar; 4(2):128-138.

194
- Recovery techniques; and
- Tracking an athletes mood by using the POMS assessment

Training Program Design/Taper

Other sections of this manual will deal with training plan design. As it relates to OTS, the keys are
to provide training stimuli that cause an overload followed by sufficient recovery to allow for super
compensation. Along these lines, for athletes seeking a peak performance, a well-planned taper can
allow for sufficient recovery with no loss (in fact, in many cases a gain) in fitness. A well-designed
taper can allow for glycogen levels to be restored/optimized, cortisol levels to be reduced and
testosterone levels to rise along with other positive adaptations.

Monitoring the Training Response

Training logs are covered in another section, but the relationship to preventing OTS lies in
monitoring the training load, recovery, and even the mood of the athlete(s). A detailed training log
might not prevent OTS from occurring, but it could go a long way to preventing it from
happening again.

Nutritional Interventions
Carbohydrate status is a key element to training. Having sufficiently high carbohydrate stores
allows for higher intensity training – a necessity in endurance performance. Carbohydrate status
can impact several of the OTS theoretical causes from glycogen depletion to immunosuppression
to central fatigue. Athletes in training should maintain carbohydrate status throughout the day
with meals, pre-training snacks, during training snacks (if needed), and post workout recovery with
carbohydrate and protein. Antioxidants (i.e., beta-carotene, vitamin A and E), immune system
vitamins, (folate, vitamins B6 and B12), and minerals (zinc, selenium and copper) may be beneficial
to preventing overtraining. Iron can also play a role as iron is critical for oxygen transport in the
red blood cells.

Hydration status can also be an issue. Poor hydration can lead to performance decrements and
potential health issues.

Balance
Athletes and coaches may pay detailed attention to training and nutrition, but neglect to maintain
balance in life. Lifestyle can play a major role in reducing the risk of overtraining. Some of the
following points should be considered if an athlete is suspected of overtraining (or under
recovering).

Sleep
Adequate sleep can be challenging for some athletes. Juniors, collegiate athletes, and masters can
all suffer from a lack of sleep due to hectic (or irregular) schedules. Sleep may affect recovery in
several ways. While some growth hormone is released during deep sleep, as we age this is less
pronounced. However, when you are sleeping, you are inactive – meaning you are not exerting
yourself. Muscles are not active (or as active) so they are able to build and rebuild from the training
stimulus. While the normal recommendation for sleep is often eight hours, an athlete in training
may need more. If possible, naps can assist in meeting sleep needs.

195
Schedule
A regular schedule for most people will be less stressful. It can also assist in your clients getting
adequate sleep especially if they are susceptible to disordered sleeping. A regular schedule does not
mean doing the same thing day in, day out, but having a regular schedule. Shift workers (nurses)
may work extended hours on some days and not at all on other days.

Living Conditions
The conditions in which your client lives can have a huge impact on overtraining. Athletes living
in a high-density situation (think fraternity/sorority houses or many college kids living in a house)
can be exposed to illnesses that pass from one inhabitant to another (and then around again
perhaps). Aside from disease risk, the lack of privacy or quiet time can be stressful. Another
potential stressor is not getting along with roommates or financial stresses with roommates not
paying expenses. For athletes living in high-density situation, finding a place for some quiet time
could be a good solution.

Leisure Activities
A lack of non-cycling, non-work activities can lead to an athlete focusing on just cycling or work
with no pleasurable activities. Outside interests that are relaxing, rewarding and that do not
require a lot of physical exertion can be a way for an athlete to recharge his/her batteries.

Family/Social
Along the lines of the living conditions, family or social stresses can weight heavily on an athlete.
Such stressors may create a situation where training time is hard to come by. If the training time is
reduced, the athlete may try to compensate either by spending the time available training at a high
intensity or making time on another day and attempting to compensate for the missed training
with more time training.

Social pressures may also create difficult situations where the athlete’s friends are not athletes and
are participating in activities that might be detrimental to training or recovery for the athlete. For
instance, the college racer whose social circle includes a lot of people who are heavy partiers might
lead to pressure for the athlete to participate or risk alienation from the social group.

Teammates/Coach
Teammates can be a stressor for an athlete, especially if the team’s performance impacts the
performance of the athlete. The team should make clear team goals and each athlete should
commit to doing his/her part in achieving those goals. Stress can occur if the athlete’s goals are not
in line with the team goals.

Similarly, if a teammate is only out for him/herself to the detriment of the team or others on the
team, an athlete may (probably will) feel stressed.

You, the coach, are also a potential source of stress. An athlete who does not respect and trust the
coach is not likely to succeed. For an athlete, it may be necessary to end the relationship with the
coach and seek a coach whose personality or training philosophy are more closely aligned with
those of the athlete. That is not to say that a coach cannot be tough or strict; however, the coach
must balance that toughness with respect and concern for the athlete.

196
Job/School
These are pretty obvious. The stress may vary from time to time. For instance, for college students
the periods around mid-terms and finals will be higher in stress (generally). Luckily college students
have breaks usually right around mid-term and at the end of each term to allow for recovery. Some
professions have built in high-stress periods (accountants around April 15, for instance) where
work hours and demands are likely to be higher than normal.

As a coach, knowing when those stress periods are is critical and scaling back on training during
those periods can reduce the overall stress on the athlete. Being aware of these time periods allows
the coach to adjust the training load accordingly.

Health
Health concerns tie in with many of the above items. The above items can lead to poor health, but
health concerns themselves can create problems. In older athletes, for instance, aging concerns can
lead to stress. In addition, concern about the health of loved ones and friends can weigh on a
person and create stress.

The health of a parent or what to do about an aging parent(s) creates stress for anyone; the death
of a loved one is often rated as the most stressful event in a person’s life. During these times, the
athlete needs to be communicating with the coach preferably on a daily basis. The coach may need
to adjust training on a daily basis. One option is just to tell the rider to take time to deal with the
matter and forget about training, or ride when the opportunities arise.

Dealing with Stress

Life is filled with potentially stressful situations. The situations can all induce stress that from a
physiological standpoint may not differ from the stress of training. However, the training stress
also induces positive gains.

A word of caution for coaches: while you may have experienced a similar event or situation, do not
presume that the client will react to that situation in the same way you did. For example, you may
have lost a job in the past due to budget cutbacks. Your reaction may have been to lie in bed all
day feeling sorry for yourself until you pulled yourself together and moved on. One of your clients
losing a loved one might be a relief if the job was stressful and maybe not what the client really
wanted. Of course, the stress of training to find a
new job must be considered. CASE STUDY
The athlete suffering from what the coach
suspect to be overtraining is in his early 30s and
Treatment and Recovery has been an active racer for 5 years. During those
years, the athlete has upgraded to a Cat 3 racer

Options (current category). Training load has increased in

Optimal recovery is only achievable if athletes are able to
recover after competition and optimally balance training
stress and adequate recovery.
While much of the focus of research and this chapter
has been on the effects of a high training load on
including overtraining, the recovery or regeneration
component cannot be ignored. It is possible that it is
not the training load that is too high, but that the
197
small amounts each year. The athlete has
responded well each year. However, the training
load thus far this year has not been any higher
due to a new job.
The athlete’s new job is more sedentary than his
previous position, involves more lunch and
dinner meetings and some more travel along with
supervisory duties. The athlete is putting in
longer hours at work. The athlete likes the new
position and does not feel stressed. At times the
athlete gets frustrated as work demands infringe
on cycling, but the athlete is still able to get in
almost all the training. The athlete is spending a
little more time on the weekends training to get
his volume in.
However, lately the athlete’s power data and race
performances have stagnated and even regressed
a bit.
amount and type of recovery is not adequate. A case study might illustrate under recovery.

The case study illustrates that the training load has not changed, but due to changes in the non-
training life, recovery might be compromised. The longer hours might mean less rest or sleep. The
meetings over meals and travel might negatively affect nutrition (and rest). Although the athlete
does not report a lot of job-related stress, the comment that the new responsibilities sometimes
cause frustration over not being able to ride might be a small increase in stress.

Coaches should be aware that within many of the definitions of overtraining, the phrase, “non-
training stress” or something similar could appear. If the coach and athlete do not think the
training load is excessive, an examination of the non-training time might yield some clues. From
there adjustments may need to be made in training if the non-training time cannot be altered.

Recovery Techniques
In addition to nutritional interventions, rest, sleep and a well-designed training program with
adequate periods of recovery, athletes may be able to take advantage of some of the recovery
techniques described below. Not all methods will work for all athletes. Unfortunately many of
these modalities do not have a strong scientific backing in terms of well-designed studies.
Anecdotal reports and intuition have led to their adoption. Athletes are encouraged to experiment
with some of the methods below to see what works.

Hydrotherapies
Some athletes will find cold-water immersion (50-55o F temperature for 15-20 minutes) to aid in
recovery. Runners and athletes involved in high impact sports may find cold-water immersion
more applicable since muscle damage is likely to be greater than in a sport like cycling. Something
as simple as running cold water over the legs may be beneficial. A few studies have been published
showing no benefits. The studies reviewed used very short exposures of a few minutes with a few
minutes out of the cold water. In practice, athletes seem to be using 15 to 20 minute exposures.
The shorter exposures might not be long enough tot reduce the muscle damage.

A variation to cold-water immersion is the use of cold water and then five or so minutes in
warm/hot water. From a practical standpoint, this might be difficult. One solution is to alternate
cold and hot water in the shower.

Neuromuscular
Massage is a potential modality for recovery; however, the benefits of them have not been
conclusively shown in the scientific literature. A commonly stated rationale for massage is to aid an
athlete’s recovery from intense exercise and enhance athletic performance.

Massage has been proposed as a treatment to increase blood flow but studies do not definitively
support this claim. Another commonly stated reason for massage is to flush lactate. Unless the
massage is taking place within 15 minutes of the completion of exercise, lactic acid levels return to
baseline within an hour after exercise. If massage is performed the next day, lactate will be long
gone.

Some of the benefits of massage might lie in the general sense of peace, calm, and relaxation of
massage. It is conceivable that if the person just spent an hour in a quiet room, relaxing that the
athlete might leave that room feeling more refreshed.

198
If the massage technique is not painful or harmful and the person is licensed, the risk of damage is
probably not great.

Hydration Status
As mentioned in the nutrition section above, hydration status can play a role in poor recovery. A
simple way to assess hydration status is by regular weighing of the athlete to look for changes in
body weight. If an athlete is weight stable and has lost more than 1% of total body weight from the
prior weighing, that loss is likely water loss. The athlete should strive to be within 1% of normal
body weight before the commencement of the next training session.

Another low-tech method is to observe urine color. In a well-hydrated athlete, the urine should be
very pale yellow. If the urine is darker in color, the athlete may be hypo-hydrated. Caution needs to
be extended to urine color, as the first voiding of the bladder in the morning will often yield
darker colored urine. Another factor is the athlete supplementing with a lot of vitamins, especially
water-soluble vitamins (all vitamins, except A, D, E and K).

A more high tech, but less available method, for assessing hydration status is assessing the specific
gravity of urine. If the urine sample has a specific gravity of >1.02, the athlete is considered hypo-
hydrated.

Summary
The table below comes from Randy Wilber, PhD of the United States Olympic Committee and
serves as a review and summary.

Overtraining is a multi-faceted issue; thus “syndrome” is often attached to the term. An athlete
may have symptoms from one or more of the symptoms from one or more of the suggested areas
(performance, physiological, immunological, etc.).

Performance Consistent decrease in performance compared with:

-Either in the current season
- At the same point in the previous season
Prolonged recovery after workouts and competition
Reduced toleration of training load – inability to complete workouts
Decreased muscular strength
Loss of coordination
Deterioration of technical skills
Physiological Increased heart rate at rest, during submaximal exercise and during recovery
Increased O2 consumption during exercise
Reduced maximal exercise capacity
Decreased blood lactate level during maximal exercise
Decrease in “normal/healthy” total body weight and body fate
Poor sleep and chronic fatigue
Loss of appetite and gastrointestinal disturbances
Chronic muscle soreness
Increased muscle and joint injury
Immunological Increased susceptibility to colds, flu and allergies
Swelling of the lymph glands
Bacterial infection

199
 Minor cuts heal slowly
Abnormal white blood cell (WBC) profile on blood test
Biochemical Reduced muscle glycogen level
Elevated serum cortisol
Decreased serum ferritin (iron deficiency)
Mineral depletion
Menstrual dysfunction
- Oligomenorrhea: irregular menstrual period
- Amenorrhea: lack of menstrual period
Decreased bone mineral density
Psychological General apathy and lethargy
Lack of concentration
Mood changes
Decreased self-esteem
Fear of competition

200
 13
Chapter

Performance
Enhancement Team

T He idea of a performance enhancement team (PET) is to surround the athlete with

experts in the field of sports performance to give advice, feedback and assistance as
needed. The athlete is at the center of the PET. In this chapter, we will alter it
slightly to make the coach and athlete the foci, as the coach will be the person
using the PET in most cases.

If you work with a team or a single high-level athlete, it would make sense to create a PET for
that athlete. For instance, if you work with an elite athlete with Olympic aspirations, your
PET might meet via conference call or in person several times a year to discuss progress.
Their jobs are to give you the best advice they can, but you as the coach (with input from the
athlete) make the final determinations on adjustments in training or competitions.

The composition of the PET is going to vary based on the knowledge level of the coach, the
needs of the clients and available resources. However, with modern travel and technology,
no one is too far away to offer a consultation. The coach needs to know where his/her
limitations are and select experts in those areas to serve as consultants or referral sources for
the clients.

The Team
The list below is not mean to be exhaustive. Some of the professionals might rarely be needed;
others may be called up often. Choosing a person with a degree, license or certification does not
guarantee that the person will be knowledgeable about sport performance or be a fit for your team.
Before beginning a relationship, check the person out as best you can.

Healthcare Providers
This category is broad and may involve several people/professions from orthopedic surgeons and
general practice doctors to chiropractors to nurse practitioners to physical therapist. Too often we
hear stories of doctors who tell patients to stop exercising for some period of time (although this
advice is sometimes warranted) even if there are alternative therapies that could keep the athlete
training at some level. Choosing and finding healthcare providers that understand athletes and

201
ideally cyclists can be beneficial to you as the coach and for the athlete. In some cases, coaches are
able to find doctors willing to see clients on short notice. Imagine if you have a competitive athlete
who calls his/her physician for an appointment for a sore throat and other symptoms. The
doctor’s office says it will be three weeks. However, if you have a relationship with a physician, one
phone call could get your client in the next day.

Nutritionist/Dietitian
Many athletes get focused on weight loss or not gaining weight. Some might be concerned about
what to eat and when. You as a coach might be concerned about some of those matters when it
comes to your clients. Having a nutritionist, who understands sport and specifically cycling, can be
a great asset.

When looking for a sports nutritionist, consider the following qualifications:

- RD: Registered Dietitian. In most (if not all) states, RDs must pass a licensure exam.
However, not all RDs are going to have experience or in depth knowledge of sports
nutrition. However, it is a good place to start. The American Dietetics Association
website (www.eatright.org) has an online directory of RDs that you can search. While
RDs might include the term “nutritionist” in their information, not all nutritionists are
RDs.

- RD CSSD: This is a fairly new designation where a RD has a specialty in sports nutrition
(Certified Specialist in Sports Dietetics or CSSD). The requirements include being a RD
plus having several years of experience before taking the examination for CSSD.

- Sports Nutritionists: Several organizations offer a certification in sport nutrition. The

coach and athlete must perform due diligence as the standards for the organizations can
vary greatly. Some states offer regulations regarding the use of the term “nutritionist”
while others do not.

Medical Staff
- Physician: A good physician familiar with working with athletes (specifically cyclists) is a
key member of the Performance Enhancement Team. At some point in one’s career an
athlete is going to need to see a doctor either for traumatic injury (broken clavicle, for
instance) or an overuse injury (knee pain, for instance). The athlete will be better served
using a physician that can diagnose the issue quickly and offer a solution that will get the
athlete back to training/racing as soon as possible. Having a physician on your team can
be advantageous in that you (the coach) will know the athlete is getting good
treatment/advice; in addition, having a relationship with a physician could decrease the
amount of time an athlete has to wait to see a physician.

- Physical therapist: Along with a physician, a physical therapist (PT) can be a valuable
member of the team. Once a physician diagnoses the injury, a PT is likely to be the one
who designs and carries out the treatment plan. Again, having a PT accustomed to
working with athletes (preferably cyclists) can be advantageous. A PT might also serve as a
bike fit specialist.

- Massage therapist: A licensed massage therapist (LMT) can provide one avenue of
recovery for an athlete. Each state sets its own regulations for LMTs. As noted with
physicians and PT’s, finding a massage therapist who understands and works with

202
 athletes is preferable. A good LMT familiar with the demands of cycling will understand
what form of massage to use at different times. For instance, some forms of massage are
not recommended following intense exercise. Your run of the mill LMT may not be as
tuned in as a LMT who works with athletes.

Sport Scientists
- Sport Psychologist: A sport psychologist can take on many roles in a PET. Most people
think of a sport psychologist coming in when disaster has occurred. However, a sport
psychologist can serve the coach and athletes as well. A sport psychologist can be enlisted
to assist a group of riders to become a closer team, to teach the individuals and team how
to set goals, teach the athletes how to handle conflicts so that they do not tear the team
apart, how to deal with performance stress/pressure, etc. Having the athletes be familiar
with the sport psychologist early on in the process will allow the sport psychologist and
the athlete(s) to develop a relationship. If the sport psychologist shows up just when there
is a crisis, a stigma will be attached to the sport psychologist as someone who helps the
person who is “crazy” or having problems. In most cases, the sport psychologist will be
most effective if a relationship involving trust and mutual respect has been established.
The sport psychologist can also assist the coach (and/or team director) with issues related
to the athletes. The sport psychologist can assist the coach in divining the motivation of
each athlete or how to get through to the athlete. Even if the sport psychologist does not
know the athlete very well, the sport psychologist can assist the coach.

- Sport Physiologist: A sport physiologist can assist with training plan design or analyzing
training data. The sport physiologist may also be able to assist in keeping up on the most
recent studies that would be applicable to cyclists.

- Strength and Conditioning Specialist: With BMX and track emphasis on power, a key
component of the training plan should be increasing the strength and ability to apply
that strength. A strength and conditioning specialist can work with you to develop off the
bike-training program for both improving performance and maintaining health. The
specialist can assist in identifying areas of physical weakness and addressing them. In
some cases you as the coach will identify areas that need to be addressed and the strength
and conditioning person will develop the specific exercises to address the needs. The gold
standard for strength and conditioning is arguably the National Strength and
Conditioning Association’s (NSCA, www.nsca-lift.com) certified strength and
conditioning specialists (CSCS).

Additional Members of the Team

- Attorney: The attorney is not for the athletes, but you as a coach should have a legal
expert to assist you with items such as acknowledgement of risk (waivers) forms.

- Pharmacist: At first blush this would seem to be an odd recommendation, but a

pharmacist can be invaluable. Many people are on medications that can impact training
(especially if you are using heart rate). Knowing what medications side effects are could
alter how you train an athlete. A pharmacist often knows more about medications and
their side effects than other healthcare professionals. The odds are that you will have
clients on medications for conditions ranging from attention deficit disorder in young
athletes to cardiovascular issues if working with older athletes. When it comes to
medications, athletes and coaches must adhere to the current doping control regulations.

203
 14
Chapter

Doping Control

U
SA Cycling does not condone the use of illegal or performance enhancing substances.
USA Cycling supports the efforts of the International Cycling Union (UCI), the
United States Anti-Doping Agency (USADA) and the World Anti-Doping Agency
(WADA) in their efforts to eradicate prohibited substances. Beginning in October
2000, USADA became the agency in the US that tested and sanctioned US athletes for doping
control violations. USADA also took the lead in providing education on performance enhancing
drugs (PED) for USA athletes.

Anyone with a USA Cycling racing license is subject to USADA doping control procedures. All
racers and coaches should be aware of the USADA policies and procedures. It is beyond the scope
of this chapter to cover every aspect of doping control. In addition, regulations and procedures
change over time. For more information, please visit the USADA website at
www.usantidoping.org.

Prohibited Substances and Methods

WADA establishes the prohibited substances and methods “list” or code. International
federations may expand on that code. In reality, there is no list of prohibited substances; categories
of substances found in that category are provided as an easy reference. However, a product not
specifically listed that is chemically similar could be considered a prohibited substance. The
rationale is that it is not possible to list all of the substances in a category and new drugs and
substances are created regularly.

In addition to prohibited substances, some methods of enhancing performance are prohibited

such as transfusing one’s own blood (autologous) or someone else’s blood (homologous) or blood
from a different species (heterologous) is prohibited.

Restricted Substances and Methods

Some athletes have a legitimate medical need for substances that might be otherwise prohibited.
The anti-doping agencies allow for this contingency in limited situations. The most common
involves asthma and exercise-induced asthma (EIA). A common medication for asthma or EIA is a
family of medications known as beta-2 agonists. Beta-2 agonists are prohibited although several
common beta-2 agonists, (i.e. albuterol/salbutamol) can be used with permission from the UCI
and USADA.

For medications such as certain beta-2 agonists, the athlete’s physician needs to complete an
abbreviated therapeutic use exemptions (a TUE) form and submit it to USADA and to the UCI.
USADA and the UCI will review the form and if all is in order will grant the exemption. Some
limits may still apply such as a higher than allowed level of the medication directed in the blood or

204
urine. An athlete must have the TUE approved before competition or before an out of
competition test. For more information on TUE procedures, visit the USADA website.

Other medications that are normally prohibited but may be medically necessary require
completion of a therapeutic use exemption (TUE). In some cases, these may be medications the
athlete needs for the rest of his/life; in other cases, it might be a short-term use of medication to
treat an illness or injury.

In-Competition Testing
Any USA Cycling racing license holder potentially can be tested at any USA Cycling sanctioned
event. The same applies to UCI sanctioned events as well. In general athletes may be selected in
two ways:

- Results: Athletes winning a race, a stage of a race or being the GC leader of a race may be
selected for doping control. In addition, top finishers in a race, a stage of a race, or in the
GC category may also be selected for doping control. Jersey leaders (points, KOM, etc.)
may also be selected for testing.

- Random: Athletes may be chosen either by random from the start list or by random
finishing place. In the former case, bib numbers are selected from the start list either
before the start or during the race. In the latter case, finishing places are decided either
before the start or during the race.

Athletes chosen for doping control will usually have their bib numbers or names posted at the
finish area. In some cases, the bib numbers will be announced during the race over race radio
(more common in UCI races). In some cases, an announcement will be made. In other cases, a
doping control officer (DCO) will locate the athlete; this usually happens for the winner or top
finishers at the end of the race as they can usually be identified. Regardless of the method, the
ultimate responsibility lies with the athlete to report to the doping control station in a timely
manner.

Once in the doping control station, the athlete will complete paperwork and provide a urine
sample. The doping control officer should go over the paperwork and procedures with the athlete.
The athlete may have someone accompany him/her into the doping control station. A doping
control official will directly observe the athlete giving the sample; that means the doping control
official will watch the athlete urinate into a cup.

More details on procedures can be found at the USADA website.

Out of Competition Testing (random testing pool)

Selected athletes may be tested by USADA, WADA, and/or the UCI outside of competitions. In
general these are the top athletes in the sport. Each sport in the US works with USADA to
establish a procedure to identify athletes to be included in the random testing pool (RTP). Since
that number encompasses a small percentage of USA Cycling members, this section only provides
a broad overview.

Athletes are notified once they are placed in the RPT; from that time until they are removed from
the pool, athletes will be required to complete regular paperwork and to keep USADA (and other
agencies) apprised of their whereabouts. In order for the OOC testing to be effective, USADA

205
needs to know where to find an athlete through the Athlete Locator Form (ALF). It is the
responsibility of the athlete to complete and maintain this information.

For more information, please visit the USADA website, www.usada.org.

Violations and Sanctions

Violations of the doping code include a positive finding for a prohibitive substance, levels of a
substance that exceed allowable limits, failure to report for doping control at an event, failure to be
available for an RTP test, etc. The USADA is the primary agency responsible for imposing
sanctions for doping control offenses in the United States. Sanctions may range from warnings to
banishment from competition at USA Cycling and/or UCI sanctioned events.

Over-the-counter (OTC) dietary supplements may contain substances prohibited by USADA,

WADA, and/or the UCI. OTC dietary supplements may also contain illegal substances under
US law. In addition, the use of dietary supplements may interact with one another and/or
medications to create a dangerous situation to the user.

Using a dietary supplement may result in a “positive test” for a prohibited substance; the
positive test could lead to a suspension and/or other penalties such as forfeiture of results.

Anyone considering using a dietary supplement does so at one’s own risk. The athlete is always
responsible for what the athlete puts into his/her body.

USA Cycling does not condone or promote the use of OTC dietary supplements. An athlete is
responsible for knowing and abiding by the doping control rules including knowing the
categories of prohibited and restricted substances. Information on prohibited substances (and
methods) can be found at the USADA, WADA, and UCI websites. Athletes can call the
USADA drug reference line at 1-800-233-0393 or search the Drug Reference Online website for
more information on specific substances.

Because dietary supplements are loosely regulated in the United States and in many foreign
countries, the ingredients in a given dietary supplement cannot be guaranteed for purity or
even that the substance listed on the label is in the product. The flipside of that is that
ingredients may be added to a supplement and not be listed on the label. For these reason, it is
possible that a dietary supplement could lead to a positive doping offense.

i Ivy, JL, Lee, MC, Brozinick, JT and Reed, MJ. Muscle glycogen after different amounts of carbohydrate ingestion. Journal of Applied
Physiology, 65(5): 2018-2023, 1988.
ii Ivy, JL, Katz, AL, Cutler, CL, Sherman, WM and Coyle, EF. Muscle glycogen synthesis after exercise: effect of time of carbohydrate
ingestion. Journal of Applied Physiology, 64(4): 1480-1485, 1988.
iii Parkin, JA, Carey, MF, Martin, IK, Stojanovska, L, and Febbraio, MA. Muscle glycogen storage following prolonged exercise: effect
of timing of high glycemic index food. Medicine and Science in Sport and Exercise, 29(2): 220-224, 1997.

206