A.

Properties of a Plane Area

Because of their importance in connection with the analysis of bending and torsion, certain relations for the second-area
moments, commonly referred to as moments of inertia, are indicated in the following paragraphs. The equations given are in
reference to Fig. A.1, and the notation is as follows:

Figure A.1 Plane area.

A: area of the section

X, Y: rectangular axes in the plane of the section at arbitrary point O

x, y: rectangular axes in the plane of the section parallel to X, Y, respectively with origin at the centroid, C, of the section

z: polar axis through C

x′, y′: rectangular axes in the plane of the section, with origin at C, inclined at a counterclockwise angle θ from x, y

1, 2: principal axes at C inclined at a counterclockwise angle θp from x, y

r: the distance from C to the dA element,

By definition,

Moments of inertia: I x = ∫Ay2 dA, I y = ∫Ax2 dA

Polar moment of inertia:

IZ = J = ∫Ar2dA = IX + IY = IX′ + IY′ = I1 + I2

Product of inertia: I xy = ∫AxydA

Radii of gyration:

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Parallel axis theorem:

Transformation equations:

Principal moments of inertia and directions:

Upon the determination of the two principal moments of inertia, I 1 and I 2 , two angles, 90° apart, can be solved for from the
equation for θp. It may be obvious which angle corresponds to which principal moment of inertia. If not, one of the angles
must be substituted into the equations I x′ and I y′ which will again yield the principal moments of inertia but also their
orientation.

Note, if either one of the xy axes is an axis of symmetry, I xy = 0, with I x and I y being the principal moments of inertia of the
section.

If I 1 = I 2 for a set of principal axes through a point, it follows that the moments of inertia for allx′y′ axes through that point, in
the same plane, are equal and I x′y′ = 0 regardless of θ. Thus the moment of inertia of a square, an equilateral triangle, or any
section having two or more axes of identical symmetry is the same for any central axis.

The moment of inertia and radius of gyration of a section with respect to a centroidal axis are less than for any other axis
parallel thereto.

The moment of inertia of a composite section (one regarded as made up of rectangles, triangles, circular segments, etc.)
about an axis is equal to the sum of the moments of inertia of each component part about that axis. Voids are taken into
account by subtracting the moment of inertia of the void area.

Expressions for the area, distances of centroids from edges, moments of inertia, and radii of gyration are given in Table A.1
for a number of representative sections. The moments of products of inertia for composite areas can be found by addition;
the centroids of composite areas can be found by using the relation that the statical moment about any line of the entire area
is equal to the sum of the statical moments of its component parts.

Although properties of structural sections—wide-flange beams, channels, angles, etc.—are given in structural handbooks,
formulas are included in Table A.1 for similar sections. These are applicable to sections having a wider range of web and
flange thicknesses than normally found in the rolled or extruded sections included in the handbooks.

Plastic or ultimate strength design is discussed in Secs. 8.15 and 8.16, and the use of this technique requires the value of the
fully plastic bending moment—the product of the yield strength of a ductile material and the plastic section modulus Z. The
last column in Table A.1 gives for many of the sections the value or an expression for Z and the location of the neutral axis

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under fully plastic pure bending. This neutral axis does not, in general, pass through the centroid, but instead divides the
section into equal areas in tension and compression.

Table A.1 Properties of Sections

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Table A.2 Moment of Inertia of Sections

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Table A.3 Moment of Inertia of Uniform Objects

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