Quaternary International 65/66 (2000) 161}169

Soils as indicators of the Pleistocene and Holocene landscape

evolution in the Alay Range (Kyrgystan)
Wolfgang Zech *, Bruno Glaser , Anatoli Ni
, Maxim Petrov
, Ivan Lemzin
Institute of Soil Science and Soil Geography, University of Bayreuth, D-95440 Bayreuth, Germany

Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Academy of Sciences, Tashkent, Republic of Uzbekistan
Institute of Seismology, Academy of Sciences, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan

Abstract

Soils derived from Quaternary glacial, glacio#uvial and aeolian deposits in the Alay Range (Kyrgystan) were studied to reconstruct
the Pleistocene and Holocene landscape evolution. Geomorphologic studies, radiocarbon dating of A horizons in palaeosols, and iron
fractionation were undertaken. During the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) the Abramov glacier in the Alay Range advanced down the
Koksu valley to an altitude of 2500 m asl, about 50 km from the modern snout (ELA lowering about 600 m). In addition, several
frontal moraine complexes could be identi"ed at the valley bottom of the Koksu river between 3100 m asl and the modern glacier
snout at 3650 m asl. The complexes can be assigned to the following glacier advances: Late Glacial (ELA lowering 200}300 m), early
Holocene to end of Late Glacial (Younger Dryas?, ELA lowering about 110 m), Neoglacial (ELA lowering about 50 m), and Little Ice
Age (ELA lowering about 50 m). Similar glacier advances could be reconstructed according to the soil development on the lateral
moraines near the Abramov glacier at 3600}4000 m asl. Determination of pedogenic iron oxides corroborated the morphologic and
radiocarbon results.  2000 Elsevier Science Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction published by Clapperton et al. (1997) with concern to the

Since glaciers are very sensitive to changes in precipita-
tion and temperature regimes, the reconstruction of their
#uctuations, especially during the Holocene and middle
or late Pleistocene, provides important palaeoclimatic
data. Recent studies reveal that glacial and climatic #uc-
tuations during the Late Pleistocene were not syn-
chronous in Europe, Siberia, North and South America
(Dawson, 1992; Gillespie and Molnar, 1995; Benn and
Owen, 1998). In Central Europe the Last Glacial Max-
imum (LGM) occurred about 22}18 Ka BP, whereas in
NE Siberia, Alaska and in the central part of the Andes,
glaciers had already advanced to a maximum stage dur-
ing earlier phases of the Late Pleistocene. Kind (1975) for
instance reported from NE-Siberia that glaciation was
more extensive between 60 and 50 Ka BP (Zyryanka
glaciation) and 30 Ka BP (Zigansk stage) than 20 Ka BP
(Sartan glaciation). Also in Kamchatka indicators of
a pronounced early Late Pleistocene ice advance could
be identi"ed (Zech et al., 1996b). Similar results have been
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: wolfgang.zech@uni-bayreuth.de (W. Zech).
Andes. The majority of the relevant studies are usually
based on geomorphology, lichenometry, tephrochro-
nology, dendrochronology and pollen analysis. Investi-
gations on soil development as an indicator of the
Pleistocene and Holocene landscape evolution are less
frequent (Mahaney et al., 1996; BaK umler and Zech, 1994).
The objective of this paper is to highlight the contribu-
tion of soils in determining the reconstruction of Pleisto-
cene and Holocene changes in glaciation and climate in
the high mountains of Asia, focussing on the Alay Range
in Kyrgystan.
2. Methods
During "eld work, the geomorphologic situation was
examined by mapping the major features of the land-
scape, and when possible aided by aerial photograph
interpretation. Next, soils of geomorphologic units were
examined using soil augering and digging soil pits on the
upper part of the moraine ridges, except pro"les 2, 5, and
10 which were dug in concave positions (Figs. 2}4). From
each soil horizon three samples (from the frontal and
lateral sides of the soil pits) were collected and mixed for

1040-6182/00/$20.00  2000 Elsevier Science Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.
PII: S 1 0 4 0 - 6 1 8 2 ( 9 9 ) 0 0 0 4 2 - 7
162 W. Zech et al. / Quaternary International 65/66 (2000) 161}169
physical and chemical analyses. Soils were classi"ed ac-
cording to Soil Survey Sta! (1998).
The focus of this paper is on soil morphological de-
scriptions combined with radiocarbon dating. Radiocar-
bon analyses were carried out on humic acids extracted
from buried A or O horizons. All radiocarbon ages were
determined using conventional standards. The age-de-
pendent formation of pedogenic iron oxides and hydrox-
ides was used to assess the intensity of soil development,
especially along chronosequences (BaK umler et al., 1996).
Free pedogenic iron oxides/hydroxides (Fe ) were extrac-

ted with dithionite}citrate}bicarbonate solution (Mehra
and Jackson, 1960), and X-ray-amorphous iron oxides,
hydroxides, and associated gels (Fe ) with acid ammonium

oxalate solution (Schwertmann, 1964).
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Alay Range
The investigation was carried out in the surroundings
of the Abramov Glacier Research Station (3933855N,
Fig. 1. Alay range and Abramov glacier (5) N and NW of the Pamir, High Asia, Kyrgystan. (1)}(4) indicate research localities where supplementary
studies were carried out.
7133422E; 3840 m asl), which is situated in the Alay
Range, NW of the Pamir, Kyrgystan (Fig. 1, site 5 and
Fig. 2, A). Meltwaters from the seven km long Abramov
glacier feed the Koksu river which #ows near Darautkur-
gan (39330N, 72305E; 2470 m asl) into the Kizilsu and
via Amu Darya to Lake Aral. Mountains around the
Abramov glacier rise to '5000 m asl averaging 4800 m
asl. At the Abramov Glacier Research Station (Fig. 2, A),
mean annual precipitation is 743 mm and mean annual
temperature is !4.13C; the corresponding values in
Darautkurgan are 270 mm and #2.93C, respectively.
Most of the rain falls in winter (580 mm), whereas in
summer the climate is characterised by hot and dry
continental conditions (164 mm; Pertziger, 1996). Based
on precipitation, temperature, and topography, the ac-
tual snowline (equilibrium line altitude, ELA) is located
between 4200 and 4280 m asl (Pertziger, 1996). The mod-
ern snout of the Abramov glacier descends to 3650 m asl.
Both the actual snowline and the lowest part of the
glacier are higher in the Alay range than in NW- and
N-Tian Shan (Grosswald et al., 1994; Zech et al., 1996a).
Bedrock if comprised of Palaeozoic limestone, dolomite,
porphyrite, syenite, granite, diorite, and metamorphic rocks.
 W. Zech et al. / Quaternary International 65/66 (2000) 161}169 163

Fig. 2. Geomorphologic map of the area around the Abramov glacier research station (A).

3.2. Frontal moraines in the Koksu valley
The Koksu valley contains typical glacial features.
These include U-shaped cross-sections, cirques, moraine
terminii and glacio#uvial sediments. The lowest frontal
moraines are present at 2500 m asl (Suslov, 1972) which
suggest a glacier advance of about 50 km probably dur-
ing the LGM. Using the methods of HoK fer (1879) and
Louis (1954/55), an ELA lowering of 600 m was cal-
culated. This value is lower than ELA depressions for
NW- and N-Tian Shan (Grosswald et al., 1994; Zech
et al., 2000) and the central part of Nepal Himalayas
(Annapurna, Dhalagiri), where Kuhle (1982, 1994) as-
sumes a snowline depression of 1300 m during the LGM.
This discrepancy may be explained by the semi-arid
conditions of the Alay Range. Our LGM values for the
Abramov glacier correlate with those of Sharma and
Owen (1996), who calculated an ELA depression of about
640 m in NW Gharwal in the Central Himalayas. Soils
developed from the lowest frontal moraines have
A (10 cm), B (40}60 cm) and C horizons and were classi-
"ed according to the Soil Survey Sta! (1998) as Typic
Eutrocryepts (Fig. 3 and Table 1, pro"le 17). The texture
of these soils is always determined by aeolian silt similar
to those described in other mountain ranges of Asia
(Owen et al., 1992).
Upvalley, moraines are present at 3100}3200, 3300 and
3350 m asl (Fig. 3), approximately 10}35 km from the
modern snout of the Abramov glacier. They are charac-
terized by diorite boulders originating from the Abramov
164 W. Zech et al. / Quaternary International 65/66 (2000) 161}169

Fig. 3. Altitude of moraines in the Koksu valley, with soil pro"les, and their tentative chronology. (A) surface horizon; (Ab) buried A horizon; (Bw)
cambic horizon; (C) parent material; (O) peat; (S) sand; (IS) loamy sand; (U) silt; (sU) sandy silt.

Table 1
Basic information about soils developed on terminal moraines at the valley bottom of the Koksu river, Alay Range, Kyrgystan (for details, see Fig. 3)

Pro"le no. Location Altitude (asl) Classi"cation (Soil Survey Sta!,

1998)

9 Crest of Neoglacial moraine close to 3550 m Lithic Eutrorthent

Schultz glacier, right side 7133528E, 3934011N
10 Swampy depression, right side 7133528E, 3540 m Hydric Cryo"brist
3934011N
11 Crest of lowest Little Ice Age moraine close to 3560 m Lithic Cryorthent
the mouth of the Schultz glacier right side
7133528E, 3934011N
15 Upper slope of Early Holocene to Late Glacial 3440 m Lithic Eutrocryept
terminal moraine with large diorite boulders
mouth of Alaudin river 7133623E, 3934053N
16 Crest of Late Glacial moraine, mouth of 3300 m Typic Eutrocryept
Kimisdikti river, left side 7133835E, 3934149N
17 Crest of LGM moraine, NW of Darautkurgan 2500 m Typic Eutrocryept
7230400E, 3933300N

glacier. Between 3100 and 3200 m asl, besides the diorite
boulders coarse dolomite rockfall debris also occurs. The
ELA depression varied between 200 and 300 m. These
values characterise Late Glacial ice advances as shown
by Heuberger and Sgibnev (1998), Zech et al. (2000), and
BaK umler and Zech (2000) for surrounding mountain
ranges (Fig. 1, research localities 1}4). In the Koksu
valley, the soils of Late Glacial age are classi"ed as Typic
Eutrocryepts with ABC pro"les (Fig. 3, pro"le 16) and
a silty cambic horizon of about 30}40 cm thickness.
Some of these soils have buried A horizons (2Ab in
pro"le 16, Fig. 3) which give evidence for a warmer and
wetter period than at present with high plant biomass
production. According to Solomina and Kamnianski
(1998), these favourable climatic conditions occurred
during the middle Holocene and terminated around
 W. Zech et al. / Quaternary International 65/66 (2000) 161}169
3500}4200 years BP. Similar "ndings were reported from
Tian Shan (Kovaleva and Evdokimova, 1997) and Tibet
(Gasse et al., 1991; Lehmkuhl, 1995).
Further upvalley, at 3440 m asl a small but clearly
identi"able frontal moraine with large diorite boulders
provides evidence for a glacial advance of about 5.6 km
based on an ELA depression of about 110 m. Unfortu-
nately, no organic material was found for radiocarbon
dating. In the Kichick Alay, NE of Abramov glacier
(Fig. 1, site 3), a similar till with big boulders is present at
3490 m asl. It covers a buried A horizon having
a radiocarbon age of 7290$80 years BP (Zech et al.,
2000). This data suggests that the frontal moraine in
the Koksu valley at 3440 m asl also formed during the
Early Holocene or probably the Late Glacial (Younger
Dryas?). This interpretation is supported by the fact that
the cambic B horizon of pro"le 15 (Fig. 3) has compara-
ble morphologic properties to the B horizon of the Late
Glacial pro"le 16.
Upvalley of pro"le 15 terminal moraines at the valley
bottom are never covered by soils with strongly de-
veloped brown cambic B horizons. On the basis of soil
morphology these moraines can be separated into two
groups:
(a) grass covered ones with development of AC and
ABC pro"les, the B horizon being only weakly de-
veloped (Fig. 3 and Table 1, pro"le 9), and
(b) moraines with traces of pioneer vegetation and in-
itial A horizons only (Fig. 3 and Table 1, pro"le 11).
Group (a) was severely destroyed by glacio#uvial streams
that descended from the Abramov and Schultz glaciers.
Some relics 1.5 km downvalley the Abramov glacier
snout at 3550 m asl are due to a Neoglacial glacier
advance when the ELA was 50 m lower. This till buried
an A horizon 2030$60 a BP (Fig. 3 and Table 1, pro"le
9). Close by, a swampy depression is located where
Hydric Cryo"brists developed (Fig. 3 and Table 1, pro"le
10). The deepest organic layer of these soils, which accu-
mulated directly upon the bedrock, has a radiocarbon
age of 3805$145 a BP. This result proves that no glacier
advanced deeper downvalley after about 3805 a BP.
The lowest terminal moraine of group (b) has a similar
altitude (3560 m) as the Neoglacial till with pro"le 9
(Fig. 3). It was also heavily destroyed by glacio#uvial
streams. The weak soil development indicates that the
moraine is very young and may have been formed only
several centuries ago. It represents the maximum glacier
advance during little ice age (LIA). The close neighbour-
hood of the Neoglacial to LIA moraines shows that
during the last few centuries glaciers advanced nearly to
the same extent than during the Neoglacial. Also, ELA
depressions during the LIA were similar (about 50 m) to
those during the Neoglacial.
Several signi"cant moraine ridges are present at the
valley bottom between the lowest LIA terminal moraine
at 3560 m asl and the recent Abramov glacier snout at
165
3660 m asl (Fig. 2, I}III). They all belong to group b)
moraines with weakly developed soils classi"ed as Lithic
Cryorthents (Fig. 3 and Table 1, pro"le 11); they also
represent glacier #uctuations during the last centuries.
Using the growth of Aspicilia lichens, Solomina and
Kamnianski (1998) established a chronology of the Ab-
ramov glacier #uctuations during this period. Major ice
advances were identi"ed in the 15th century and at the
end of the 16th, 18th and 19th centuries. During the 20th
century, the Abramov glacier expanded until 1912, before
a pronounced retreat began in 1928. A last glacier ad-
vance has been recorded in 1972/73. Since then, a further
and continuous retreat is observed until the present,
in#uencing not only the horizontal but also the vertical
dimension of the glacier snout. In comparison to the
maximum glacier extent during the LIA (Fig. 2, I), the
Abramov glacier retreated about 6 km and thinned
about 200 m at the modern snout.
3.3. Lateral moraines near the Abramov glacier
In addition to studying terminal moraines at the valley
bottom, glacier #uctuations were reconstructed from the
remnants of lateral moraines. Fig. 4 shows three small
terraces with the soil pro"les no. 12, 13 and 14 on the SE
exposed side of the Abramov glacier at 3980, 3950 and
3850 m asl. Similar features were observed on the SW
exposed side of the Schultz glacier at 4110, 4080 and
3810 m asl (Fig. 2). Both slopes are relatively steep in
contrast to the NW exposed side of the Abramov glacier
to the NE of the research station A (Fig. 2). Here, the
shallow slope inclination supports the preservation of
"ve lateral moraines at 3940, 3910, 3870, 3810 and
3770 m asl (Fig. 4). All these terraces are characterised by
the accumulation of erratic boulders and they descend to
the Koksu valley. Between these terraces, interpreted as
former ice margins, the number of boulders is low. The
well preserved terrace at 3910 m asl is about 300 m above
the modern valley bottom. Its boulders are densely
covered with lichens, but no deep weathering rinds have
developed. The soils of this terrace were classi"ed as
Typic Haplocryoll (Table 2, pro"le 1) with a 20 cm thick,
mollic A horizon, burying a fossil mollic epipedon (Fig. 4,
pro"le 1, 4Ab horizon). With a radiocarbon age of
4470$180 a BP, this palaeosol corresponds to the
above mentioned mid Holocene Mollisols. Conse-
quently, the lateral moraine at 3910 m asl is older.
Diorite boulders are present at the NW exposed slope
up to 3940 m asl (Fig. 4) indicating that the Abramov
glacier once occupied this altitude. Here a palaeosol
developed on a poorly preserved lateral moraine with
a 2Bw horizon which gave a radiocarbon age of
24,300$1160 a BP (Fig. 4 and Table 2, pro"le 7). We
assume that this palaeosol developed during a warmer
interstadial which is postulated for oxygen isotope stage
3, between the Sartan (Late Valdai, isotope stage 2) and
166 W. Zech et al. / Quaternary International 65/66 (2000) 161}169

Fig. 4. Lateral moraines identi"ed along a NW}SE transect between the Abramov glacier research station and hydrometeorological station (see A and
B, Fig. 2), their soil pro"les and some radiocarbon data of buried organic materials. A, surface horizon; Bw, cambic horizon; Bg, B horizon with
hydromorphic features; (Bc) B horizon with precipitation of CaCO ; (C) parent material; (O) peat; (S) sand; (sL) sandy loam; (IS) loamy sand; (U) silt;

(sU) sandy silt; (suL) sandy silty loam; (tL) clayey loam.

Zyryanka (Early Valdai, isotope stage 4) ice advance
(Arkhipov, 1984; Bespaly, 1984; Faustova, 1984; Sereb-
ryanny, 1984; Velichko, 1984). Beginning with the Sartan
glaciation about 24,000 a BP soli#uction debris and
Abramov till began covering the palaeosol. The upper
surface of the LGM glacier was even higher than 3940 m
asl as indicated by trough shoulders and polished rocks
at about 4050 m asl. Consequently, the diorite boulders
at 3940 m (soil pro"le 7) and the lateral moraine at
3910 m (soil pro"le 1; Fig. 4) are representing younger,
probably Late Glacial glacier advances. The soils of the
lower moraine terraces at 3870 and 3810 m asl have
a weathering depth of about 30}60 cm and frequently
reveal features of Mollisols covered by silty aeolian de-
posits (Fig. 4, pro"le 4, 2AC horizon). Since these fossil
Mollisols developed during the mid Holocene, the terra-
ces may have been formed during the early Holocene or
Late Glacial.
Further downhill, mainly soils with initial A horizons
occur (Fig. 4 and Table 2, pro"le 6), documenting the
extension of the LIA glacier snout. Lichens do not or
only sparsely cover the diorite boulders. On the upper
limit of the LIA till at about 3770}3800 m asl a distinct
discontinuous lateral moraine is present. Soils developed
on this moraine are classi"ed as Lithic Eutrocryepts
(Fig. 4 and Table 2, pro"le 3). Since, a well-developed
buried middle Holocene Mollisol is absent, it is suggested
that a late Holocene glacier advance formed these mo-
raines. This view is con"rmed by a radiocarbon age of
985$115 years BP of the shallow 2Ab horizon, detected
below the fresh till. These results con"rm the hypothesis
that the LIA advances were approximately the same size
as the late Holocene to Neoglacial ones (see also Fig. 3,
pro"le 9, 2030$60 a BP). Some glaciers in the Tian
Shan behaved similarly (Meiners, 1996).
On the SE exposed side of the Abramov glacier the
highest, very eroded terrace at 3980 m asl is covered by
soils with two buried A horizons (2A and 3AB in pro"le
12, Fig. 4). The organic material of the 3AB horizon gave
a radiocarbon age of 15,950$350 a BP. Probably, this
horizon formed during a warmer period after the LGM.
The highest diorite boulders at 3980 m asl on the SE
exposed slope, and at 3940 m asl on the NW exposed
slope (Fig. 4, soil pro"les 12 and 7) might not have been
deposited during the LGM, because the ELA depression
during this period was about 600 m, down to 3600 m asl.
 W. Zech et al. / Quaternary International 65/66 (2000) 161}169 167

Table 2
Basic information about soils developed on lateral moraines of the Abramov glacier, Alay Range, Kyrgystan (for details, see Fig. 4)

Pro"le no. Location Altitude (asl) Classi"cation

Inclination aspect (Soil Survey Sta!, 1998)

1 Crest of highest right side lateral moraine with 3910 m Typic Haplocryoll
diorite boulders
713352E, 3931517N 33, WNW

2 Peat between pro"le no. 1 and 7 3910 m Terric Cryo"brist

713352E, 3933917N 03, E

3 Crest of right side lateral moraine with many 3810 m Lithic Eutrocryept
diorite boulders
7133430E, 393393N 153, W

4 Crest of right side lateral moraine with diorite 3870 m Typic Haplocryoll
boulders
7133459E, 3933923N 53, SO

5 Peat between 1 and 7, right side 3910 m Terric Cryo"brist

713352E, 3933917N 03, E

6 Till recently covered by glacier, right side 3750 m Lithic Cryorthent

7133441E, 3933928N 323, NW

7 Highest diorite boulders, weak #attening, 3940 m Typic Eutrocryept

right side
7133513E, 3933921N 53, NW

12 Crest of lateral moraine, left side diorite boulders 3980 m Typic Eutrocryept
7133528E, 3934011N 103, SSO

13 Crest of lateral moraine, left side, diorite boulders 3950 m Typic Eutrocryept
713346E, 393405N 53, SSO

14 Crest of lateral moraine, left side, 3850 m Lithic Eutrocryept

7133420E, 393402N 103, SSE

Their existence at approximately 3900}4000 m asl "ts

Fig. 5. Fe /Fe ratio of topsoil (䢇) and subsoil horizons (X) of selected
 
soil pro"les, developed from Late Glacial (LG 1-3), early Holocene to
end of Late Glacial (Ho-LG), Neoglacial (NG), and Little Ice Age (LIA)
deposits in the Alay Range. Pro"les are indicated by numbers (see
Tables 1 and 2).
much better with an ELA depression of 200}300 m as
calculated for Late Glacial advances.
Fe /Fe ratios of the A and B horizons of soil pro"les,
 
developed from Late Glacial, Neoglacial and LIA mo-
raines, are plotted in Fig. 5. It is obvious that the Fe /Fe
 
ratios of the surface horizons and those of the subsurface
horizons descend with increasing age of the moraines.
This is because Fe increases with increasing soil age.

The di!erentiation between Neoglacial and Late Glacial
moraines was clearer using B instead of A horizons. This
could be due to the inhibitory e!ect of soil organic matter
in the formation of crystalline iron oxides (Schwertmann,
1966). For further investigations, we recommend there-
fore using B horizons for soil chemical investigations,
although A horizons are more weathered. It is unclear,
however, to which extent these horizons are in#uenced
by soil erosion or human impact.
168 W. Zech et al. / Quaternary International 65/66 (2000) 161}169
4. Conclusions
Probably, during the LGM the Abramov glacier in the
Alay Range descended to 2500 m asl (ELA lowering
about 600 m). Between this till at 2500 m asl and the
modern glacier snout at 3650 m asl, several moraine
complexes could be identi"ed at the valley bottom of the
Koksu river. Those between 3100 and 3300 m asl (ELA
depression approximately 200}300 m) may represent
Late Glacial glacier advances. A younger, smaller ter-
minal moraine, rich in boulders, is present at 3440 m asl
(ELA depression about 110 m), and probably formed
during the early Holocene to Late Glacial. Further stud-
ies should clarify whether this glacier advance might
correlate with Younger Dryas phenomena in other parts
of the world. Soils derived from these drifts are classi"ed
as Eutrocryepts, frequently containing buried A hor-
izons, and developed during the middle Holocene cli-
matic optimum. Upvalley, two types of frontal moraines
are deposited: the older ones are younger than 3000}4000
a BP, but older than about 1000 a BP. They reveal
mainly AC or poorly developed ABC soil pro"les. The
younger ones are characterised by Cryorthents with AiC
soil horizons. These formed during LIA advances.
The geomorphologic features and the soil morphologi-
cal properties of the lateral slopes near the Abramov
glacier between 3600 and 4000 m also provided evidence
of glacier advances during the LGM or earlier, the Late
Glacial with several stages, the Neoglacial, and the LIA.
Indicators of a middle Pleistocene glaciation, as identi-
"ed for the ancient Barkrak and Severtsov glaciers
(Fig. 1, sites 1 and 4), could not be observed in the Koksu
valley. The question whether the maximal Late Pleis-
tocene glacier advances occured during oxygen isotope
stages 2, 3 or 4 is still open.
Acknowledgements
The study was "nanced by the German Research
Foundation (DFG Ze 154/33). We are grateful to
Mr. Houli Mingh for carrying out the soil analyses and
to Mr. Th. Engelbrecht for preparing the "gures. We are
indebted to Prof. Dr. Geyh, NiedersaK chsiches Landesamt
for running the radiocarbon analyses. L.A. Owen and
P. Barnard improved signi"cantly the manuscript by
valuable critical comments. Dr. Usmanov, director of
the Academy of Sciences in Tashkent, provided logistic
support.
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