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MBE 3119 Manufacturing Technology
MBE 3119 Manufacturing Technology
Technology
Introduction
What is Manufacturing Technology?
• Manufacture: ‐ usually involves in arranging
materials which are being converted to their
shapes and geometries according to design
engineering drawings from their raw condition
• Manufacturing Technology: ‐ is the method,
knowledge, setup and system used to convert
materials to their finishing designed
geometries, features, and shapes, etc.,
according to engineering design drawings
Method of converting raw material to
finishing feature
• Normally, the conversion method utilizes most
physical phenomena of a material under:
(i) Thermal effect
(ii) Mechanical force to have shape deformation
(iii) High pressure fracturing effect
(iv) Electrical effect
(v) Chemical effect
(vi) Etc.
Categories of manufacturing processes
There are many manufacturing processes involved which vary with
their individual operational principles and accomplishment in their
final products. They are fundamentally categorized as:
1. Material forming and shaping processes
2. Material removal or machining processes
3. Material incressing processes
4. Surface treatment or surface finishing processes
5. Fastening and joining processes
6. Heat treatment processes
7. Assembly processes
8. Quality insurance processes
9. Etc.
Some Forming and Shaping Processes
Basically, the processes include:
1. forming of solid materials through their liquid
transitional stage (i.e., casting for metals; and
molding of plastics, etc.);
2. forming of solid materials to anticipated shapes
through plastic deformation (i.e. forging, rolling,
extrusion, drawing, etc.)
3. forming of solid materials to shapes through
converting to powder metallurgy (involving
blending, compacting, and sintering, etc.)
Manufacture and Physical phenomena
of material
• Thermal methods • Mechanical deformation methods
Material is heated to its melting point, it Bulk, sheet, and/or plate of solid
can thus become liquid mode, which is materials are deformed either under
then frozen to become solid again. compression or stretching with applied
Generally, material in liquid mode has force beyond the corresponding yield
better flow‐ability then its solid value of the materials. The materials will
counterpart. Hence, thermal method be deformed and start to fill the cavity
with phase transformation is frequently surrounding their boundaries of dies.
used in manufacturing mechanical Hence, the die cavity between die pair is
components with relatively more the shape of a finishing product after
complex and detail features. filling with materials.
Thermal method is typically used in As solid materials are often difficult to
manufacture processes like: metal flow, design of die shape features
casting, plastics molding, powder undoubtedly affect the ability of
metallurgy, joining, non‐traditional materials filling. Hence, design of cavity
machining, thermal cutting, heat profile is usually the deterministic factors
treatment, and crystal growing, etc.. of forming a good quality product.
However, the quality of a finishing Furthermore, the setup rigidity of
product varies with the freezing machineries and/or die pairs also
behaviors influence the product quality.
Manufacture and Physical phenomena
of material
• High pressure fracturing effect
• Electrical effect
A cutting tool having sharp edge/point
presses onto a material, it generally When two slim rods are connected with
creates high pressure on the edge/point electrical circuitry and allow current to
so that it indents into the material. When pass through, current can pass the rods
the edge/point of cutting tool is moved without any abnormal phenomenon
relatively to the material with narrowest taking place. When the two rods are
throwing area at the front, material in pulled apart to have small gap in
front of the throwing surface tends to be between, current under the potential
peeling up by shear. The suitable voltage jumps across the gap and spark is
scheduling of the path which the cutting generated. The spark generates large
tool moves over the material performs amount of heat and evaporates materials
the machining of various features on the from the tips of rods. When one rod is
material. replaced by electrode while the other by
a workpiece, the evaporation of
Surface finishing (Roughness) produced materials along the moving path of
by such effect varies with feeding and electrode relative to the surface of
radius (or angle) of the cutting tool workpiece thus creates machining
features according to the x‐y‐z
movements of the electrodes.
Manufacture and physical phenomena
of materials
• Thermal effect which after heat dispersion away
When thermal energy is applied by cooling, can freeze to form a
to a material, molecules in solid product of the shape of
crystals acquires kinetic energy cavity.
and some electrons vibrate Due to higher flowability of liquid
severely to escape the attraction material than solid counterpart,
force in orbit. When sufficiently manufacturing processes utilize
large energy is acquired, these such phase transformation
electrons escape from lattices usually being able to fill thin
and the materials are either section, to give detail interior or
molten or evaporated. Hence, exterior features of a so produced
suitable application of thermal product. Such phenomenon is
energy to the materials can melt utilized for manufacturing
the solid material to become product like casting of metals,
liquid phase. The liquid then fills and molding of plastic products.
cavity of some dies or molds,
Manufacturing Processes: Casting
• Casting is mainly involved with
converting solid metallic materials
into liquid form, which is then filled
into the product cavity of a mold and
solidified to become product.
Although most behaviors of casting
are similar to molding plastics, high
melting point of metals makes setup
and design of the features of casting
processes/machines differing from
those for molding of plastics.
• LHS figure classifies casting processes
into 3 categories: (i) expensable
pattern and mold casting, (ii)
Expensable mold, and permanent
pattern casting, and (iii) Permanent
mold casting. a
• Individual categories of casting result
in different setup configurations and
operational principles of
corresponding casting processes,
which are going to mention some of
the processes in the subsequent
lectures
Manufacturing Processes: Forming and Shaping
• As mentioned, the processes
involve of applying external force
on a workpiece through its relevant
tool boundaries. When such force is
sufficiently high so that the induced
stress in the workpiece is reaching
or beyond its yield, the workpiece
will retain certain amount of plastic
deformation after releasing of
loading, keeping such deformed
shape permanent.
• LHS figure illustrates bulk
deformation processes categorized
into: (i) rolling, (ii) forging, and (iii)
extrusion and drawing. Different
categories lead to the development
of dissimilar setup features of
processes, hence different
operational principles.
Manufacturing Processes: Forming and Shaping
• The forming and shaping processes
illustrated in the LHS figure are
basically for forming and shaping of
sheet metals into various sheet metal
products. Fundamentally, (i) shearing
involves with cutting some features
on sheet products by removing
material of those features away from
the sheet metals; (ii) bending and
drawing normally involve of using
tools to bend sheet metals into
certain features and using punch to
drawn a blank on die top surface
down into die hole for forming
specific sheet products; and (iii)
forming of sheet metals into various
shapes applying different mechanical,
and physical phenomena of
stretching, hydro‐force pressing,
spinning and compression, and
magnetic pulse force, etc.
Manufacturing Processes: Forming and Shaping
Due to plastics or polymers can basically be
divided into (i) thermoplastics, (ii) thermoset
plastics, and (iii) elastomers or rubbers. Their
molecule structures result in thermoplastics
being reprocessable while thermoset and
elastomers/rubbers are not reprocessable.
Hence, different designs of processes to
shape plastics products are different. The
LHS figure groups the plastics forming
processes into two major groups: (i)
processes for forming thermoplastics, and (ii)
processes for shaping thermoset plastics.
Furthermore, their relatively low melting
point compared with their metallic
counterparts. Thermoplastics are also used
as the major materials for rapid prototyping
technologies as shown in the third category
of prototyping. Since manufacturing of
plastic products and their composite
materials have been dealt by Prof. Kamineni
in the first three lectures of this course, we
are not going to deal them here. However,
the processes in (i) and (ii) are involved with
phase transformation like casting, most
problems addressed in casting need also to
considered in plastics forming processes.
Manufacturing Processes: Machining
• Machining is shaping a workpiece
off those features and parts
which are not specified or
designed on the raw
material/workpiece by removing
those from materials by means of
(i) mechanical compressing and
shear cutting, as classified as
conventional machining; (ii)
advanced machining processes
utilizing the principles of
electrical sparks generated
between workpiece and
advancing wire‐EDM, chemical
etching, laser machining, and
water jet collision; and (iii)
abrasive grinding and lapping like
(a) finishing of flat surface, (b)
centerless grinding, (c) lapping,
and (d) electrochemical polishing
.
Manufacturing Processes: Joining
• After producing the
parts, they need to be
assembled into a
completed product
either mechanically by
bolts and nuts, screws,
slots, etc., or by friction
welding, other welding
processes, fastening
and bonding, etc., as
illustrated in LHS figure.
Laser Cutting
• It uses the principles of laser
passing through a series of
lenses system converging the
laser to narrow spot, which
results in very high thermal
energy to melt the material
where irradiation takes place.
Suitably control the vertical
movement and xy movement
of the laser beam on the
irradiated surface of material
allows the production of
various machining features
and traces.
Metal Casting
Fundamentals
Casting Process
• As mentioned, casting involves with firstly melting metal(s) to be
cast to liquid form, which is then poured into the cavity of a pair of
pre‐fabricated molds. The poured liquid is then allowed to cool and
solidify again. The solidified material(s) takes the shape of a
designed product to be manufactured. The casting is then retrieved
from the pair of molds after it is cooled to room or some set
temperature. The removed casting is then inspected for anticipated
dimensions, undergoes secondary operations or heat treatment, if
required, until it meets the geometry and mechanical
specifications. It is then readily for shipment.
• As casting process is associated with phase transformation, liquid
phase material is often easier to flow than solid phase counterpart.
Hence, casting can cast very detail features and complex shape.
Generally, thickness of a casting can be rather thin if it is too long
and wide.
• Casting can cast a product as light as few grams and as large as a
shop floor can be handling.
Solidification of Pure Metals
• LHS Figure (a) plots temperature as a
function of time for the solidification of
pure metals. It shows liquid pure metal
undertaking cooling rapidly until the
taking place of freezing at where
temperature likely dwells at a constant
value for a while. It terminates with all
liquid metal completely solidified,
which is followed with a slow cooling
rate. LHS Figure (b) illustrates the
corresponding density of the casting
material within cavity of molds as a
function of time. Density, during the
first stage of cooling down, increases as
a result of shrinkage of the melt. Sharp
decrease of density occurs from the
start of solidification to the end of
freezing since rapid shrinkage takes
place in this stage. This stage is then
followed by comparatively lower
shrinkage to give relative slower
reduction in density in the solid cooling
stage.
Solidification Contraction or Expansion
• Theoretically, the thermal
properties of an individual
material should be the same
under both heating and
cooling. Hence, the coefficient
of volume expansion is equal
to that of contraction.
Different structures of
materials tend to result in
different mechanical
properties and thermal
properties. LHS Table tabulates
the volumetric coefficient of
contraction (and expansion) of
some commonly seen metals.
Phase Diagram of Nickel (Ni) and Copper (Cu)
LHS figure illustrates the phase change diagram of bimetallic
materials, Ni and Cu, alloyed in different compositions.
Temperature for any composition on liquidus curve means the
alloy to be completely molten or solidification starts, its
counterpart on solidus curve is that it starts to melt or is
completely solidified Temperature of alloy above liquidus
curve means it is in a completely liquid state while below
solidus curve means to be in completely solid state. The bound
between liquidus curve and solidus curve represents the co‐
existence of liquid and solid. Generally, more solid is found
when temperature is cooled closer to solidus temperature. At
100% Ni or 100% Cu, both liquidus and solidus temperatures
are only having one value – it is the melting point and freezing
point of the two pure Ni and Cu, respectively.
The phase diagram provides information of compositions for an
alloy to be solidified from liquidus temperature to solidus
temperature. Taking a melt with composition of 50%Ni and
50%Cu to be cooled from 1500oC, it starts to solidify at 1313oC
and its frozen alloy has composition of 64% Ni and 36% Cu
(which can be found by drawing the vertical line from
50%Ni&50%Cu upwards and intersecting with liquidus curve,
from where a horizontal curve is drawn to cut the solidus
curve. A vertical line is drawn from such cutting point to cut
composition coordinate at 64%Ni&36%Cu. When cooling down
to temperature of 1288oC, the similar construction of
horizontal and vertical lines gives its solid composition as
58%Ni&42%Cu whilst its liquid mode as 42%Ni&58%Cu which
is the intersected point of the vertical line drawn from the
cutting point of the extension of horizontal line at 1288oC with
the liquidus curve (Fig. 11), when it cools down further to
solidus temperature of 1249oC, it becomes solid with
composition of 59%Ni&50%Cu completely.
Under normal and natural cooling, the grain formed in the
range of liquidus temperature and solidus temperature is in
dendritic structure. Due to the dendrite branches are
surrounded with liquid alloy, hence the zone is always mushy.
Alloy Solidification
• Fig. 10.4 illustrates melt of certain
composition is cooling and its solidification
phenomenon within a mold. In natural
cooling, outer temperature of mold is lower
than its inner counterpart. Melt thus
releases heat through mold wall, hence
solidification starts from vicinity closer to
wall and propagates to the core of mold. As
illustrated the gain dendrite grows from the
solidification front (which represents solidus
temperature of the alloy) to the tip of
dendrite where it is at the tip of dendrite.
Due to the temperature variation at solid
front, those sites reach liquidus temperature
serve a nucleation spots to grow dendrites
• Figure 10.4 Schematic illustration of alloy solidification and
(hence to give some parallel dendrites in the
temperature distribution in the solidifying metal. Note the solidification zone where ranges between
formation of dendrites in the mushy zone. solidus curve and liquidus curve). As melt
around the side branches of individual
dendrites is not yet completely frozen, the
zone is a mixture of solids and liquid alloy. As
a result, it is mushy in nature. Such mushy
level increases when solidification goes on
until all surrounding melt in dendritic
braches of the specific region frozen
completely.
Solidification of Iron and Carbon Steels
Figure 10.5 (a) Solidification patterns for gray cast iron in a 180‐mm (7‐in.) square casting. Note that after 11 minutes
of cooling, dendrites reach each other, but the casting is still mushy throughout. It takes about two hours for this
casting to solidify completely. (b) Solidification of carbon steels in sand and chill (metal) molds. Note the difference in
solidification patterns as the carbon content increases. Source: After H. F. Bishop and W. S. Pellini
Solidification of Iron and Carbon Steels (Con’t)
Fig. 10.5 compares the solidification of • Fig. 10.5(b) compares the carbon
iron and carbon steels. Fig. 10.5(a) shows content alloying with iron to become
the growth of dendrites of liquid iron in carbon steel, which is cast in sand
the mold with cooling time. It suggests mold and in chill mold. From the
the tip of dendrites touching each other studies, it shows the solidification for
and blocking off remaining liquid iron low carbon is slower in sand mold
completely at 11 minutes after pouring. while that in chill mold is faster, with
Thereafter, the solidification occurs on density of dendrites hardly
the side branches of individual dendrites distinguishable from the mold wall.
from 11 to 40 minutes. It is followed by For carbon content beyond 0.25%,
complete solidification from inner mold sand mold casting gives obvious
wall to mold core from 60 to 102 mushy characteristics while casting in
minutes. Theoretically, the touching and chill mold tends to give dense
blocking of remaining liquid iron would dendrite distribution with rapider
result in generation of micro‐porosities growth rate. The studies suggest
within side braches due to the quicker cooling rate can effectively
contraction problem of these melts suppress the formation of
within the branches creating numerous microporosities in high carbon steel
pore spaces. These microporosities tend with 0.25% C to 0.6% C.
to weaken mechanical strength of the
casting. It also reduces its thermal and
electrical conductivity due to
discontinuity in the matrice.
Temperature Distribution during Metal
Solidification
The LHS figure shows the temperature
distribution during metal solidification
within a mold under normal environment.
Generally, the ambient temperature
surrounding the mold is much lower than
that on mold surface. Depending on the
mold material and mold thickness, the
temperature within the mold wall
increases from outer surface to inner
surface, in certain manner according to
the material thermal properties. The
temperature at outer casing of solidified
casting material is relatively higher, which
increases within the solid zone to the
solid front in certain manner according to
the thermal properties of casting
material. However, its value is equal to
that of the liquid metal neighboring to it.
The temperature of liquid in the region
near the solid front increases to the core
with certain boundary from the core
having constant temperature.
Cast and basic types of structures of solidified
metals
Cast and basic types of structures of solidified metals
(Con’t)
Top Sub‐Figure in the last The three sub‐figures in bottom of the figure in last slide compare the
slide illustrates the cast different grain structures likely to form under naturally slow cooling rate
structure in solidified metal (see (a)), fast cooling rate (see (b)), and very fast cooling rate (see (c)). In
with mold wall. Although natural cooling rate (see (a)), sufficient time allows the growth of orderly
temperature distribution in dendrites which are rooted from the solid front stemming to liquid core
casting in Slide 24 is only with many side branches. Generally, such growth tends to result in micro‐
one value, some place on porosities scattering throughout the casting. It likely causes macro‐
wall surface has segregation from outside towards core, micro‐segregation from dendrite
temperature beyond root to tip of stem and sideway from central to branch tips. In fast cooling
melting point and some rate (see (b)), locations next to solid front may reach melting temperature
reaching melting point of and start to nucleate for forming dendrites randomly orientated. It thus
casting material. Those at gives disorderly fine grain structures. For alloy, it gives normal
melting point form microsegregation. For the very fast cooling rate, the heat dispersion rate
nucleating sites and from the liquid metal is so high, which facilitates large regions beside solid
material solidifies, which front quickly reaching melting point temperature. Its very rapid cooling
can successfully grow and thus initiates many random sites of nucleation which grows quickly to
become columnar grain. touch each other along grain boundaries, hence forming fine and small
Liquids around the sites grain structures. If alloy is cast by the case of (c), it has high probability of
next to these start to forming inverse microsegregation. If solidification starts from wall and
solidify when temperature propagating to the core, as shown in (a) to (b), micrasegregation is likely to
cools to melting point. The occur in three cases. Likewise, gravity segregation is also found in the three
grain of these late case if stirring is completely absent.
nucleation sites is blocked
to growth by the grain On the basis of microporosity formation principles, casting having
boundaries of neighboring structures in (c) may have least micro=porosities, and that in (b) may be
pre‐preferentially grown more than (c) but less than (a).
columnar grains, hence
giving a layer of fine grain
structure of chill zone.
Grain/element segregation
Under the normal (faster) cooling rates encountered in practice, core
• Grain structure is dendrites are form. Core dendrites have a surface composition different from
normally affected by
cooling rate. that at their centres (i.e. different concentration gradient). Surface has a
Generally: higher concentration of alloying elements than does the core of dendrite due
1. Slow cooling rate to solute rejection from the core toward the surface during solidification of
(on order of 102 dendrite (mircrosegregation). The darker shading in the interdendritic liquid
K/s) results in near the dendrite roots in Fig. 10.5 indicates that these regions have a higher
coarse endritic
structures with solute concentration and much more pronounced microsegregation.
large spacing
between the
dendrite arms. Besides microsegregation, macrosegregation involves differences in
2. Faster cooling rate composition throughout the casting itself. When solidifying front moving
(on order of 104 away from the surface of a casting as a plane front (Slide 25(a‐b)), lower‐
K/s) gives finer melting point constituents in the solidifying alloy are driven toward the
structure with
smaller dendrite center (normal segregation) so as to give higher concentration of
arms alloying elements at its center than at its surfaces. Dendritic structures in
3. High cooling rate solid‐solution alloys (Bottom Slide 25(c) ), the center of the casting has
(on order of 106
K/s to 108 K/s) lower concentration of alloying elements (inverse segregation) due to
develops the entering of liquid metal of high concentration in alloying element
amorphous into cavities formed by solidification shrinkage in dendrite arms. Due to
structures
the sinking of higher density inclusions or compounds and the floating of
lighter ones to surface, it thus causes the gravity segregation.
Fluid Flow and Solidification Time
Below is some fundamental
During pouring of liquid into mold equations likely to be used in mold
cavity, the flow is therefore obeying design for metal casting and plastics
some fundamental principles of fluid molding
mechanics. Flow nature of either
turbulent flow or laminate flow in • Bernoulli’s theorem
the mold affects the entrapment of
air/gas, which originally occupies the
flow channels and cavities, and • Mass continuity
subsequently the cast quality since it
determines the amount of formed
oxides and the likely gas trapped to • Sprue design
form gas holes within the casting.
This affects the mechanical, thermal,
and electrical properties of the • Reynolds number
casting. Hence, design of mold
channels and cavity always needs to
encourage laminate flow instead. • Chvorinov’s Rule
Cast Structures of Solidified Metals
Ref to the top sub‐figure in Slide 25, nature cooling leads to
starting of nucleation of liquid metal from inner walls of die cavity.
Under similar temperature distribution along each wall, the
solidification characteristics are similar too. The solidification from
each pair of perpendicular walls would touch to stop growing, thus
forming diagonal boundaries as shown in Fig. 10.2(a) for pure
metal liquid, which consists of fine grain in chill zone of casting
skin, followed by growing inwardly columnar zone. In casting alloy
liquid solution, the likely temperature distribution of mold and
liquid metal in core resume the behavior as shown in Slide 24.
Hence, initial solution results in fine grain chill zone on the skin
which is followed by the inwardly growing of columnar zone to
certain distance from the wall where very small difference is
obtained (i.e. almost constant temperature). When the
temperature in such core zone reaches at solidus temperature (see
Slide 20), the liquid alloy is thus solidified rapidly in one‐go to form
equiaxed in the middle core as shown in Fig. 10.2(b). If the mold
walls are well insulated to give constant temperature anywhere
within the casting mold system which, is allowed to cool down in
same rate, and adequate nucleating agents are added into the
liquid alloy to shorten rapidly the time required for releasing their
latent heat, the rapid solidification of the liquid alloy thus results
in equiaxed structure throughout the casting when it cools to
reach the solidus point.
If the three structures are for same alloy, the equiaxed structure
(Fig. 10.2(c)) is mechanically stronger than that of mixing of
columnar and equiaxed one (Fig. 10.2(b)) which, in turn is stronger
the columnar one as shown in Fig. 10.2(a). This is because grain
Figure 10.2 Schematic illustration of three cast boundary is supposed to be the weakest in resisting shear. The
structures of metals solidified in a square mold: distinguishably diagonal boundary lines in Fig. 10.2(a) are
susceptible to be shorn off. The existing of equiaxed structure core
(a) pure metals; (b) solid‐solution alloys; and (c) breaks the diagonal distinguishable boundary and increasing
boundary length in Fig. 10.2(b, thus becomes stronger. While the
structure obtained by using nucleating agents. boundary length for Fig. 10.2(c) is longest, thus strongest to shear.
Source: After G. W. Form, J. F. Wallace, J. L. Walker,
and A. Cibula
Casting Design and Fluidity Test
Figure 10.9 A test method for
Figure 10.8 Schematic illustration of a typical riser‐ fluidity using a spiral mold. The
gated casting. Risers serve as reservoirs, supplying fluidity index is the length of the
molten metal to the casting as it shrinks during solidified metal in the spiral
solidification. passage. The greater the length of
the solidified metal, the greater is
its fluidity.
Riser‐gated casting
• When mold has pre‐fabricated, liquid metal Generally, riser is a hollow cavity next or closer to
needs to be poured into the mold cavity via the cavity of a casting which traps in excess liquid
runner and gating system, Typically material during filling. Its roles are mainly:
1) Pouring basin or cup for pouring molten metal 1) Ensuring the complete filling of casting
cavity
2) Gating system (sprue, runners and gates) 2) Entrapping air/gas from its upstream so as
allows molten metal from pouring. Their to minimize air/gas bubbles in casting
corresponding functions are: 3) Modifying the temperature distribution
around the casting cavity so as to promote
• basin to flow into mold cavity possible directional solidification
• Sprue – is a vertical channel through which 4) Refilling liquid metal to the space left due
the molten metal flows downward to material shrinkage at some positions
next or closer to the riser.
• in the mold
• Runners – are channels that carry the molten
metal from the sprue to the mold
• cavity, or connect the sprue to the gate
• Gate – is those portions of runner through
which the molten metal enters the
• mold cavity
Riser and gating of a casting design
• Ref to Fig. 10.8 in Slide 20 – • With the introduction of the two
Assuming the design of gating risers as shown, it modifies the
system without the top riser at temperature distribution in the
the largest bulk at RHS and the mold wall and provides sufficient
side at far LHS, the temperature time to fill the possible space left
distribution in the middle of the due to shrinkage during
two end bulks is generally the solidification. Furthermore, the
lowest and solidification starts at liquid in the RHS top riser can
this plane. The solidified plane flow back to refill the shrinkage
blocks off the remaining liquid cavity at the larger bulk
metal at either bulk. However, underneath. As a consequence,
shrinkage of solidified material at the quality of the casting can be
LHS may be refilled by liquid ensured.
metal in gating system. However,
the blocking of solidified plane
tends to result in shrinkage cavity
in the middle of RHS bulk.
Some design features in the specific casting
Ref to Fig. 10.8 in Slide 30, it is seen that the shape of pouring cup and sprue
is tapping downward with well at its end. The bottom surface of the well is
much below the bottom surface of runner and gate.
Such design mainly to maintain laminate flow and minimize air/gas
entrapment during the initial filling. Generally, the filling & gating system and
cavity in mold are filled with air or gas, also on the principle of forming
boundary layer when fluid flows through a straight pipe which tends to un‐
stabilize and create swirling or turbulent flow to entrap air/gas – which is
susceptibly forming impurity like oxides and air/gas bubbles.
The well at the bottom of sprue has bottom surface below its counterpart of
runner and gate is mainly for gathering impurity so that liquids flow into
cavity can be relatively pure. Generally, the flow front of liquid alloy poured
through sprue is likely to be oxidized during the initial filling. Such initially
oxidized impurity can sink into the well and subsequently the purer filled
liquids fluxing out and flowing through runner and gate into the cavity.
Fluidity Test
• Fig. 10.9 shows the features of a test method. It
consists of a spiral mold connected to a pouring
system. Molten metal is poured into pouring
system and flows out from the well at the bottom
to the spiral mold. Flow front will be solidified
when its liquid metal reaches freezing point. The
freezing of the metal stops the flow in the mold.
Subsequently, the fluidity index can be measured
by evaluating how far the freezing front is from
the well.
Solidified Skin on a Steel Casting
Figure 10.11 Solidified skin on a steel casting. The remaining molten metal is poured out at the
times indicated in the figure. Hollow ornamental and decorative objects are made by a process
called slush casting, which is based on this principle. Source: After H. F. Taylor, J. Wulff, and M. C.
Flemings
Solidified Skin on a Steel Casting (Con’t)
• Fig. 10.11 illustrates a method to evaluate the
validity of the equation (1). Four molds of
same geometry were filled with liquid metal
and one was allowed to cool for 5 s, others for
1 min, 2 min and 6 min, respectively. The
respective un‐solidified liquid metal was
poured out and the individual solidified skins
were bisected. The solidified characteristics of
the mold can thus be analyzed.
Solidification time
• The shape of casting determines solidification time since it
affects heat transfer phenomena. Ref to Fig. 10.11, the
solidified skin for 1 min is thicker at outer corner B than
that at inner corner A. This is due to the larger surface area
for heat to disperse away from the cavity for those liquids
at B. Furthermore, the mold material at A would result in
higher temperature than at B. This is mainly because heat
from liquid metal at A can be dispersed from its vertical
wall as well as horizontal wall. This allows more heat
received at A, so as reducing its heat transfer efficiency.
However, the radiating outwardly of the heat from liquid
metal means less heat accumulation at B, thus better heat
transfer efficiency at B. Subsequently, thicker skin at B is
produced.
Defects
• Quality of the casting is a major issue in increasing productivity and cost
• consideration.
• It needs to understand what sorts of defects likely to occur in casting
processes, their
• causes, and how to minimize their generation.
• Figs. 10.13 and 10.13 show several defects can develop in castings. They
are:
1) Hot tears
2) Blow, scar and blister
3) Scab
4) Misrun
5) Wash
6) Cold shut
7) Etc.
Hot Tears in Castings
Figure 10.12 Examples of hot tears in castings. These defects occur because the casting cannot shrink
freely during cooling, owing to constraints in various portions of the molds and cores. Exothermic (heat‐
producing) compounds may be used (as exothermic padding) to control cooling at critical sections to
avoid hot tearing
Hot tear
• Hot tears are caused mainly due the • For Figs 10.12(b)‐(c), the mold materials at the
different contraction between mold and centre contract less than casting materials,
casting material. Smaller contraction of hence creates resistant force against the
mold during solidification generates contraction of casting material. When difference
resistance force to prevent the between shrinkage of mold and casting materials
contraction of casting, which is too large, a corner with small cross sectional
subsequently causes the hot tear at area (Fig. 10.12(c)) or link to a vertical rib (Fig.
certain weak section of the casting 10.12(b) thus breaks
• For Fig. 10.12(a), the cooler periphery • For Fig. 10.12(d), the core in the cylindrical cavity
and the top of invert ‘T’ makes liquid to around tends to resist the contraction of the
be solidified from rim to centre and from casting during solidification. As the casting starts
top to bottom, shrinkage problem results to solidify from far LHS towards the RHS where
in less material at the centre root which sprue and gating system are located. Also the
is tearing up at complete solidification runner only connected to the top of the casting
means the refilling of material from the pouring
cup only to the top. Hence, the filling of material
from the around shrinkage during solidification
exhausts casting materials making insufficient
materials at these zone which under the
resistance to shrink by the core mold result in
tearing off at such region.
Common Casting Defects
Figure 10.13 Examples of common defects in castings. These defects can be minimized or
eliminated by proper design and preparation of molds and control of pouring procedures.
Source: After J. Datsko.
Defects
• Blow, scar and blister are holes on casting surface. They are mainly due to the air/gas bubbles
entrapped between mold and casting interface, which prevents the complete filling of material.
• Scab is incomplete filling or hole(s) just beneath the surface of a casting. It is mainly due to the
evolution of gas/air from melt during solidification is slower than the surface solidification rate,
thus causing the air/gas entrapment.
• Misrun is a defect due to incomplete filling of mold cavity if filling is uni‐directional. Under such
condition, the flow front of material cools to its freezing point before completely filling up the
remaining cavity (as the melt behind freezing front can not flow over it to fill).
• Wash is the additional casting material on casting surface closer to the gate entry. It is sometimes
appearing in sand casting and is likely resulted from the turbulent flow of melt washing away the
sand around the gate entry where subsequently being filled with the liquid metal.
• Cold shut. When the cavity of a mold is filled by two or more streams and the temperature of the
melt is not sufficiently high, the flow front of the streams likely reaches the freezing temperature
of the melt before mixing each other. The interface of the streams is thus not properly fused
together and thus became the weak plane of the casting.
Types of Internal and External Chills used in Casting
Figure 10.14 Various types of (a) internal and (b) external chills (dark areas at corners) used in
castings to eliminate porosity caused by shrinkage. Chills are placed in regions where there is a
larger volume of metal, as shown in (c).
Types of Internal and External Chills used in Casting
Figure 10.14 Various types of (a) internal and (b) external chills (dark areas at corners) used in
castings to eliminate porosity caused by shrinkage. Chills are placed in regions where there is a
larger volume of metal, as shown in (c).
Types of Internal and External Chills used in Casting
• Incorrect design with bulk in a • In the design of Fig. 10.14(c),
casting, as shown in Fig. the bulk region tends to create
10.14(a) and (b), results in shrinkage cavity, hence
shrinkage cavity. When re‐ external chill is placed under
design of casting or the bulk or boss. By doing so,
modification of processing is the boss can be firstly
impossible, such shrinkage solidified and neighboring
cavity can be corrected by liquid metal can flow in to fill
either internal chill or external up the shrinkage space prior to
chill. The location of these two the solidification of the liquid
types of chill at the bulk shape in the horizontal regions at
allows more heat to be carried either end.
out, hence material at the
location can firstly solidify to
promote directional
solidification.
Factors to be considered in casting design from the knowledge
of these fundamentals
• Slides 18, 20, 21‐23, 25‐29: It is understood • Slides 30‐45 allow possible deduction of the
that following
1. Pure metal has longer time to release 1. Shape design affects cooling rate, location to
latent heat likely to have longer dendrite form shrinkage cavity, flow of liquid metal/alloy
stem during natural solidification. More into cavity, heat disperse behaviors, etc. These
branches thus appear and places for determine the quality of casting
forming are more. Probability with more 2. Riser in casting retains excessive melt during
micro‐porosities in casting is higher filling. Suitable introduction of risers facilitates
2. Bimetallic alloy with melting point of an complete filling, evacuating of air/gas originally
element much higher than the other, and occupying in filling‐runner—gating system and
with composition of individual elements cavity, distribution of mold wall temperature to
closer to each other tend to have longer control directional solidification, refilling of melt
mushy zone and give more microporosities into shrinkage cavity, and so on.
3. Macrosegregation becomes more 3. Proper shaping and/or design of mold controls
prominent with two elements having the flow nature within the mold channel, and
larger difference in melting point minimizes the forming of oxide impurity.
4. Carbon content in steel and cooling rate Turbulent flow, swirling of fluid, eddy current,
affect the growth of casting structure and formation of boundary layer should be
during solidification, thus the formation of effectively minimized if possible.
micro‐porosities within casting. Generally 4. Melt filling velocity needs to be suitably
Carbon content is normally kept within controlled. Too slow velocity results in melt
10% in steel. cooling down and solidification takes place
5. Porosity in casting is generated commonly before premature filling to cause defects like
due to the contraction of casting materials misrun and cold shut. Too high velocity results in
and the evolution of air/gas dissolved into air/gas evacuation problem, and is prone for
melt which, cannot successful surface out turbulent, swirling flow in mold, which
the casting susceptibly causes defects as blow, scar, blister,
and scab, etc., and/or wash in sand casting.