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IX Biology PDF
IX Biology PDF
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generation learn science interestingly. In 11th five year plan nearly Ten Lakhs of students
Warmth of breez has to be sought were selected during 12th five year plan (2012-17) Twenty Lakhs of students will be selected
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New Edition
First Published 2013
ii
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1
Chapter
Cell its structure and functions
In the previous class you have already structures, take photograph of them and
learnt about cells and their structure. You make of them. These have given valuable
have also learnt about discovery of the cell, information about the typical plant and
its sizes and shapes, unicellular and animal cells. Here we will try to study the
multicellular organisms. diagram of models of the cell.
Let us recall some of the activities
Typical Cell
related to these aspects. For example
Onion cells were nearly All the organelles shown in the typical
rectangular while the cheek cells plant or animal cell will not exist in every
were circular in shape. cell. For example, chloroplasts are always
Add other examples as the one given shown in the typical plant cell, yet all plant
above. cells do not have chloroplasts. chloroplasts
only in the cells of green plant parts like
1) __________________________
the leaf, tender stem etc. The organelles that
2) __________________________ feature in most of the cells are included in
3) __________________________ this model. The typical cell provides a way
Primarily, cells are studied under the to study cells. Once we arrive at such a
optical microscope. When we observe the model, we can compare any cell with it.
cell under a compound microscope, we can Observe the given diagrams of typical plant
see following organelles: cell wall, and animal cells (Fig-1 & 2).
cytoplasm, nucleus, chloroplast and the 1. What common features do you see
mitochondria. However, when the same in both the cells?
cells are observed under the electron 2. What cell organelles are found
microscope, a few other structures become exclusively in plant cell?
visible. 3. Compare the vacuoles of plant and
To study various cells scientists have animal cells, note down the
been trying to observe cells from different differences.
parts of plants and animals, draw their
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Endoplasmic reticulum Mitochondria
Nucleus Plasmame
Mitochondria Nuecleus
mbrane
Golgi apparatus
Cellwall
Chloroplast
Golgiapparatus
Vacuole
Endoplasmicreticulum Plasmamembrane
Activity-1
Observing cell membrane Shrunken
Take Rheo leaf, tear the leaf in single Cytoplasm
stroke. Observe it against the light. Take a
Fig-3(b) Cell membrane
small piece of leaf peal with light coloured
(transparent) portion. Put it on slide and put Observe it under microscope. Draw
a drop of water on it. Cover it with cover your observation in your note book.
slip and observe the light portion of leaf Compare the observations of both
under the microscope. activities or fig-3(a) and 3(b) and
Draw the diagram of what you have note down the differences?
seen? Can you guess the reason of the
Now put 1-2 drops of dilute salt differences?
2 Cell its structure and functions
When we put salt solution over the peel Cell wall
of rheo leaf, water present inside the rheo
This is a unique feature seen in plant
leaf cells come out. It results in the
cells. While the cell membrane acts as the
shrinking of the cytoplasm along with cell
outer layer in an animal cell, in a plant cell
membrane. The outer boundary of coloured
there is an extra layer (mainly of cellulose)
area is actually the cell membrane (fig-3(b))
outside the cell membrane which is known
which became separated from the cell wall.
as the cell wall. This is considered to be
However we can observe the structure one of the major differences between plant
of cell membrane only through an electron and animal cells.
microscope. Cell membrane is flexible and
The cell wall is a tough but flexible
is made up of mainly lipids and proteins.
porous layer that lends a definite shape to
The cell membrane is the outermost the cell and it also provides protection.
layer of the cell that separates cytoplasm Earlier it was believed to be inactive, but it
from the external environment. This is also is now considered to be one of the most
known as the plasma membrane. The cell significant organs of the cell that
membrane defines the shape and size of the continuously exchanges information with
cell, encloses the cytoplasm and protects other cells during growth and development.
it from the external environment. The
What is the role of cell wall in plant
internal environment of the cell is different
cells?
from that of outside. Inside a cell, one finds
It exerts an inward wall pressure to
a very specific composition of substances
resist the outward directed pressure
and balance of various substances is
exerted by cell sap hence; the plant cells
maintained. The cell membrane plays a
can withstand much greater changes in
crucial role in maintaining this balance.
surrounding medium than animal cells.
Any substance entering or leaving the cell
can do so only through this membrane. The Nucleus
uniqueness of this membrane lies in the fact
that it does not allow every substance to pass Lab Activity
through it. The exchange of substances Aim: To observe the nucleus in cheek
through the cell membrane happens very cells.
selectively. Hence it is known as selectively Material required: A tooth pick or
permeable membrane. This characteristic of ice-cream spoon or spatula, glass slide,
the membrane enables it to control the coverslip, watch glass, needle, blotting
exchange of substances between the cell and paper, 1% methylene blue, normal saline,
its external environment. You will learn more glycerine, microscope, etc.
about the function of cell membrane in the Procedure:
Chapter “Movement of material across the 1. Wash your mouth and scrap a little
cell membrane”. of the internal lining of your mouth
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Cytoplasm
with a clean tooth pick or spatula 1 8 3 1 .
or ice-cream spoon. Cell membrane Brown had
2. Place the scrapping in a watch glass no idea
Nucleus about its
containing a very small quantity of
normal saline. function.
3. After cleaning, transfer the This is one
Fig-4 Nucleus cheek cells
material to a glass slide. of the most
4. Put a drop of methylene blue and important organelles of the cell. This is also
wait for a couple of minutes. known as the cell’s control room. The
5. Wipe off the extra stain with a fine nucleus is the largest and most distinct of
cloth or blotting paper. all cell organelles. Schleiden, who was one
of the proponents of cell theory, thought
6. Put a drop of glycerine over it.
that new cells were created from the
7. Place a coverslip. Tap the coverslip
nucleus and he called it the cytoblast.
with the blunt end of needle so as
Barring a few exceptions, almost all
to spread the cells.
eukaryotic cells have a nucleus. Red blood
Precautions:
cells in some mammals and phloem sieve
1. Do not scrap the cheek too hard as
tube in plants are examples of cells that do
it may injure you (buccal mucosa).
not have a nucleus. Even these cells do have
2. Scrapped material should be spread nuclei in the beginning, but it is later thrown
uniformly on the slide. out of the cells and destroyed.
3. Excess of stain should be drained The nucleus regulates and controls all
off. the functions of a cell and determines the
4. There should be no air-bubble characteristics of the organism. It consists
under the cover slip of all genetic information. The nucleus is
Observe the temporary mount under also closely involved in the process of cell
low and high power of microscope. Draw division.
your observations in your notebook. Genetic
Material
1. What was the shape of the cells that
Nuclear
you have observed? membrane
Nucleolus
2. Were these cells structure similar Nuclear
to the structure in onion peel cell? Nucleo Plasm
pore
3. Was there any darkly coloured
spherical or oval dot like structure
Fig-5 Nucleus
near the centre of the cell?
(view through Electron microscope)
You have already studied about this dark The membrane that encloses the
coloured dot in cells. This is the nucleus. nucleus and separates it from contents of
It was named by Robert Brown in the year cytoplasm is known as the nuclear
4 Cell its structure and functions
membrane. This is very similar to the cell when it became clear that the fluid is
membrane. Almost the entire genetic basically a medium in which various
material of the cells is found in the nucleus. particles and membranes float around and
On the basis of the presence or absense that the functions of the cell actually take
of the organised nucleus cells are place in these organelles, it began to be
categorized into two types, i.e. Prokaryotic understood that life resided in this
cells (without organised nucleus) and organization. In particular, the material
Eukaryotic cells (with organised nucleus). inside and outside the nuclear membrane
The above description was primarily was differentiated after the discovery of
about eukaryotic cells that contained a nucleus. Hence, protoplasm was renamed
membrane bound nucleus. Cells that do not as cytoplasm, that is, cell fluid. The fluid
have a nuclear membrane bound nuclear inside the nucleus came to be known as the
material are called prokaryotic cells. We nuclear fluid or nucleoplasm.
have mentioned earlier that the bacterium Cell organelles
is a prokaryotic cell. Cyanobacteria, blue-
green algae also belong to this category. Now let us discuss about some
important cell organelles. 1. Mitochondria,
Cytoplasm 2. Plastids, 3. Ribosoms, 4. endoplasmic
When we look at the temporary mounts reticulum, 5.Glogi apparatus,
of onion peel, we can see a large region of 6.Lysosomes, 7. vacuoles.
each cell enclosed by the cell membrane. They are important because they carry
This region takes up very little stain. It is out very crucial functions in cells.
called the cytoplasm. The cytoplasm is the
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
fluid content inside the plasma membrane.
It also contains many specialised cell When the cell was observed under the
organelles. Each of these organelles electron microscope, a network of
performs specific function for the cell. membranes was observed throughout the
Cell organelles are enclosed by cytoplasm. This network creates passages
membranes. In prokaryotes, beside the
absence of a defined membrane bound Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
nucleus (or nuclear region), the membrane-
bound cell organelles are also absent.
Protoplasm vs. cytoplasm
For a long time it was believed that the Smooth
essence of life was stored in the fluid found Endoplasmic
inside the cell. Hence this was named Reticulum
protoplasm which means life fluid. But Fig-6 Endoplansmic Reticulum
leaf
1. Take the peel of Rheo leaf and Inner Membrane
Thylakoids
Stroma
mount it in water on a slide.
2. Observe it under compund Fig-9(c)
Key words
15.Who and when proposed cell theory. What are salient features of it? (AS 1)
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Chapter
Plant tissues
How can the plants perform all the life Let us try to find out more about
processes? arrangements of cells in plants and their
Is there any specific arrangement of the functions by the following activities.
cells in plants that help in carrying out Do the following activities with the help
these processes? of your teacher.
12 Plant Tissues
Activity-2
Cells in onion peel
- Take a piece of an onion peel.
- Now place it on the slide.
- Put a drop of water and then a drop of
Fig-2 Betel leaf peel
glycerin on it.
has been torn under the microscope in
the same manner as you had observed
Cell wall
the onion peel.
Draw a diagram of what you observed
Nucleus
and compare with the following.
cytoplasm Are all the cells similar?
Is there any difference in their
arrangement?
What can we infer from the above
Fig-1 Onion peel activities?
Do you find cells in groups in both the
- Gently cover it with a cover -slip. activities?
- Observe it under the microscope. Compare and write a note on the
- Draw and label the diagram, what you arrangements of the cells as you see
have observed under the microscope. in both the activities.
Compare your drawing with the figure- You may have observed that the cells are
1 to find out labeled parts. present in groups with certain
arrangement. With the help of following
Are all the cells similar? activities we shall try to find out whether
How are the cells arranged? these arrangements have special roles to
play in the plant body.
Activity-3 Activity-4
Cells in a leaf peel. (a) Cells in root tip
- Take a betel leaf or a Tradescantia leaf. - Are the cells in the root similar to that
- Tear it with a single stroke. So that a in a leaf. Let us find out how the cells
thin edge be seen at torn end. are arranged in the root. For this we
- Observe the thin edge where the leaf need onion root tips.
Activity-5
(b) Growing roots
Fig-3 Onion root
- Observe the growth of roots for a few - Take the onion used in the previous
days till they grow to nearly an inch. activity and mark the cut end of the
roots with a permanent marker.
- Take the onion out and cut some of the - Put it in the same set up as used in the
root tips. previous activity.
- Take an onion root tip. - Leave the set up aside for at least four
to five days. Take care that there is
- Place it on the slide.
enough water in the glass so that the
- Put a drop of water and then a drop of roots are submerged.
glycerin on it.
Did all the roots grow in a same
- Cover with cover-slip. manner?
- Put the 2-3 layer of filter paper on the What happened to the roots which had
cover slip, been cut off?
- Tap the cover-slip gently press with the Write down your findings, regarding the
blunt end of the needle or brush to cut roots and those that were not?
spread the material. We observe that by removing the tip of
- Observe the structure and arrangement the onion root, having a particular
of the cells. arrangement of cells, the growth of the root
in length is stopped.
- Draw diagram that you observed under
microscope. You have observed that cells are present
in groups. Cells in groups which are nearly
· Are all the cells similar?
similar in structure perform similar
· What is the arrangement of cells? functions. Such groups of cells are called
tissues.
14 Plant Tissues
Tissues that form outer coverings are
called as Dermal tissues.
Tissues that form the bulk of the plant
body, helping in packing other tissues
are called as Ground tissues.
Tissues that help in transport of
materials are called as Vascular tissues.
Fig-5 Growth of roots in onion bulb You have already observed some types
of tissues. To observe the various types of
One day Haritha went to a park with
plant tissues we need to know some
Latha. There she saw a gardener had been
techniques for preparing slides and cutting
cutting the tips of the plants with cutter. She
sections. See annexure-1 for the same.
had a doubt and asked the gardener.
Let us read the conversation Meristematic tissues
“How do the plants grow if the tips have Observe the given figure of a stained
been cut off?” section of a shoot tip.
He said “Branches will grow from the
sides”.
Later she saw another gardener, apical meristem
watering a stump. She went there and lateral meristem
asked.
intercalary
“Why are you watering the stump?” meristem
From all this we can conclude that Observe it under the microscope.
different types of meristematic tissues are Draw and label the diagram.
present both in the root tip and shoot tip. Compare it with figure given below
Cells in the meristematic tissues are
Meristematic tissues
- Small and having thin cell wall.
- Living with prominent nucleus and
Voscular tissue
abundant cytoplasm.
- Compactly arranged without Ground tissue
intercellular spaces.
- Continuously dividing cells. Dermal tissue
Let us learn about the other types of
tissues.
Activity-7 Fig-7 Dicot stem (TS) - Tissues
What are the similarities between the
Dicot Stem tissues shoot tip tissues and the tissues as
Prepare a temporary mount of the TS shown in the above figure?
of a dicot stem. Are all the cells similar in shape and
structure?
16 Plant Tissues
How many different types of Slowly remove it and observe that peel
arrangement of cells (in the form of under the microscope (by preparing a
tissues) could you see in the given temporary mount).
figure? See the arrangement of cells .Are all
You have already studied about the cells similar? Are there any spaces between
meristematic tissues. The other major the cells?
groups that we shall study now are dermal This activity shows a part of the dermal
tissue, ground tissue and vascular tissue. tissue of plants.
These develop from the cells of the Dermal tissue (Dermis) usually consists
meristematic tissues during the growth and of a single layer of tissues showing
repair of the plants parts. variations in the types of cells. On the basis
Dermal Tissue of their functions and location. This tissue
What kind of arrangements do you is studied as three different types-
observe in the outer layer of the TS of epidermis (outer most layer), mesodermis
stem? (The middle layer) and endodermis (the
We can find the dermal tissue over the innermost layer).
entire surface of the plant body. The walls of the cells of dermal tissue
We will do the following activity to are thicker as compared to the cells of
observe the dermal tissue more closely. meristematic tissues. In desert plants it may
Activity-8 be even more thick and waxy. Small pores
are seen in the epidermis of the leaf, called
Rheo leaf - Dermal tissue. stomata. They are enclosed by two kidney
- Take a fresh leaf of Rheo or Betel plant shaped cells, called guard cells. Cells of
- Tear it with a single stroke, so that a the roots have long-hair like parts, called
thin whitish edge can be seen at torn root hairs.
end.
Guard Cells
Stomatal Aperture
Cuter Wall Inner Wall
Epidermal Cells
Chloroplasts
Stomata
The cells of the parenchyma are soft, Collenchyma tissues have thicker
thin walled and loosely packed. The walled, longer cells compared to
Parenchyma which contains chloroplasts is parenchyma.
called “Chlorenchyma”. The Parenchyma In the sclerenchyma the cells are thick
which contains large air cavities or spaces walled and compactly arranged with nearly
is called “Aerenchyma”. The Parenchyma no spaces between them.
which stores water or food or waste
Let us observe the ground tissue of some
products is called “Storage Tissue”.
other stems
18 Plant Tissues
Activity-9
Take permanent slides of Chlorenchyma, Arenchyma, Storage Tissue in your laboratory
observe under microscope find out the characters and differences write in your notebook.
Do you know?
Nehemiah Grew (1641-1712) was practicing
physician and worked as the secretary of the Royal
Society, London. He began his work on the study of
internal structure of the plants in the year 1664.
Grew’s fundamental inference was “Every plant organ
consists of two types of organical parts. One is pithy
and other is ligneous part”.
Grew gave the term “parenchyma” for the pithy part.
Grew initiated the study of tissues (Histology) in plant
bodies and published his work as the book ‘Anatomy of
Nehemiah Grew
Plants’ in the year 1682. (1641-1712)
Vascular Tissue
plant is kept in red coloured water. Some
We know that roots can absorb water of the parts of the plant turned red. Do the
from the soil and send it to other parts of same experiment again by keeping a small
the plant. The leaves and other green parts plant (with roots) in red coloured water?
prepare food and supply it to all the parts Leave it for two hours. Now cut a T.S. of
of the plant. the stem and observe it under the
Let us study the tissues involved in microscope.
transportation. Which portion of the plant is
We had performed an experiment on responsible for this transport?
transportation in class VII, in the chapter Draw a rough sketch of the portion and
on plant nutrition. We had seen that if the mark the portion that appeared red.
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What do you conclude from your observation?
The tissues involved in transportation are vascular tissues. They are composed of different
types of cells and their specific arrangements.
Xylem
Phloem
Vascular
bundle
Fig-11 TS of stem
The part that appeared red is Xylem plants. Hence they are known as
tissues, while the cells adjacent to these conducting or vascular tissues. xylem and
(As shown in the figure 12) are of phloem phloem together form the vascular
tissues. Xylem is responsible for transport bundles.
of materials away from the root. Phloem The vascular tissue gives mechanical
helps in the transportation of the material support to the plant as well.
away from the photosynthetic parts of the
XYLEM PHLOEM
epidermis
cortex fibre sieve
pith sieve
trachieds
companion
sieve
vessel
xylem
phloem
phloem
xylem
20 Plant Tissues
Xylem contains elongated tracheid water to great heights in the plant body. It
cells, tubular vessels, fibres and is up to nearly 200 ft in Eucalyptus plants
parenchyma Phloem contains long sieve and up to nearly 330 ft in the red wood trees.
cells and sieve tubes, companion cells, We have seen in this lesson that plants
fibres and parenchyma. have different types of tissues which are
Do you know the vascular tissues carry arranged in specific manner to carry out
different functions in the plant body.
Key words
22 Plant Tissues
ANEXURE
In this technique fine sections of the material are cut. Figures in next page will
help you to understand this technique.
To get section cuttings pith material is taken as the support. A slit is made in the
pith material longitudinally.
The specimen (root or stem or leaf or bud) is inserted in the slit for section
cutting.
To get longitudinal section (LS) the specimen should be inserted in the pith
material transversely.
To get transverse section (TS) the specimen should be inserted in the pith material
longitudinally.
Thin sections should be cut, using the blade as a tool.
Collect the cuttings in a watch glass with water.
Select one thin section and put it on a glass slide with the help of a small brush.
Put a drop of glycerin on it.
Stain with a drop of safranin.
Gently cover with the cover-slip using needle.
Use blotting paper to remove the excess water or glycerin or stain.
Then observe under the microscope.
(d) Cutting specimen to get TS (e)Inserting the Specimen to get TS (f) Section cutting with blade
(g) Taking the thin section with brush (h) Keeping the section on the slide (i) Putting a drop of water,
Glycerin
(j) Staining with safranin (k) Covering with cover-slip (l) Obsere under Microscope
24 Plant Tissues
Chapter
Animal tissues
We had learned about plant tissues in two tissues. Some tissues carry
the earlier chapter. Do animals also have information like responses.
the four major groups of tissues as in We will try to learn more about the
plants? To study about the animal tissue we tissues by doing the following activities.
can take examples of tissues present in
some animals that we see around us. In the Lab Activity
chapter on plant tissues we observed that
different types of functions were carried Aim: Identification of tissue in
out by different tissues. We will try to see collected sample.
whether this happens in animals also. Apparatus: Microscope, slide, dil Hcl,
We know that different organ systems forceps, brush.
work to carry out different functions. Procedure: Collect a small piece of
chicken with bone from your nearby
Enlist them: chicken centres or market.
1. …………………........................... For observing each type of tissue, you
2. …………………........................... need to follow specific procedure. After
3. …………………........................... completion of every activity, do not forget
Do some tissues help the organs to to draw the diagram and answer and discuss
carry out their functions? the questions.
How do they do so? Discuss with Put it in dilute HCl for two hours.
your friends and write. Take the skin part of chicken peice.
There are different kinds of tissues Place the material with forceps or
in the animals to perform different brush on the slide.
functions like plant tissues. Some tissues Then keep the another slide on it
cover and protect the body. Some tissues and press both gently.
helps in the movement which is performed Observe under microscope
by muscles and bones and other types of Draw the diagram of what you
tissues make connection between these observe under microscope in your
Free distribution by A.P. Government 25
note book. Compare your diagram
with the following picture.
Fig-2 Blood
26 Animal Tissue
Are the functions of all the above
tissues the same?
Let us study about tissue in our body.
Epithelial Tissue:
(Epi means-Outer, Theliuam means-Tissue)
Fig-3 Muscle Epithelial tissues are present in the
skin, lining of mouth, lining of blood
Now try to find out the answers.
vessels, lung alveoli and kidney tubules.
How are the cells arranged?
Do you find any difference Activity-1
between skin cells and muscle
cells? Collect the substance lining of mouth
If you want to observe the bone by using wooden spoon and observe this
tissue in the chicken bone, settle it under microscope. Draw the diagram that
in vinegar or diluted Hcl over night. you observed in the microscope, in your
It is better to do this one day before note book.
your discussion in the class. Then How are the cells arranged
only the bone becomes soft. Take Are there any inter cellular spaces?
a piece from it by using knife. The epithelial tissue, extremely thin
Do you find any relation among and flat, form a delicate lining. This is called
these tissues? as squamous epithelium. We find this type
Is this tissue useful for movements of epithelium in oesophagus, lining of
in our body? mouth, lining of blood vessels, lung alveoli
There are four types of tissues in the where transportation of substances
animals selectively occurs through permeable
Covering or protecting tissue, membrane (you will learn about
inside or outside of animal body, permeability next chapter transportation
is epithelial tissue. substance through plasma membrane).
A loosely spaced and imbedded in Apical Suface
intra cellular matrix whixh makes
connection between organs is
Nucleus
called Connective Tissue.
The tissue which is responsible for
movements in our body is known
Basolateral Suface Basement Membrane
as muscular tissue.
A specialized tissue that responds
to internal, external stimuli, nerves Fig-4 Squamous Epithelium
tissue.
Free distribution by A.P. Government 27
The epithelial cells in skin are arranged Activity-3
in the form of layers. This is called as
stratified squamous epithelium. Take a permanent slide of columnar
epithelium from the slide box and observe
Think, why are the epithelial cells
under microscope.
in skin arranged in the form of layers?
If you drink hot tea or chilled cool
drink, how would you feel?
If your skin burns or wounded
which tissue would effected.
Activity-2
Take a permanent slide of cuboidal
epithelium from your laboratory slide box
and observe under microscope. Draw the Fig-6 columnar epithelium
picture in your note book. How are the cells
Draw the figure that you observed
arranged?
under microscope
How are the cells? Do you find any
hair like projections on the outer
surface of epithelial cells.
These types of cells are present where
absorption and secretion occurs. Try to
think where do this type of epithelial
tissues present in your body?
Do you know?The skin is also a kind of
Fig-5 Cuboidal Epithelium epithelial tissue. Where does nails, and hair
grow from. The scales of fishes, reptiles
These are the cuboidal epithelial cells and feathers of birds also grow from
form the lining of kidney tubules. The ducts epithelium. These are modified epithelial
of salivary glands were providing cells. You learn more about them in the
mechanical support. chapter: Adoption in Ecosystem.
Do you know? Connective tissue
Sometimes a portion of epithelial tissue If you tilt any part of your body, what
folds inward and formed a multi cellular will happen to internal organs? Is there any
gland. Hence it is called as granular displacement? The internal organs located
epithelium. at specific places ,because there is no
displacemet in organs due to connective
tissues. They connect organs and muscles.
28 Animal Tissue
These tissues are called connective tissue. Why do old people shiver in winter
Connective tissues help in binding the when compared to youngsters? Is there any
other tissues and organs together and insulator like substance to prevent the
provide a frame work and support to various escape of heat energy during winter?
organs in the body. These tissues also play Fat storing
a major role in the transport of material adipose tissue is
from one tissue to another. They also help found below the
in the body defence, body repair and skin and between
storage of fat. There are different types of internal organs.
connective tissues, each performing a The cells of this
different function. tissue are filled
How do glass wear items carry for with fat
longer distance? globules.
Fig-8 Adipose tissue
Areolar tissue is one type of Storage of fat
connective tissue which joins different also acts as insulator.
tissues. It helps in packing and helps to keep Are all tissues in our body smooth and
the organs in place. These cells are called soft?
fibroblasts. These are the major Which tissue gives definite shape to
components in this type of connective body of vertebrae?
tissue. These cells secrete fibrous material Bone is another type of connective
which holds the other tissue in position. tissue; it forms the frame work that
These cells also help in repair of the tissues supports the body. It is a major component
when they are injured. of the skeletal system of several vertebrae
(except some fishes like sharks).
Mat cell
Do you know?
Yellow elastic
Bone is made of calcium phosphate
fibres
and calcium carbonate. These salts are
Phagocyte
secreted by cells called osteocytes.
White fibres These cells are present in the central
Fibroblast hollow portion of the bone called bone
marrow.
30 Animal Tissue
Story of blood Cells present in blood are corpuscles.
They are three types 1. RBC 2. WBC 3.
Recall the activity 2. Blood is also a
Blood platelets.
tissue which is having different
components. Let us know more about Red blood cells also known as
blood. erythrocytes are red in colour. They have
red coloured protein called haemoglobin.
There is red stream that flows in closed
Because of haemoglobine blood is red in
canals in our body. Think what is it?
colour, which helps in the transport of
The red stream that flows in closed tubes
oxygen and carbon dioxide 1ml of human
in our body is blood. It is also a type of
blood has about 5 millions of red blood
connective tissue. Blood explains many
cells which live for 120 days in blood.
things about us. Blood is the source to
We can make a chain of red blood cells
identify our wellness or illness. It is very
around the earth at equator with 7 circles.
interesting to know about blood current in
When you are in mother’s womb your RBC
our body. There is highly sophisticated and
are formed in the liver and spleen. After
well developed mechanism to circulate the
your birth these RBC are generated from
blood to the entire body. Our heart pumps
the bone marrow of long bone. All mammals
the blood 36 thousand liters of blood in the
except camel and Ulama have red blood
distance of 20 thousand kilometers in the
cells without nucleus.
time period of 24 hours. Blood is red in
colour. Animals can not be our relatives. Do The second type of cells present in
you agree with the statement that animals blood are white blood cells. These cells do
with red coloured blood. The blood is always not have haemoglobin, hence they are
not red in all animals. The cockroach has colourless cells or leucocytes. These cells
white blood where as there is blue coloured are less in number when compared to the
blood in snail. It is really a wonder that blood RBC. There are two types - granulocytes
appears in different colours. and agranulocytes.
Normal adult human beings have about There are three types of cells in the
5 litres of blood. A chief component in granulocytes - Neutrophils, Basophils and
plasma is water. Esinophils. These cells attack and destroy
the microorganisms that enter the blood.
Besides water, it also has several Some white blood cells sacrify their
nutrients such as glucose, amino acids, life to fight against external enemy (micro
proteins, vitamins and hormones etc. organisms). These dead WBC come out of
required for the body and excretory wound. This is generally called ‘pus’.
products such as lactic acid, urea, salts etc. There are two types of agranulocytes
Plasma also contains factors responsible lymphocytes and monocytes. Lymphocytes
for blood clotting. Herarine helps to secret anti - bodies to guard against foreign
prevent blood clotting in blood vessels. material that enter into blood. So they are
32 Animal Tissue
3. Place one drop of the toothpick every time. The wax
corresponding antiserum (at room pencil circle will help to keep the
temperature) near the edge but sample isolated.
within each of the circles as shown 9. Watch to see if any of the samples
in Figure 2. show agglutination. The
agglutination will appear as the
grainy clumps of red blood cells
(RBCs) suspended in a clear
solution. Rh is slower to
agglutinate, so do not give up too
Fig-14 Addition of anti-sera soon.
on the glass slide. A B Rh
4. Choose a finger (usually left ring
finger). Clean this fingertip with an
alcohol in a cotton ball and let it
dry. Keep the cotton ball nearby, as
it is needed again. Dangle the hand Fig-15 Blood added on the glass slide.
down to increase the amount of
blood in the fingers. Result and inference :
5. Press on the bottom of the Determine the blood type depending on
fingertip with the thumb of the the result. Following table can be used to
same hand (to help hold blood in determine the blood type:
the fingertip) and quickly prick the Table: Determination of blood group
fingertip with the help of a needle. (type).
Note: The needle is sterile, so do not touch
Anti-A Anti-B Type
the tip with anything before using it.
6. Quickly, let one drop of blood get Yes No A
into each circle but not touching No Yes B
the anti-sera. Do not touch any of
the anti-sera. Yes Yes AB
7. After putting three drops of blood, No No O
apply gentle pressure to the wound
Independent of whether agglutination
with cotton ball.
occurs in anti-A and anti-B sera, clumping
Remember to properly dispose the may or may not occur in anti-RhD serum.
used needle. If agglutination occurs in anti-RhD serum,
8. Use a toothpick to mix the blood the Rh factor is positive; and if it does not,
and antiserum and stir gently. Do it the Rh factor is negative.
for each of the circles using a fresh
Free distribution by A.P. Government 33
Result should Note in the given table Muscular tissue consists of elongated
Sl.No Name Blood Group cells called muscle fibres. This tissue is
responsible for movement in our body.
Muscles contain special protein called
contractile proteins which contract and
relax to cause movement.
During winter, body shivers. Why?
Note: While taking blood samples don’t use When the body is exposed to cold air,
same needle for all. It is very dangerous. It we shiver. During shivering muscles
spreads different diseases. You should use contract and relax producing large amount
disposoble needles for each pupil. It is of heat. This keeps the body heat.
better to conduct such kind of test only with Based on their structure, location and
the help of Health Inspector. function, muscles are three types. They are
Muscle Tissue: striated muscle, non-striated muscle,
If you are wounded deeply, a deep scar cardiac muscle.
would form along with ditch? If we are We can move some muscles by our
wounded on skin, a lighter scar would form. conscious effort. For example the muscle
Why? The skin cells have regenerating present in inner limbs move when we want
character. Think about the muscle cell. Will them to, and stop when so decide. Such
they get regenerated like epithelial cells? muscles are called voluntary muscle. These
Muscles are responsible for the muscles also called as skeletal muscles as
movements of hands and legs and also of they are mostly attached to bones and help
several internal organs such as intestine and body movement; these muscles show
heart. Small amounts of muscle tissues also alternate light and dark bands or striations.
present in blood vessels. These helps in As a result, they are also called striated
increasing or decreasing the diameter of muscle. The cells of this tissue are long,
the blood vessel and thus the blood flows. cylindrical, un branched and having many
Heart is made of only one type muscle cells nuclei in the body (multi nucleated).
and they help in pumping the blood.
How do muscles contract and relax? Intercalated disks
Cross striations
Sarcolemma Nucleus
Sarcoplasm
Damaged tissue
Myocytes
Striated muscles Non-striated muscles Cardiac muscles
Fig-16
34 Animal Tissue
Activity-5
Collect three types of muscle slides (Striated muscles, Non-striated muscles, Cardiac
muscles) from slide box. Then observe these under microscope. Write your findings in the
following table.
Sl.No Striated muscles/ Non-striated muscles/ Cardiac muscles/
Characters Characters Characters
The movement of food in alimentary How would you know the water is hot?
canal or the contraction and relaxation of Or cold? If you put your leg on a sharp edged
blood vessels are involuntary. We can not stone while walking, how do you feel?
really start them or stop them simply by The feelings like the above situations
wanting to do so. Smooth muscle or is because of specialized mechanism in our
involuntary muscles control such body. It works like electric current passing
movements. They are also found in the Iris through wires. Brain, spinal cord and nerves
of the eye, in uterus and in the bronchi of play active role in this mechanism.
the lungs. The cells are long with pointed
ends and having a single nucleus (uni
Activity-6
nucleate). They are also called un striated Collect the slide of nerve cells from
muscle. slide box. Then observe these under
Can you tell why are they called as un microscope. Write your findings
striated muscle? Nerve cells are the only cells in the
The muscles present in the heart are body which do not have the ability of
responsible for pumping of blood. The cells regeneration. These are very specialized
are long branched and have nuclei. Cells are cells. No two neurons or nerve cells in the
joined to each other at their end. All the nervous system have same appearance.
muscle cells in cardiac muscle have Cells of nervous system are highly
striations. Though it resembles the striated specialized for transmitting the stimulus
in its structure, it is an involuntary muscle. very rapidly from one place to another
Nervous cells within the body. We can identify 3 distinct
parts in nerve cells. They are 1. Cell body
If you put your fingers in a glass of hot
or cyton 2. Axon 3. Dentrites
water, how do you feel?
Axon
Nucleus
Myelin sheath
Key words
Tissue, Epithelial tissue, Connective tissue, Insulator, Bone narrow, bone,
cartilage, Connective tissue, Muscle tissue, Nerve tissue.
36 Animal Tissue
Improve your learning
Oxygen
Glucose
Proteins
Fats
Vitamins
Minerals
Carbon dioxide
Wastes
Identify and tick mark which Can you name any other
substances should go in and which substances, which should enter into
substances should go out of the cell. the cell?
Which substances should enter into Which substances should enter into
the cell? Why? the cell and go out of the cell?
Which substances should come out You know that cell performs different
of the cell? Why? functions. For these different types of
There are so many plants and animals groups of them on the basis of differences
around us. We know very little about them. and similarities found among them. This
Most of them belong to a world not visible helped to identify largely varied and closely
to the unaided eye, as you have already related groups of organisms.
studied in the chapter on, ‘Microbial Thus our knowledge of the entire living
World’. The types of organisms that we have world depends on first making meaningful
studied so far are also in lakhs! Existing from groups to carry out our study in a systematic
mountain peaks to deserts and to the deep manner.
oceans, from extreme cold conditions to In this lesson we will try to study the
extreme hot ones and many more, such diversity present among several living
diversity is the symbol of nature. organisms, classify and appreciate natures’
Studying about diversity as it is, would miracle.
be a very chaotic and difficult task.
Moreover describing and naming each
Diversity in plants
organism individually without knowing the Activity-1
organisms that might be sharing common
characteristics would be insignificant. Thus Observation of plants
people who have tried to study diverse Collect leaves from different plants.
organisms in nature have tried to make Observe them carefully and fill the table.
S.No. Name of the Length Width of Colour of Shape/Size Margin of Venation
plant (the of the the leaf the leaf of the leaf the leaf of the
leaf of which leaf leaf
is taken)
2.
3.
4.
5.
In case you do not know names The following activity leads us into the
write a number or give name on systematic way of grouping. You will again
your own. need the soaked and softened seeds for this
Note down what differences that you purpose.
observed. Open the given seeds. When you try to
Name any character as mentioned in the do this with peanut seeds, two thick
table that helped you to roughly divide the portions come out which are its cotyledons.
sample of seeds into two groups. See if you find such structures in other
seeds taken by you. If needed, you can take
help of hand lens as well.
What differences did you observe The examples of insects given above
with regard to legs? are of different species. Hence they show
What differences did you observe a lot of difference and we say they are
with regard to wings? diverse. If we were to compare insects of
Is there any relationship between the same type that is to say two houseflies
the number of wings and legs? we would perhaps still find some
Did you find any two insects with same differences(try it out yourself) and these
characters? If yes, display in the class. If would be variations.
no, note down the differences in your note Let us see some variations that are
book. present in human populations
Even though all these are insects and Variations in humans
you see that they show several differences. Activity-6
Can you find at least one character that is
similar to the whole group, what is it? Variation in animals (external
How would you group insects? Would characters)
it be based on number of body segments or
Do this activity in a group of atleast 10
number of legs they have?
children. Draw the table in your notebook
and fill it.
2. Neemplant -2
Fungi
Observe the specimen and diagrams
Fig-5 Bread mould, Mashroom, Yeast
given below and answer the following
questions.
Plantae
What is the colour? Can they Several plants grow around you. Do
prepare their own food as green all of them produce seeds?
plants? Think if grass produces
Make a sketch of the main parts of the seeds(hint:compare with rice plants
body. and think).
Do you find root like structures? Name some plants that produce
Guess why? seeds.
60 Diversity in Living Organism
Which part of the plant produces
seeds? Where is it located?(recall
structure of plant parts studied in
earlier classes)
Do all plants have a definite
structure to produce seeds?
Plants are diverse in nature. The basis
of classifying them is the way they acquire
their food, the type of reproductive
structures they have and the way they
reproduce. They are multicellular, Fig-6 Mass
eukaryotic with cell walls. They are usually These are not exactly flowers but
autotrophs and use mainly chlorophyll for structures that contain seed like structures
photosynthesis. called spores. Spores contain very little
The first level of classification among food while the seed stores a lot of it.
plants depends on whether the plant body Moreover where seeds are produced from
has well differentiated, distinct parts. ovule of flower, spores are produced within
The next level of classification is based structures called as sporangium in a
on whether the differentiated plant body has different manner.
special tissues (vascular tissues) for the If you get a fern to observe, try to see
transport of water and other substances the brownish or blackish dot like structures.
within it. Further classification looks at the These are the spore bearing bodies.
ability to bear seeds and whether the seeds
are enclosed within fruits.
Lets look at some plants like moss and
ferns more closely.
Activity-8
Fig-7 Sporangium
Observation of moss plants through
Plants like moss and fern which do not
hand lens.
produce flowers and have sporangium as
You can collect mosses from the reproductive
greenish velvety growth on bricks during structures are
the rainy season. Scrap a bit of this greenish called non-
growth over a slide and observe with a hand flowering
lens or under a dissection microscope. You plants or
may find structures like that shown in the cryptogams,
fig-5. those that Fig-8 Mango seed
Cryptogams
Phanerogams
( Non- flowering ( flowering &
and non -seed seed bearing )
bearing)
Brayophyta
Pteridophyta Gymnosperms Angiosperms
( have false
roots & (true roots & (naked seeds) (seeds in a
leaves) leaves) fruit)
Vertebrata
These animals have a true vertebral
column and internal skeleton, allowing a
completely different distribution of muscle
attachment points to be used for movement.
Vertebrates are bilaterally symmetrical,
Hippocampus
triploblastic, coelomic and segmented, with
complex differentiation of body tissues and
organs. All chordates possess the following
features:
(i) have a notochord
(ii) have a dorsal nerve cord
(iii) are triploblastic
(iv) have paired gill pouches
(v) are coelomate.
Vertebrates are grouped into five
classes.
1. Pisces 2. Amphibians
3. Reptiles 4. Birds / Aves
5. Mammals
66
Animals with Notochord (Notochord replaced by vertebral column in adults)
5 4 3 2 1
Key words
Flora, fauna, diversity, variation, classification, evolution, kingdom, domain,
phylum, class, order, family, genus, species, nomenclature
7. Make a flow chart of invertebrates in the kingdom Animalia, based upon their
characteristic features. (AS 5)
8. Write some common characters of Pisces, Reptilia and Aves. (AS 1)
9. Name the kingdom to which these organisms belong according to Whittaker.(AS1)
ANNEXURE-1
!
Do not have have differentiated plant body
differentiated plant
body
!
!
!
Bryophyta
!
!
Do not produce produce seeds
seeds ( Cryptogams) ( Phanerogams )
!
Pteridophyta
!
Gymnosperms Angiosperms
!
Have seeds
Have seeds with
two cotyledons with one cotyledons
Dicots Monocots
!
Porifera
!
!
No body cavity between Pseudocoelom Coelomate
epidermis and gastrodermis
!
Nematoda
!
Coelenterata, platyheleminthes
!
!
Mesodermal cells from a Coelom fromed from pouches
single cell during growth of pinched off from the endoderm
the embryo
!
!
!
No Notochord Notochord
Annelida, Mollusca,
present
!
Arthrolpoda
Echinodermata Chordata
!
Protochordata Vertebrata
!
!
!
We enjoy the beauty of nature with our some activity (called as stimuli). As for
eyes, the melodious music with our ears, example tasty foods draw us towards them
the fragrance of flowers with our nose, the and our mouth starts watering. Our senses
taste of food with our tongue and feel the also help us locate mates, seek shelter, and
cool breeze on our skin. What do we do recognize our friends. Incidentally, our
when suddenly bright light falls on our eyes senses also give us the opportunity to find
or a hot utensil is touched by chance? All pleasure in music, art, athletics, etc.
these situations show just how our senses There are yet other things that our
pick up informations and react to them. senses do. You may have experienced
Our senses aren't just a part of us, they feeling hurt to see someone in pain.
define us. This is because nothing that we Usually when we have strong emotional
experience in our life, from the most ties to someone and when he or she
important to the most boring, would be experiences pain, so do we( not just
possible without the intricate power of our emotional ties we could be influenced by
senses. situations not directly related to us and yet
Nothing in the entire universe of feel the pain e.g. sympathising and feeling
scientific exploration can even come close pain of drought affected people).
to matching the ability of our brain to use How do our senses accomplish all this?
information sensed by our eyes, ears, skin, The complete answer is complex, but it
tongue, and nose to produce a rich sensory involves one elegantly simple idea that
experience in a matter of milliseconds! applies across the sensory system. Our
But how much do we know about sensory impressions of the world involve
our senses? nerve signals. These play a very important
role in the way we react or respond to
What do our senses do? various stimuli or even to same stimuli in
Our senses have several roles to play. different situations.
They aid our survival by directing us toward For example generation of flavor
certain informations of our environment preferences by our brain is usually based
that are important for us and influence on what our body needs. Like cooked fish
Free distribution by A.P. Government 75
may not smell good to some people. But if biting you on your leg through your eyes.
the person is very hungry and has no other The response works through motor nerves
option and particularly if the body has a from the brain to your hands to strike and
need for protein, fish may suddenly smell kill it.
good!
Stimuli from the environment around
are received by our body through some
sense organs. As we already know, they are
the eyes, ears, nose, tongue and skin. Let's
try to understand the path of receiving a
stimulus to expressing a response
(sensation).
Stimulation to Sensation
There are certain conditions,
substances etc in nature that trigger the
Fig-1 schematic representation
process of sensing them by our body. These
of nerve stimulation to response.
are stimulants. Information carried by these
stimulants are picked up by certain organs Activity-1
called as receptors present in our sense
Note down a few lines of any text in
organs and converted into nerve signals.
your book.
These are carried to the brain and processed
to create a sensation. For example when Write about the stimuli and responses
reflected light (stimulus) from the surface and the sensory and motor functions with
of a green leaf and its surroundings reaches respect to the sense organs involved.
receptors in our eyes, it is converted into Do you think our sense organs work
nerve signals. These signals reach the brain together? Why, why not?
and are interpreted as green coloured shape All stimuli may not lead to responses.
against a background. We see this as the Only a particular level of stimulus will give
leaf. rise to a response. Moreover changes in
Brain is the centre for all the sensitive stimulus also go unnoticed if they are not
activities. It receives information through of a particular level.
sensory nerves that bring nerve signals Activity-2
from the sense organs and after
Dissolve a pinch of sugar in a glass of
interpretation sends off signals through
water. Drink a little of this. Does it taste
another type of nerves called as motor
sugary? Why?
nerves to parts that are to show the
response. For example, you see a mosquito You could try this for different
concentrations of sugar ,adding by proper
76 Sense Organs
quantification, that is, weighing and You may have often noticed while
preparing solutions to find out how much drinking tea or coffee that if you eat a very
sugar in solution starts off your sensation. sweet substance in between, your tea or
(you could take 1/4th teaspoonful sugar coffee appears to be less sweet as
each time which would be nearly 2grams, compared to the sips taken before eating
for your convenience) the sweet (Thus, salty snacks go with tea
or coffee!).
78 Sense Organs
Now ask your friend to keep the eye fluid whereas vitreous chamber is filled
closed for around two minutes. Now let with jelly like fluid.
her/him open the eye. Observe the size of Retina contains the cells, called rods
the small black portion in the centre. Ask and cones. The area of no vision, called
your friend to keep her/his eye open blind spot and the area of the best vision,
forcibly as you throw the beam of torch called yellow spot are present in the retina.
light this time. Observe what happens to the The yellow spot is also called Macula or
small dark portion. Fovea.
What happened to the small dark
Functioning of the eye:
portion called the pupil? Guess why.
The Visual Sensation
Structure of the eye You might think of the eye as a sort of
“video camera” that the brain uses to make
Our eye contains eye lids, eye lashes, motion pictures of the world. Like a
eyebrows and lachrymal glands. A thin camera, the eye gathers light through a
layer, called conjunctiva covers the front convex lens, focuses it, and forms an image
portion of the eye. The eye ball is located in the retina at the back of the eye. The lens,
in the eye socket. Only 1/6 portion of the turns the image left to right and upside down
eye ball is visible to us. (you may have studied in the chapter on light
Eye has three main layers. They are that we get an inverted /upside down image
sclerotic layer or sclera, choroid layer and through a convex lens). This visual reversal
retina. The outer most thick, tough, fibrous, may have influenced the very structure of
non-elastic and white coloured layer is the brain, which tends to maintain this
sclera. The sclera bulges and forms cornea. reversal in its sensory processing regions.
The end of sclera connects to the optic Thus, most information from the sense
nerve. The second layer is choroid layer. organs crosses over to the opposite side
This layer is black in colour and contains a of the brain. Likewise, “maps” of the body
lot of blood vessels. It encloses the eye in the brain’s sensory areas are typically
except the part pupil. The part formed by reversed and inverted. But while a digital
the choroid layer around the pupil is iris. camera simply forms an electronic image,
Radial and circular muscles are present in the eye forms an image that gets extensive
the iris. Biconvex Lens is present further processing in the brain.
immediately behind the pupil is attached to The unique characteristic of the eye
the ciliary muscles and suspensory that makes it different from other sense
ligaments. organs, lies in its ability to take the
The lens divides the inner eye ball as information from light waves then
aqueous chamber and Vitreous chamber. transform the characteristics of light into
Aqueous chamber is filled with water like neural signals that the brain can process.
Synaptic endings
Nuclei Discs
Rods
Cones
Cone
Cells and tissues in the eye yellow and the array of colours formed by
their combinations. Thus the yellow field,
Making the fine distinctions necessary
the bright red morning sun, the blue sky and
for color vision is the job of the nearly
all other colours in nature are sensed. Let
seven million cones containing the pigment
us observed the figure 5a, 5b.
iodopsin that come into play in brighter
light. Each cone is specialized to detect the The cones concentrate most in the very
light waves we sense either as blue, red, or center of the retina, in a small region called
80 Sense Organs
the fovea, which gives us our sharpest Activity-4
vision. With movements of our eyeballs,
Hold the text at arm’s length, close your
we use the fovea to scan whatever interests
right eye, and fix your left eye straight on
us visually, the features of a face or,
the fig-4. Keep your right eye closed and
perhaps, a flower.
bring the book slowly closer. When it is
There are other types of cells in the about 8 to 10 inches away the gap
retina that do not respond directly to light. disappears as it is on the blind spot of your
These handle the job of collecting impulses left eye. But you will not see a “hole” in
from many photoreceptors (rods and your visual field. Instead, your visual
cones) and shuttling them on to the nerve system “fills in” the missing area with
cells. Presence of some other receptor information from the blue line on either
cells sensitive to edges and boundaries of side.
objects and those that respond to light and
shadow and motion in the retina have also
been reported recently.
Bundled together, the nerve cells make
up the optic nerve, which transport visual
information from the eye to the brain. Fig-4
Wash eyes with fresh water atleast thrice or four times per day. Yes/No
Keep the distance between the book and eyes about 25 cm
while reading. Yes/No
Don’t give continuous stress and strain to the eyes.
Stop the work for some time when ever your eyes feel stressed. Yes/No
Eat food materials like green leafy vegetables
carrots etc rich in Vitamin A. Yes/No
How many points you got? Are you aware of your eyes?
Ear
Apart from hearing ear helps in maintaining the equilibrium of our body. Do you know
by which bone your ears made of? Observe the following picture how inside your ear is?
1. Auditory canal
2. Ear drum 1 34 5 6
2 7
3,4,5. Semicircular canals
6. Cochlea
7. Vestibular nerve
8. Cochlear nerve
9. Eustacian tube
10. Ear Asslcles 8
11. Outer ear (Pinna)
11 9
10
Fig-6 Ear
84 Sense Organs
If we have not our external ear what will The vestibular and cochlear nerves join
happen to us? together and form auditory nerve.
Middle ear: The Hearing/Auditory Sensation
Middle ear plays an important role in External ear collects the sound waves.
amplifying the vibrations received on the They enter into the auditorymeatus. Then
tympanum membrane. The chain of three they strike the tympanum. The vibrations
bones, malleus, incus and stapes helps to from the tympanum reach the malleus,
do the same. Oval window is a membrane, incus and stapes. They magnify the
covered ending of the middle year it opens intensity of the sound vibrations. The stapes
into the inner ear through round window. transmits the vibrations to the membrane
Internal ear or Inner ear: of oval window. Then they transmit to the
cochlea. The bacillary membrane is moved
Internal ear consist of bony labyrinth then the vibrations reach to the organ of
enclosing the membranous labyrinth. The carti. The impulses are sent to the brain
membranous labyrinth consists of through the auditory nerve. The hearing can
vestibule, three semicircular canals and be done according to the responses given
cochlea. The anterior part of the vestibule by the brain.
is sacculus and the posterior part is
utriculus. Nerve fibers from them form Activity-8
vestibular nerve. Take a plastic or Iron funnel.
The semicircular canals are connected Stretch a piece of rubber balloon
to the vestibule and filled with endolymph. and cover the wide part of the funnel
Vestibule and semilunar circles together with it. Tie it with rubber band. Put
form vestibular apparatus. If maintains the four or five rice grains on the
equilibrium of the body, pertaining to the sheet. Ask your friend to shout ‘Oh’
posture and balance of the body. at the narrow opening of the funnel.
Cochlea is a spiral shaped structure. It Observe the movements of the rubber
has three parallel tubes called scala sheet while he is shouting. Observe the rice
vestibuli, scala media and scala tympani. grains also. What happens to the rice
The first two are separated by the grains? Why?
vestibular membrane. The second and third Later remove the grains. Keep the
are separated by the basilar membrane. Scala wide part with balloon sheet on the
vestibli and scala tympani are filled with chest of your friend. Put the
perilymph. Scala media is filled with narrow end at the opening of your
endolymph. It contains organ of conrti and ear. Could you hear any sound?
tiny cells called primary sensory cells. What is it?
Cochlear nerve fibres form cochlear nerve.
86 Sense Organs
nose, are highly sensitive to odor Activity-9
chemicals. These odor chemicals can be
complex and varied. For example, freshly Blindfold your friend and ask him/her
brewed coffee owes its scent to as many to identify different things by smell like
as 600 volatile compounds (substances that lemon, tea, coffee, potato, tomato,
reach gaseous state quickly as they have low tamarind, spinach, curd, brinjal, etc. Keep
boiling points.) as many things but be careful in choosing
List out how many odors did you them. They should not be in powdered
able to smell? form. Don’t allow your friend to touch
More broadly, scientists have cataloged them.
at least 1,500 different odor-producing How does the sense of smell work in
chemicals. Exactly how the nose makes identifying some substances mentioned
sense of so many odors is not completely above?
understood, but we do know that nasal Taking care
receptors sense the shape of odor Take proper care of your nose by
molecules. washing it with water as you take bath and
We also know that the nose’s receptor during nasal infection by washing them with
cells (see figure11) transform information lukewarm saltwater.
about the stimulus into nerve signals and
convey it to the brain’s smell centers
Tongue
located on the underside of the brain. Structure of the tongue
There, our sensations of smell are initially Our tongue is made up of voluntary
processed and then passed on to many other muscles. It contains about 10 thousand
parts of the brain. Unlike all the other taste buds. The taste buds are located in the
senses, smell signals are not relayed walls of the papillae.
through the hypothalamus an important part Foliate
Vallate papillae
of brain that coordinates our nervous papillae
systems and endocrine or hormone
secreting system.
If you are suffering from cold did
you smell things in the natural way?
Do you find any relation between
smell and taste?
Fungi form Tongue
The hairs and mucous in the nasal cavity Taste buds
papillae Fig-8 Tongue
keep dust, germs and other unwanted
materials away from gaining entry into our Taste and our tongue
bodies through the nose. Like smell, taste is also a sense based
on identifying chemicals in food and the
Free distribution by A.P. Government 87
texture of it. But the similarity doesn’t end Developmental Changes in Taste
there: The senses of taste and smell have a Infants have heightened taste
close and cooperative working relationship. sensitivity, which is why babies try to sense
So many of the subtle distinctions you may everything by taste. This super sensitivity,
think of as flavors really come from odors. however, decreases with age. As a result,
(Much of the “taste” of an onion is odor, many elderly people complain that food has
not flavor. And when you have a cold, you’ll lost its taste.
notice that food seems tasteless because
your nasal passages are blocked.) Activity-9
Most people know that our sense of Close the eyes of your friend with a
taste, or gustation, involves four primary piece of cloth. Give her/him a piece of
qualities or dimensions: sweet, sour, bitter, ginger, garlic, tamarind, banana and jaggery
and salty. Generally our Telugu people one by one. Ask her/him to taste by just
consider six types of tastes (Shadruchulu) taking these one at a time on the tongue.
which includes spicyness, Vagaru but Remember that your friend needs to rinse
actually they are tastes. his /her mouth between each test.
Less well known, however, is a fifth Could your friend tell the taste by just
taste called umami . Umami is the savory putting the substances on the tongue?
flavor found in protein-rich foods, such as Now repeat the above experiment by
meat, seafood, and cheese. It is also asking your friend to take a bite and press
associated with monosodium glutamate the food on the palate. What difference does
(MSG) also called as “huching”, often used he or she feel now?
in Asian cuisine. As food enters our mouth, we bite and
Metallic taste is the taste of some chew it and press it against the palate with
artificial processed food material. our tongue. This releases the chemicals in
The taste receptor cells, located in the food that trigger off our taste buds to act
taste buds on the top and side of the tongue, and carry stimulus to the brain to be
sample flavors from food and drink as they processed for recognition of taste. The
pass by on the way to the stomach. These same taste bud is capable of producing
taste receptors cluster in small mucous- different signals corresponding to the
membrane projections called papillae. different chemicals in food.
Each is especially sensitive to molecules
Activity-10
of a particular shape.
Moving beyond the receptors on the Observe your tongue by standing in
tongue, a specialized nerve “hotline” front of the mirror by sticking your tongue
carries nothing but taste messages to out.
specialized regions of the brain. See how many different kinds of
structures you can see on your tongue.
88 Sense Organs
Compare with the given diagram. Wash the mouth cavity, after eating the
You can clearly see flake like structures food.
that are the filiform papillae. If any problem arises consult the doctor
The roundish structures are fungiform immediately.
papillae.
There are large roundish ones at the Think and Discuss
back of the tongue which are circumvallate
papillae. On the sides of the tongue the Why we are suggested not to take too
bump like structures are foliate papillae. cool or too hot food material.
Taste buds are present on all of these If you are suffering from fever that
except the filiform papillae that are not the time to your not able to enjoy the taste
sites of taste sensation. of food why?
Do you know? Skin
Each taste bud has a cavity with a The sense of touch had received
pore. The pore is called taste pore. The supreme importance in the sphere of
epithelial cells, surrounding the taste senses from ancient time. The organ
buds form taste cells or the receptors. involved is our skin.
The receptor cells and the cells 9
supporting them are situated in the 1
cavity. Each receptor cell connects to a 8
nerve fibre. All the nerve fibres connect
to main nerves that carry messages to
the brain and spinal cord for further 7
processing.
Activity-11
Blindfold your friend and ask him/her
to close his or her nose as well. Give a few 2 6
cumin seeds to your friend and ask him/ 3 4
5
her to chew. Ask your friend to identify what Fig-9 Skin
you gave. You could try this with a small
Structure of the skin
piece of potato as well.
1. hair 2. Oil gland
What do you observe? Why?
3. blood vessel 4. sweat gland
Taking care about the tongue 5. nerve 6. fat lobules
Clean and wash the tongue before going 7. endodermis 8. epidermis
to bed at night and after rising up in the 9. pore
morning.
Free distribution by A.P. Government 89
Our skin is the sense organ for touch. there is no sensation and with numbers
It contains cutaneous receptors for touch. depending on the number of points
The skin consists of two main layers, called identified.
epidermis and dermis. Repeat this with some of your friends.
Epidermis is the layer for protection. Where on the palm do you find
It has sweat pores and small hairs. It maximum sensation?
contains three layers. They are outer Where did you find minimum
stratum corneum or cornified layer sensation?
containing dead cells, middle granular layer Are palm sense patterns same for
containing living cells and inner malpighian all your friends?
layer containing the cells dividing The colour of the skin is due to the
constantly. Dermis lies below the presence of the pigment, called “melanin”.
epidermis. It is made up of elastic This pigment gets stimulation, when
connective tissue. It contains sweat glands, exposed to sun light. The skin becomes dark
sebaceous glands hair follicles, blood to protect other layers of the skin from
vessels and fats. harmful effects of light. Skin is sensitive
Skin and touch: to touch, temperature and pressure. It
Skin is the outer most covering of our contains the separate receptors such as
body. It regulates the body temperature and tactile receptors for touch, pacinian
eliminates certain waste material through corpuscles for pressure, nociceptors for
sweat. It is the sense organ of touch. The temperature etc.
sense of touch is done by the cutaneous
Activity-13
receptos. It is the largest organ of all. It
provides the first level of protection to the Press your thumb gently on the tip
body. of a sharpened pencil. Later press it on the
How sensitive is our skin? blunt end of the pencil.
How do you feel? Why?
Activity-12
Do you know?
Make bundles of three toothpicks. See In Braille script, the letters are written
to it that their pointed ends are at the same in the form of elevations and depressions.
level. Now ask your friend to make an So, the visually impaired students can read
outline of one of her/his palm. Ask you the script merely by touching.
friend to close her/his eyes. Now starting Taking care about skin:
from the tip of the thumb keep pricking We should take bath regularly
lightly with your toothpick bundle all over Use soap to clean the body
the plam and keep asking your friend how If any redness, itching, decolouration
many points she/he could identify each and rashes appear on the skin
time. Remember to record with w cross if immediately consult the doctor.
90 Sense Organs
Some of the diseases, affecting the skin Pellagra the disease due to the
are. deficiency of vitamines.
Viral diseases such as measles, Fungal diseases such as ring worm.
chicken pox etc. Sense organs are the gate way of
Bacterial diseases such as leprosy knowledge. We see, hear and feel the nature
Leucoderma, the disease due to the by these sense organs. Taking care of sense
deficiency of melanin. organs provide good health which leads to
better lively hood.
Key words
Sensory receptors, lacrinal glands, conjunctiva, sclera, cornea, iris, pupil,
choroid layer, suspensory ligaments, vitreous chamber, aqueous chamber, retina,
blind spot, fovea, optic nerve, night blindness, myopia, hypermetropia, cataract
colour blindness. pinna, ceruminous glands, sebaceous glands, auditory meatus,
malleus, incus, stapes, tympanum, vestibule, semilnar canals, cochlea, basilar
membrane, auditory nerve, chemoreceptors, olfactory sense fungiform papillae,
filiform papillae, vallate papillae, foliate papillae. Melanin, ceruminous glands,
sebaceous glands, cutaneous receptors, tactile receptors, leucoderma
1. The rationale behind seeing is just the impression of the image in the retina.
2. Ear functions only to hear.
3. Iris patterns are like finger prints used in identifying individuals.
4. Saliva helps the taste buds in taste sensation.
5. We are not able to adapt to sensations.
III.State the difference between the two (AS 1)
1. Rods and cones
2. Iris and Pupil
3. Pinna and Tympanum
4. Nasal cavity and ear canal
IV. How do the following processes occur? (AS 1)
1. When we see an object, a real inverted image is formed on the retina.
2. The sound waves, collected by the pinna are changed as vibrations.
3. We move our hand away from a hot object.
4. A pungent odour, makes us close our nose.
V. Fill in the blanks with suitable words. Then give reasons why the words
are suitable. (AS 1)
1. Chroid layer provides ……………… to the eye.
2. The relationship between the tongue and ……………… is more.
92 Sense Organs
3. Iris pattern is used for individual ………………
4. Area where optic nerve leaves the eye is called the ………………
5. The ear drum is the ……………….
VI Choose the correct option (AS 1)
1. This vitamin is essential for the health of eye.
a) Vitamin ‘A’ b) Vitamin ‘B’ c) Vitamin ‘C’ d) Vitamin ‘D’
2. Sensation is a complex pathway involving -
a) Sense organs b) Sense organs and nerve impulses
c) Sense organs,nerve impulses, brain
d)Brain and nerve impulses
3. The sound waves if not focused by external pinna and ear cannal will result in
a) Hearing several types of sound loudly b) Not hearing anything
c) Slight hearing d) Not being able to make out the type and origin of sound
4. The muscles of the eyeball of a person becomes non functional, the invariable
effect would be-
a) The person fails to close eyes
b) Fails to move eye and see colours clearly
c) Feels pain in the eye
d) The nerves reaching the muscles become nonfunctional.
5. The tongue of a person is exposed to a high salty taste then:
a) The person learns to taste salty things better
b) Loves tasting salty things
c) Hates tasting salty things
d) Fails to taste a less salty thing just after the exposure.
VII Draw and label the diagrams, showing the structure of the (AS 5)
1. Eye 2. Ear 3. Tongue
VIII How would you pay concern towards disabled people who is lacking sensory organs?
IX How do you appreciate the functions of sensory organs which helps us to enjoy
the beauty of nature? (AS 6)
X Form a group with five students in your class and collect eye diseases and its
characteristics by talking with ophthalmic assistant. (AS 4)
XI What happens if our skin loss its sensory nature? (AS 2)
XII Sagar is not able to listen things properly. Guess what would happen to
him. What suggestions you would like give to him? (AS 7)
Fig-1 (a) Butterfly on a flower (b) Gorilla at rest (c) A bird making a nest
94 Animal Behaviour
The study of animal behavior begins mates and forming into groups for protection,
with understanding how an animal’s etc.
physiology and anatomy are integrated with What is going on in the figure?
its behavior. Both external and internal Will you consider spinning the web
stimuli prompt behaviors external by spider as an instinct behaviour?
information (For example threats from Why or why not?
other animals, sounds, smells) or weather If your hand touches something hot or
and internal information (For Example sharpened are accidentally it automatically
hunger, fear). Scientists are drawn to the moves away. This is because of reflex
study of animal behavior for varied reasons action. Reflexes are also a type of instinct
and the field is extremely broad, ranging behaviour. We do not have to learn this.
from research on feeding behavior and Give two examples of reflexes?
habitat selection to mating behavior and
Imprinting
social organizations.
You might have observed this type of
Different types of Animal situations. Chickens and ducklings are able
Behaviour to walk almost immediately after hatching
There are several types of behaviours from the egg. Duckling can even swim after
in humans and other animals that have been a few days. They recognise their mother
described and investigated by researches. because of a behaviour type called
The following types have been studied so far imprinting.
Instinct
Imprinting
Conditioning
Imitation
Instinct
Instinctual behaviours are behaviours
that need not be learned. They can be
complex like making nest by birds, choose
Fig-4 Hen with ducklings
96 Animal Behaviour
Imitation
Imitation is a type of behaviour where
one animal copies another animal. Humans
often imitate each other, often without
realising it. When people talk to each other,
they may stand or sit in a similar way, and
copy each other’s movements. Scientists
Fig-6 Electric fences stop grazing animals think that this happens so that the speakers
straying feel more at ease with other.
Some scientists think that humans are
People and animals can be conditioned
the only animals that copy each other. Other
to avoid certain things. For example,
scientists have observed chimpanzees and
grazing animals get an unpleasant electric
other primates imitating each other. For
shock when they touch an electric fence.
example, chimpanzees can use sticks to
They eventually avoid the fence, even
spear juicy grubs to eat. Other chimpanzees
when it is turned off.
copy this behaviour. In this way they learn
Can you recall some other examples
new skills. Do you ever heard monkey
of conditioning? try to enlist at least five
imitate us. Read and discuss about the story
of them.
'Monkey and Hat marchant'
98 Animal Behaviour
So the box has been divided into Cover the box and leave the setup
four chambers with different for 15-20 minutes.
conditions i.e. light and dry, light Count the number of cockroaches
and humid, dark and dry, dark and in each chamber.
humid. Preparations are over. In which chamber the number of
Make four groups in your class. cockroaches is highest?
Each group will put several Compare your observations with
cockroaches into a choice of other groups. Write down the
chamber with four different differences if any.
conditions: From your experiment try to write
light and dry down a short note about behaviour
light and humid of cockroaches regarding their
dark and dry living conditions.
dark and humid
From the chapter ‘Our food’ in Class 6 kilometers .Can you estimate how much
you came to know that we require different area of land would be required to grow the
kinds of foods. They include various kinds quantity of grain needed for your family in
of seeds like wheat, rice, dal, different a year? You know if the members of a family
types of leaves like spinach, menthi and increase, food requirement also increases
many other things. In addition, non- accordingly. If the requirement cannot be
vegetarians eat meat, fish, eggs etc. While met it leads to food crisis. We know that
discussing food chains in the chapter population of our country increases every
‘Ecosystem’ we also learned that our diet year. Is the food production able to meet
as well as that of several of our domestic the need of increasing population? Does the
animals is eventually linked to plants. rate of food production increase
Try to estimate how much grain your proportionately to population growth? We
family consumes in a month. shall try to find out the answers to some of
Also, try to guess how much land is such questions by doing the following
required to grow this amount of grain? exercise.
Given below is the tabulated data of
A family consisting of four members
population growth and production of food
requires 50kgs of grains per month or
grain of the concerned decade. Read the
600kg per year. The area of land required
table carefully and find out answers for the
for the same is around 1.4 square
given questions.
Table-2
The table shows us the gains achieved How to increase the food
in production by using different methods. production?
For example, planting the seed at the
correct time resulted in a production gain We know that the cultivated land is
of 5,830 - 3,400 = 2,430 kg per hectare. very limited. If we make use of plenty of
land for cultivation some forests may be
Calculate the exact gain from each
destroyed. So we need to think of another
method mentioned in the table and note the
solution. Observe the following solutions.
results in the table.
1. Increasing the area of cultivated land.
You now have some idea about some
of the factors that affect the production of 2. Increasing production in the existing
various crops. land.
Let us now discuss the various factors 3. Developing high yielding varieties.
that affect the production of crops in more 4. Alternating crops.
detail. 5. Mixed crops.
6. Cultivating short term crops like Rabi.
Activity-1
Take a polythene bag. Cover the bag on
leaves and tie it. Keep it 4-5 hours. You
observe it. What did you find in the
polythene bag? Where did they come from?
Do this experiment during day time and
night time separately. Note the differences
in your note book.
January to December
Every time, any of these crops sown in Let us examine this question in more
a field, absorb these amounts of nutrients. detail.
Nutrients present in the soil are
Soil Nutrients
consumed by plants and are replenished or
If a field is cultivated for many years, returned to the soil in many different ways.
what would happen to the nutrient In nature the continuous process of death
content of the soil? and decay add nutrients to the soil and the
How does the soil get back or replenish process is too slow to be commercially
these nutrients? useful. Rotating crops, adding organic
Vermi Compost
To replenish soil nutrients, adding of wet with water. They collected house
natural manure is a good practice. Vermi hold waste of dry cattle dung from the
compost is one of the techniques in soil village to fill the bed. They did not use,
nutrient management. Let us read the wet dung. They were careful to avoid
following case study to know about vermi glass, polythene, rubber and metal
compost. objects in the bed.
The farmers are Bomma Raju Cheruvu After two weeks of making bed, they
of Vinjamur Mandal faced many problems kept thousand earth worms per square
in using of chemical fertilizers. They meter and covered the bed with Gunny
searched for alternate practices. Farmers bags to maintain 30 to 40% of moisture.
understand the importance of soil health. After 60 days they collected their first
They formed a group to grow vermi manure. Second time they, got the
compost with the help of Agriculture manure within 40 to 45 days. Every year
Field Officers of DOT centre. they got the manure 6 times from these
They constructed 10X1X1/2 meters beds. They got one ton of compost from
vermi compost beds in sheds which protect three tons of organic wastes. They said
these beds from direct sunlight and rain. that after using this organic manure,
They collected coconut, banana and investment on chemical fertilizers and
sugarcane leaves, coconut coir and dry other pesticides became reduced and the
black gram plants. They made them into quality their agricultural products
3 to 4 inches layer. This inner layer was increased.
Key words
Weeds, insecticides, fertilizers, fungicides, irrigated farming, unirrigated
farming, predatory insects, bacteria, immunity, stomata, carbohydrate, bacterial
culture, crop rotation, mixed crop, organic farming, vermi compost.
1. Suggest some ways in which our country could increase the production of rice to meat
atleast global limits. (AS1)
2. How are biofertilizers more beneficial as compared to chemical fertilizers? (AS1)
3. (a) Find out the adverse effects of chemical fertilizers needed for growing the high
yielding varieties of crops? (AS1)
(b) Can high yielding varieties be grown without them as well? How? (AS1)
4. What threats to nature do chemical fertilizers, pesticides, insecticides and herbicides
pose? (AS 6)
Free distribution by A.P. Government 123
5. What are the adverse effects of using high yielding varieties of seeds? (AS1)
6. What are the essential measures that a farmer needs to take before sowing the seeds of
a crop? (AS1)
7. Suppose you had a farm in a drought striken area of your state what crops would you
grow and how? (AS1)
8. What measures will you take to save your field from seasonal outburst of insects?
9. What basis would you adopt to explain to a farmer using chemical fertilizers switch
over to organic fertilizers? (AS 4)
10. A farmer had been using a particular insecticide for a long time. What consequences
will it have on- a) insect population b) soil ecosystem? (AS 2)
11. Venkatapuram village is in drought prone area. Somaiah wants to cultivate sugar cane in
his fields. Is it beneficial or not? You want to convey him-which questions will you ask
him? (AS 7)
12. Draw a block diagram of water resources in your village? (AS 5)
13. Ramaiah has soil testing done in his field. The percentages of nutrients are 34-20-45.
Is it suitable for cultivating sugar cane crop? Which crops can be cultivate without
using pesticides in Ramaiah’s field? (AS 2)
14. Organic manure is helpful to Bio diversity. How do you support this statement? (AS6)
15. Make a list of the major weeds in your area (you have already conducted the project).
Find out the weeds which are grown in different crops? (AS 4)
16. Spraying high dose of pesticides is hazardous to bio diversity and crop yielding. How
can you support this statement? (AS 6)
17. Natural pest controlling methods are useful to Bio diversity. Comment it? (AS 7)
a) Hybridization
In recent times the biotechnologists have developed high yielding varieties of different
crops particularly food grains and vegetables. By using hybridization methods and genetic
engineering techniques the seeds with desired characters are developed. You will learn
more about this in future courses.
Tomatoes are soft and fleshy but they are not suitable to preserve for more than week
days. If the tomato is somewhat harder and fleshy it would be suitable to preserve. So
biotechnologists select the desirable characters and develop hybrid varieties. Seedless
fruits like grapes and papaya are hybrid ones.
Think, why we need hybrid variety of paddy, millets and cereals?
Lab Activity
Hybrid tomato
b) Hybrid Varieties:
Biotechnologists develop hybrid varieties by crossing between two plants which have
genetically different characters and thus developing new variety with useful characters.
Euphotic zone
(sunlit zone) Brightly lit Upto 300c 0-200m Planktons, physalia, dolphins,
flying fish, green turtles, sea
anemones.
Bathyal zone
(twilight zone) Dimly lit 40c - 390C 200m-2000m Whales, lantern fish, red, brown
kelps. sea cucumbers, fish,
squids, octopus, sponges, corals
etc.
Abyssal zone
(dark zone) Dark 20- 30C 2000m-6000m Brittle star, angler fish, tripod
fish etc.
How many zones can you see in the What happens to the temperature
figure on the basis of light and pressure as depth increases?
penetration? Name them. Which zone has more animals?
What types of abiotic conditions Guess why?
do you find as per the given table? The above analysis shows that there are
What will affect adaptation to different oceanic zones with variations in
marine life other than the temperature, pressure, light etc. These
conditions shown in the table and abiotic factors give rise to various
figure? adaptations in organisms in the different
zones.
Free distribution by A.P. Government 137
Adaptations on the basis of light
penetration
Euphotic zone
The organisms living in this zone are
mostly floaters and swimmers. Animals in
this zone usually have shiny bodies
reflecting light away to merge with shiny
water surface are transparent. These usually
have very sharp vision. Plants are mostly Fig-10 Ray fish
green and photosynthetic activity is
maximum in this zone. Some flora and Abyssal zone
fauna of this zone are trouts, herrings,
These zones are
dolphins, jelly fishes, different type of coral
dark and cold
colonies which are extremely colourful,
throughout the year.
different types of algae & sea grasses
Photosynthetic
(emergent plant species: rooted to the
activity is absent.
sides, in marine ecosystems these are
Deep sea animals are
rooted in the continental shelf area)
mostly predators and Fig-11(a)
diatoms etc. Nearly 80% of marine flora
scavengers. The larger Angluar fish
and fauna are found in this zone.
forms have wide
mouths and huge curved teeth which
prevent escape of any prey. Absence of
skeleton, flattened bodies are some other
characteristics observed. Some also have
special structures that produce light on
their bellies, around their eyes(which are
usually nonfunctional that is, the organisms
Fig-9 Coral colonies are blind) and at the sides of their bodies,
some animals glow (shows bio
Bathyal zone
luminiscence) in the dark waters.
Most of the plants found in this zone
are the red and brown kelps, sponges, corals
even animals with tubular bodies like
squids and large animals like whales etc.
Some of these have a flat body like the ray
fishes. You may have big eyes sensitive to
very dim light.
Fig-11(b) Brittle star
138 Adaptations in Different Ecosystems
Do you know? Freshwater Ecosystems:
Electric Eel is an electric fish. It is
Fresh water ecosystems are stagnant
capable of generating power electric
water types as well as running water types.
shocks of upto 600 Volts, when it uses
They may vary in size from as small as a
for hunting self defence. It is an apex
puddle and pond to a large lake, river etc.
predator. Despite its name, it is not an
Osman sagar, Durgam cheruvu,
eel, but rather a knife fish.
Shamirpet lakes of Hyderabad and
Think and discuss Vaddepalli cheruvu of Warangal, Paleru
Cheruvu of Khammam, Kolleru lake of
Which organism among the two Krishna District are some fresh water lakes
shown above do you think is of our state.
present in euphotic zone? Does Pulikat lake of Nellore come
What kinds of adaptations can be under fresh water ecosystem or
seen in the organisms of the not. Why?
euphotic zone? Just like the marine ecosystems, to
What kind of adaptations can be study environmental conditions in lakes,
seen in the organisms of abyssal some zones are marked. The littoral zone,
zone ? limnetic zone and profundal zones on the
What differences can you find in basis of light penetration. Based on
the animals of bathyal zone when availability of light different kinds of
compared to animals of euphotic organisms are found in these zones.
(sunlit zone) and abyssal (dark Different factors like light, salt content,
zones)? food, oxygen effect the organisms and their
How organisms of different zones populations in different ways.
of marine ecosystem are adapted.
Mainly Seeds
Large Cactus finch Mainly insects
Warbler finch
Cactus seeds and parts
Buds and fruits
Cactus finch Cocos Island finch
Fig-18
Try to guess it there any relation for food and shelter and showed a lot of
between type of food taken and the variation even within the same species,
structure of beak. especially with respect to the form of
The seed eaters had thick and heavy beaks. He made a sketch of the same as
beaks. shown in the above figure. Thus he
The fruit eaters had stubby beaks. concluded that adaptation was something
The insect eaters had sharp and that an organism is undergoing
long beaks. . continuously, even within very closely
Darwin observed that these birds had related forms in a particularly
adapted to their immediate surroundings geographically separated area.
Key words
1. What do you understand by adaptations in organisms and why do they adapt? (AS 1)
2. With the help of two examples, explain how these organisms have adapted themselves
in the ecosystem? (AS1)
3. Collect some aquatic plants- cut the leaves and stems Observe them under
microscope and record your observations like air presence /absence of air spaces
etc., and answer the below. (AS 3)
a) Why do they float on water?
b) What make them float?
c) Are there any other reasons for their floating?
d) Draw a diagram of what you have observed under microscope?
4. What special adaptations can be seen in the following organisms? (AS1)
a) mangrove trees b) camel c)fish d) dolphins e)planktons.
Biological Chemicals
Abundance of biological activity Balanced
Humus available for plant nutrient uptake Available mcaro nutrients
Cycling of nutrients Optimal trace elements
Multiply it by 30 = ............... per month as Rural areas. Some of these wastes are
Multiply it by 365 = ............... per year decomposed but some are not. Let us do
the following activity. For this you need to
You will be surprised to note this
observe more than one month.
astonishing figure of the waste we are
Take a polythene bag/plastic bucket /
producing in a day. Do you know what
or any container. Fill half of it with soil.
happens to the waste materials we produce?
Keep wet wastes and other wastes in it.
Activity-2 (Wastes should include vegetable peels,
rubber, plastic etc). Add some more soil
Dumping and decomposing
and sprinkle water regularly on it. Dig it
We are producing tons of wastes in our and observe in 15 days intervals. Note your
daily activities. It is dumped at wherever observations in the table.
the vacant place is available in Urban as well
Material What has happened What has happened What has happened
in the 1st fortnight in the 2nd fortnight in the 3nd fortnight
Vegetable peels
Vegetable with
removed peel
Banana
Plastic cup
paper
rubber
Other
5%
Peat Waste
1%
Metal
7%
Organic
Composite Waste 32%
materials 8%
Fig-5 Soil pollutants
more available to plants. Thus, bio- adversely affect the quality of soil or its
degradable materials contribute directly to fertility Generally polluted water also
the fertility of the soil. But when the pollute soil. Solid waste is a mixture of
disposed amount of bio-degradable plastics, cloth, glass, metal and organic
materials exceed it contributes the matter, sewage, sewage sludge, building
imbalance in the nature creating negative debris, generated from households,
impacts. On the other hand, non- commercial and industries establishments
biodegradable materials directly contribute add to soil pollution. Fly ash, iron and steel
to land pollution due to the excessive slag, medical and industrial wastes disposed
amount and improper waste management. on land are important sources of soil
Thus, soil or land pollution can be pollution. In addition, fertilizers and
understood as addition of substances which pesticides from agricultural use which
154 Soil Pollution
reach soil as run-off and land filling by to subsurface strata, oil and fuel dumping,
municipal waste are growing cause of soil leaching of wastes from landfills or direct
pollution. Acid rain and dry deposition of discharge of industrial wastes to the soil.
pollutants on land surface also contribute The most common chemicals involved are
to soil pollution. petroleum hydrocarbons, solvents,
pesticides, lead and other heavy metals. The
Think and discuss
occurrence of this phenomenon is
Today what are the pollutants correlated with the degree of
produced from your school. How industrialization and intensities of
many of these are non-degradables. chemical usage.
A soil pollutant is any factor which
Causes of land pollution deteriorates the quality, texture and mineral
There are many different ways by which content of the soil or which disturbs the
land pollution can occur. Soils are biological balance of the organisms in the
commonly used as dumps for household soil. Pollution in soil has adverse effect on
and industrial wastes. In many intensively plant growth and living organisms in the
farmed areas, leaching of nutrients from soil.
manure or inorganic fertilizers and Pollution in soil is associated with
effluents from processing plants may lead Indiscriminate use of fertilizers
to high level of nitrate and other chemicals Indiscriminate use of pesticides,
in ground water. Atmospheric deposition insecticides and herbicides
where soil gets contaminated when air Dumping of large quantities of
pollution falls on to it, are much apparent solid waste
still contributing to soil pollution. Thus, on
Deforestation and soil erosion
the basis of sources of pollutants, soil
pollution can be classified into the Indiscriminate use of fertilizers
following categories: Soil nutrients are important for plant
Agricultural Soil Pollution growth and development. Plants obtain
Soil pollution by industrial carbon, hydrogen and oxygen from air and
effluents and solid wastes water. But other necessary nutrients like
Pollution due to urban activities nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium,
Soil pollution is caused by the magnesium, sulfur etc., must be obtained
presence of man-made chemicals or other from the soil. Farmers generally use
alteration in the natural soil environment. fertilizers to correct soil deficiencies.
This type of contamination typically arises Fertilizers contaminate the soil with
from the rupture of underground storage impurities, which come from the raw
links, application of pesticides, and materials used for their manufacture.
percolation of contaminated surface water Mixed fertilizers often contain nitrogen as
0.04ppm Producers
Key words
Our environment is composed of atmosphere, earth, water and space and the
interaction of the atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere is continuing
for years together.
Human and animal activities has interfered the composition and complex nature of
environment and hence the problem of pollution raised.
Soil is one of the three major natural resources alongside air and water composed
of minerals and organic matter along with air and water. Soil is the most abundant
and diverse ecosystem on the earth
We have learnt about environmental on from one level to the other as well as
pollution and ecosystem in the previous from one state to the other. The cycles that
chapter. Living things within an ecosystem involve the flow of nutrients in on earth
interact with each other and also with their (elements essential for the living cell) from
non-living environment to form an environment to organisms and back through
ecological unit that is largely self- certain pathways are known as
contained. Sometimes this renewal process biogeochemical cycles.
is gradual and gentle. Sometimes it is
Biogeochemical cycles
violent and destructive. Nevertheless,
ecosystems contain resources within A constant interaction, between the
themselves which can regenerate. biotic and abiotic components of the
There is usually a physical state, biosphere, makes it a dynamic, but stable
chemical form, and location in the cycle system. These interactions consist of
in which nature stores the bulk of the transfer of matter and energy between the
various chemical elements. Pollution different components of the biosphere.
occurs when the cycle is sufficiently Biogeochemical pathways determine the
disturbed either by accumulation of any path of transfer of matter on earth. Let us
element at some point in the cycle in look at some of the major biogeochemical
inappropriate physical state or chemical cycles.
form or amount disrupting environmental Biogeochemical cycles as we may see
balance. from the name itself includes both
Thus, this is important to understand biological , geological and chemical or
how nature is maintaining itself and what physicochemical pathways. This means the
are the impacts of human activities on this reservoir or pool of nutrients on earth may
self contained ecological unit. To contain some chemicals of biological
understand these, we would need to know origin while others may be purely inorganic
atleast some of the cycles of nature in in nature also may be geochemical
which nutrients are exchanged and passed (obtained from rocks and soil) in origin.
170 Bio Geo Chemical Cycles
Water though not considered as a might think.Nearly 97% of all the water on
biogeochemical cycle by most ecologists the earth is in the oceans, and so only about
actually is the precursor of the major 3% is fresh water. About 2% of this fresh
elements hydrogen and oxygen as some water is permanently frozen in glaciers and
living organisms use them for making the at the polar ice caps.
basic food molecules for several Thus only about 1% is available fresh
organisms in nature. water. Again about 1/4 of this 1% is present
Water is also a universal solvent and as groundwater. Only about 0.009% of
essential for various reations to take place water on earth is in the rivers and lakes.
within a living cell. Thus we shall also take Rest is present in the bodies of living
up water cycle briefly in this chapter. organisms, as soil moisture, as humidity of
Though the nutrient pool involves several atmosphere etc. Water is the most essential,
elements of nature but, we shall study just abundant substance in living things.
the cycling of some major elements like The human body for example, is
oxygen, nitrogen and carbon. composed of about 70% water (remember
all living organisms together constitute
The water cycle
only 0.005% of water on earth). Water
All of the water that is on the earth has participates in many biochemical
always been here. Earth never gets water mechanisms, including photosynthesis,
added to it nor does water disappear from digestion and cellular respiration. It is also
the earth. Water is constantly recycled in a the habitat for many species of plants,
process known as the hydrological or water animals and microorganisms, and it
cycle. participates in the cycling of the materials
Fresh water is more scarce than you used by living things. So, it is important
that we protect our water
resources.
You have seen how water
evaporates from the water
bodies in the form of water
vapour and the subsequent
condensation of this water
vapour leads to rain.
The whole process in which
water evaporates and falls
back on the surface of the
earth as rain and other forms
of precipitation including its
Fig-1 Water cycle flow from land into the sea/
Ammonia
Soil Nitrogen Nitrosomonas
Nitrite
Nitrobacter
Nitrate
Clays, Rocks, Detritivores
Sediment
Plants
Plants
3. Assimilation
Consumers Nitrogen compounds mainly as nitrates
or ammonium ions(NH4+) are taken up
Fig-2 Nitrogen fixation from soils by plants which are then used in
on temperature
Materials required: Plastic bottle,
Organic Molecules
nail, 2 thermometers, notebook and pencil. C6H12O6
Procedure: Make a hole near the top
of the plastic bottle with the nail. Insert the OXYGEN
first thermometer into the hole. Place the Photosynthesis Respiration
second thermometer next to the bottle. CYCLE
Make sure that the same amount of sunlight
reaches both thermometers. After 10 CO2
minutes, note temperature values from both
thermometers. Record the data in the
notebook. Take the temperature records H2 O
again after another 10 minutes and repeat
it for 2-3 times more. Fig-8 Oxygen cycle
Key words