Alla - Dental Materials Science PDF

Dental Materials Science
Rama Krishna Alla

Assistant Professor
Department of Dental Materials
Vishnu Dental College
Bhimavaram, Andhra Pradesh, India
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ISBN 978-93-5090-671-2
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Dedicated to
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to the Almighty
Preface
The dental materials science is a combination of science of biology, chemistry and physics. Dental
materials science is advancing day by day with the research and development of new materials
and technology. Though many materials have been in use, new materials are being developed
giving more importance to long-lasting service and esthetics. In addition, attention towards the
biological compatibility of the materials locally or systematically is being extensively investigated.
The performance of dental materials in the oral environment is one of the factors influencing the
quality of dental treatment. Therefore, knowledge of chemical makeup, properties and handling of
the materials is a must for the dental practitioner in order to obtain optimum results.
This book is divided into basic dental materials science, laboratory and clinical dental materials
and detailed information about each material has been provided along with the figures wherever
necessary. This book also gives the information about the modifications, developments and recent
advances in dental materials.
Section I: Basic Dental Materials Science: This section describes the relationship between the
structure and the properties of materials. Also, explains why different materials exhibit different
properties in relation to their clinical usage.
Section II: Clinical Dental Materials: The materials used in dental operatory are discussed in this
section. The composition, chemistry, handling characteristics, and properties appropriate to clinical
use are discussed. Modifications and recent advances are also discussed.
Section III: Laboratory Dental Materials: The materials used by the dental technicians to construct
prosthesis are discussed in this section.
This book is drafted with a simple language aiming at the undergraduate dental students to
understand the subject easily and at the same time the intricate details on the recent advances will
be useful for the postgraduate students.
Rama Krishna Alla

Acknowledgments
Kishore Ginjupalli MSc PhD Vijaya Lakshmi G MSc (Dent. Mate.)

Senior Lecturer
Ajay Dev MDS
Professor and Head
Manipal College of Dental Sciences
Dr Sudha Nageswararao Sidhartha Institute of
Manipal University, Manipal, Karnataka, India
Dental Sciences
Nagaraj Upadhya MSc PhD Gannavaram, Andhra Pradesh, India
Senior Lecturer
M Sujesh MDS
Professor
Manipal College of Dental Sciences
Department of Prosthodontics
Manipal University, Manipal, Karnataka, India
Mamata Dental College
Rama Krishna Ravi MDS Khammam, Andhra Pradesh, India
Professor
T Rambabu MDS
Department of Conservative Dentistry and
Professor
Endodontics, SB Patil Dental College
Department of Conservative and Endodontics
Bidar, Karnataka, India
Ravichandra Shekhar Kotha MDS Bhimavaram, Andhra Pradesh, India
Professor and Head
Subash M Reddy MDS
Department of Pedodontics
Professor
Dr Sudha Nageswararao Sidhartha Institute of
Dental Sciences, Gannavaram
Rajah Muthaiah Dental College and Hospital
Andhra Pradesh, India
Annamalai University
Srinivas P MDS Chidambaram, Tamil Nadu, India
Professor and Head
Madan R MDS
Department of Community and Preventive
Reader
Dentistry, Sibar Institute of Dental Sciences
Guntur, Andhra Pradesh, India
Rajah Muthaiah Dental College and Hospital
Srinivas P MDS Annamalai University
Professor Chidambaram, Tamil Nadu, India
Narayana Dental College Sathyanarayana Reddy MDS
Nellore, Andhra Pradesh, India Senior Lecturer
Department of Orthodontics
Koteswara Rao Patchava MSc (Dent Mate.) Rajah Muthaiah Dental College and Hospital
Senior Lecturer Annamalai University
Department of Dental Materials Chidambaram, Tamil Nadu, India
Kamineni Institute of Dental Sciences
Narketpalli, Andhra Pradesh, India Shammas Mohammed MDS
Professor
Savita Bhat MSc (Dent. Mate.)
VS Dental College and Hospital
Sri Rajiv Gandhi College of Dental Sciences
Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
and Hospital
Anusha Alla MSc (Chemistry) Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
x Dental Materials Science
Raghavendra Swamy MDS Sathyanarayana Raju Mantena MDS

Professor Senior Lecturer
Department of Prosthodontics Department of Prosthodontics
JSS Dental College and Hospital, JSS University Vishnu Dental College
Mysore, Karnataka, India Bhimavaram, Andhra Pradesh, India
Fatima Abussam BDS MS PhD Indumathi Siva Kumar MDS
Assistant Professor Senior Lecturer
Department of Dental Materials Department of Prosthodontics, Vishnu Dental
University of Tripoli, Tripoli, Libya College, Bhimavaram, Andhra Pradesh, India
Sowjanya G MDS
Suresh Sajjan MC MDS Senior Lecturer
Professor and Head Department of Prosthodontics, Vishnu Dental
Department of Prosthodontics College, Bhimavaram, Andhra Pradesh, India
Bhimavaram, Andhra Pradesh, India Sidharth Gosavi MDS
Reader
AV Rama Raju MDS Department of Prosthodontics
Professor Krishna School of Dental Sciences
Department of Prosthodontics Malkapur, Karad, Maharashtra, India
Vishnu Dental College Sulekha Gosavi MDS
Bhimavaram, Andhra Pradesh, India Reader
Srinivas Raju MDS Department of Prosthodontics
Professor
Krishna School of Dental Sciences
Malkapur, Karad, Maharashtra, India
Vishnu Dental College Umesh Palekar MDS
Bhimavaram, Andhra Pradesh, India Associate Professor
Jithendra Babu MDS Faculty of Dentistry
Professor Al-Fateh University, Tripoli, Libya
Prudhvi BDS
Bhimavaram, Andhra Pradesh, India Ahalya BDS
Lecturer
Subbarayudu MDS Department of Dental Materials
Reader Vishnu Dental College
Department of Prosthodontics Bhimavaram, Andhra Pradesh, India
Bhimavaram, Andhra Pradesh, India Altaf Hussain BDS
Lecturer
Bheemalingeswara Rao MDS Department of Dental Materials
Reader Vishnu Dental College
Department of Prosthodontics Bhimavaram, Andhra Pradesh, India
Vishnu Dental College RV Raju BDS
Bhimavaram, Andhra Pradesh, India Assistant Professor
Naveen Reddy MDS Vishnu Dental College
Reader Bhimavaram, Andhra Pradesh, India
Vishnu Dental College Srinivasara Rao Yellaneni B Tech
Bhimavaram, Andhra Pradesh, India Lingeswar Rao Punati M Pharm
Contents
• Resilience (Cushion Like) 20

Section 1: BASIC DENTAL • Ductility and Malleability 20
MATERIALS SCIENCE • Elongation 21
• Toughness 21
1. Properties of Tooth Structure 3 • Brittleness 21
• Crown and Root 3 • Ultimate Stress 21
• Enamel 3 • Breaking Stress 21
• Dentin 3 • Strength 22
• Pulp 3 • Types of Strength 22
• Cementum 3 • Tensile Strength 22
• Periodontal Ligament 4 • Fatigue Strength 22
• Properties 4 • Shear Strength 23
2. Standards for Dental Materials 6 • Impact Strength 23
• Selection of Dental Materials 6 • Tear Strength 23
• Evaluation of Materials 6 • Hardness 23
• American Dental Association (ADA) 6 Thermal Properties 26
• International Standards 7 • Melting and Freezing Temperature 26
• Other Standards and Organizations 8 • Heat of Fusion 26
• Thermal Conductivity 27
3. General Properties of Dental • Specific Heat 27
Materials 9 • Thermal Diffusivity 27
• Liquids 9 • Coefficient of Thermal Expansion
• Solids 9 (COTE) 28
• Change of State 9 Electrical Properties 29
• Interatomic Bonds 10 • Electrical Conductivity or Resistivity 29
• Crystalline Structure 11 • Dielectric Constant 29
• Noncrystalline Structure 11 • Electromotive Force 29
Surface Properties 12 • Galvanism 30
• Adsorption 12 • Zeta Potential 31
• Absorption 13 Rheological Properties 31
• Sorption 13
• Flow 31
• Diffusion 13
• Creep 32
• Surface Tension 13
• Viscosity 32
• Wetting 14
• Viscoelasticity 33
• Angle of Contact 14
Optical Properties 33
• Adhesion 15
• Cohesion 15 • Color 34
Mechanical Properties 15 • Colors and Color Mixing 35
• Stress 16 • Pigmentation 36
• Strain 16 • Measurement of Color 36
• The Stress-strain Relationship or • Light and Interfaces 36
s-s Curve 17 • Metamerism 38
• Proportional Limit 18 • Fluorescence 38
• Elastic Limit 18 Biocompatibility 38
• Yield Strength (Proof Stress) 18 • Biomaterials 39
• Poisson’s Ratio 19 • Concept of Biocompatibility 39
• Modulus of Elasticity (MOE) • Factors Influencing the Biocompatibility
or Elastic Modulus 19 Aspects/Responses 39
• Flexibility 19 • Requirements of Biocompatibility 39
xii Dental Materials Science
• Tests for Evaluation of Biocompatibility 39

• Allergic Response to Dental Materials 41
Section 2: CLINICAL DENTAL
Tarnish and Corrosion 43 MATERIALS
• Tarnish 43
• Corrosion 43 6. Restorative Materials 77
• Classification of Corrosion 43 • Restoration and Restorative Materials 77
• Requirements and Classification 77
4. Chemistry of Synthetic Resins 48 Dental Amalgam 78
• Polymer 48 • Amalgam 79
• Monomer 48 • History 79
• Polymerization 48 • Classifications of Amalgam 79
• Classification of Polymers 48 • Dispension 80
• Types of Polymerization 50 • Manufacturing of Alloy Powder 80
• Homopolymers and Copolymers 55 • Chemical Reactions for Individual
• Cross-linking 56 Alloy Mixtures 81
• Plasticizers 56 • Physical and Mechanical Properties 83
• Thermal Properties 86
5. Physical Metallurgy 58 • Mercury Toxicity 86
• Characteristic Properties of Metals 58 • Technical Considerations in
• Metalloid 58 Manipulation of Amalgam 86
• Metallic Bond 58 • Modified Amalgams 91
Solidification and Microstructure of
Dental Cements 91
Metals 59
• Classification 91
• Grain Size and Shape 61
• Ideal Requirements of Restorative
Deformation of Metals 61
Cement 92
• Crystal Geometry 61
• Zinc Oxide Eugenol Cement 93
• Lattice Imperfections 61
• Zinc Phosphate Cement 99
• Strain Hardening or Work Hardening
• Modifications of Zinc Phosphate
(Method of Strengthening Metals) 62
Cement 103
• Annealing (Stress Relieving Heat
• Silicate Cements 104
Treatment) 63
• Cast Structure 64 • Zinc Silicophosphate Cement 108
• Wrought Structure 65 • Zinc Polycarboxylate Cements 109
Constitution of Alloys 65 • Glass Ionomer Cements 113
• Classification of Alloys 65 • Modifications 119
• Solid Solutions 65 • Resin Cements 123
Constitutional Phase Diagrams/Thermal • Cavity Lining Agents and
Equilibrium Phase Diagrams 67 Cement Bases 126
• Cooling Curve Method or Composite Resins (Tooth Colored
Time-temperature Cooling Curve 67 Restorative Materials) 130
• Solid Solutions Phase Diagrams 68 • Evolution 130
• Coring or Nonequilibrium • Classifications 131
Solidification 68 • Composition and Microstructure 131
• Homogenization or Homogenizing • General Properties of Composites 133
Anneal 69 • Conventional Composites (Traditional
• Eutectic Alloys 69 or Macrofilled Composites) 134
• Intermetallic Compounds 70 • Microfilled Composites 134
• Peritectic Alloys 70 • Small Particle Composite 135
• Solid State Reactions 70 • Hybrid Composites 135
• Heat Treatment 71 • Nanocomposites 135
• Quenching 71 • Acid-etch Technique 138
• Order Hardening (Order-disorder • Bonding Agents 140
Transformation) 71 • Enamel Bonding Agents 140
• Precipitation Hardening or • Dentin Bonding Agents 140
Age Hardening 71 • Recent Advances in Composites 144
• Heat Treatment of Gold Alloys 72 • Pit and Fissure Sealants 146
Contents xiii
Direct Filling Gold 149
• Characteristics of Pure Gold 149
Section 3: LABORATORY DENTAL
• Disadvantages 149 MATERIALS
• Forms of Direct Filling Gold 149
• Composition 149 10. Gypsum Products 235
• Gold Foil 150 • Gypsum 235
• Electrolytic Precipitate or • Gypsum Products 235
Crystalline Gold 150 • Classification of Gypsum Products 235
• Powdered Gold 151 • Manufacturing 236
• Suitability of Direct Filling Gold • Setting Reaction or Chemistry 236
as a Restorative Material 153 • Crystalline (Dissolution-Precipitation)
Theory of Setting 236
7. Impression Materials 158 • Properties 237
• Concepts Related to Impression • Dimensional Changes 239
Materials 158 • Manipulation 240
• Requirements and Classifications 159 • Impression Plaster (Type – I) 242
Impression Compound 164 • Model Plaster or Dental Plaster
Zinc Oxide Eugenol Impression (Type – II) 243
Paste 169 • Type – Iii (Class – I Stone/ Hydrocal/
Aqueous Elastic Impression Dental Stone) 243
Materials 175 • Die Materials 244
• Hydrocolloids 175
• Agar Impression Material 11. Denture Base Resins 248
(Reversible Hydrocolloid) 177 • Requirements of Denture Base
• Alginate Impression Material Materials 248
(Irreversible Hydrocolloid) 182 • Classification of Denture Base
Nonaqueous Elastomeric Impression Materials 249
Materials 190 • Classification of Denture Base Resins 250
• Polysulfide Impression Material 191 • Heat Activated Denture Base Acrylic
• Condensation Polysilicone Impression Resins 250
Material 195 • Chemically Activated Denture
• Addition Polysilicone Impression Base Resins 262
Material 198 • Fabrication Defects of Denture 266
• Polyether Impression Materials 203 • Modified Acrylics 271
• Light Activated Polyether • Denture Repair Resins 272
Impression Material 206 • Artificial Teeth 280
• Resin Impression Trays and
8. Orthodontic Wires 217 Tray Materials 280
• Classifications of Orthodontic • Stainless Steel as a Denture Base
Appliances 217 Material 282
• Requirements 217
• Classifications of Orthodontic Wires 217 12. Dental Waxes 285
• Materials 218 • Applications 285
• Classification 285
9. Implant Materials 223 • Inlay Waxes 287
• Biomaterial 223 • Casting Waxes 290
• Requirements 224 • Processing Waxes 292
• Types of Implants 224 • Impression Waxes 293
• Metal and Alloys 225
• Ceramics 227 13. Investment Materials 295
• Polymers 228 • Ideal Properties Required for
• Composites 228 an Investment 295
• General Composition 295
xiv Dental Materials Science
• Classification of Investments 296 • Properties 334

• Gypsum Bonded Investments 296 • Methods of Strengthening Ceramics 336
• Phosphate Bonded Investments 300 • Manipulation 337
• Ethyl Silicate Bonded Investments 302 • Fabrication Defects 341
• Die Stone Investment Combination 303 • Metal Ceramic Restoration or
Porcelain Fused to Metal 342
14. Dental Casting Alloys (Casting • All Ceramic Restorations 345
Gold and Base Metal Alloys) 304 • Classification of All-Ceramic
• History of Dental Casting Alloys 304 Restorations 345
• Terminology 304 • Pressible Ceramics 347
• Ideal Properties of Casting Alloys 305 • Infiltrated Ceramics 350
• Classification of Dental Casting • Machinable Ceramics 352
Alloys 305
Dental Casting Gold Noble Metal 17. Mechanics of Cutting with
Alloys 306 Dental Burs 356
Base Metal Alloys 311 • Dental Burs 356
• Classification of Dental Burs 358
15. Casting Procedure for Dental
Alloys 319 18. Abrasion and Polishing 360
• Clinical Evaluation of Casting Fit 319 • Abrasion 360
• Casting Technique 319 • Polishing 365
Defects in Casting 328 • Dentifrices 368
• Distortion 329
• Rough Surface and Surface 19. Soldering and Welding 370
Irregularities 329 • Soldering 370
• Porosity 330 • Welding 370
• Incomplete Casting 331 • Flux 371
• Other Defects 332 • Soldering Investment Materials 372
• Types of Soldering Techniques 372
16. Dental Ceramics 333 • Methods of Welding 373
• Classification of Dental Ceramics 333
• Classification of Porcelain Crown 333
• Dispension 334 Appendix 375
• Manufacturing of Porcelain Powder 334
• Structure of Porcelain 334 Index 377
SECTION 1
Basic Dental
Materials Science
• Properties of Tooth Structure • Chemistry of Synthetic Resins
• Standards for Dental Materials • Physical Metallurgy
• General Properties of Dental
Materials
Properties of Tooth
Structure 1
A brief outline of the structure and the properties enamel the mineral content is hydroxyapatite
of the tooth are required as any conservative and organic matter about 20% by weight is
treatment is to replace the missing part of tooth mostly collagen and small quantities of citric
or missing teeth with artificial materials that acid, insoluble protein, mucopolysaccharide
ideally should have similar properties. and lipid.
CROWN AND ROOT PULP

Crown is the visible part of the tooth above The pulp of the tooth is soft tissue containing
gingiva, which is about 1/3rd of the total length. nerves and blood vessels. The pulp is very
The remaining 2/3rd is the root, which is stably sensitive to chemical, thermal and electrical
positioned in the alveolar bone sockets. stimulation.
CEMENTUM
ENAMEL
Cementum is the mineralized dental tissue
Enamel is a highly calcified substance covers
covering the anatomic roots of human teeth.
that part of the tooth, which is visible. It is the
It begins at the cervical portion of the tooth at
hardest tissue in the body. The mineral phase has
the cementoenamel junction and continues to
hydroxyapatite structure and it is in the form of
the apex.
rod-shaped units termed enamel prisms. Small
quantities of organic matter consist of soluble
proteins, peptides, insoluble proteins and citric Composition
acid. Cementum contains 45–50% inorganic sub
The organic material is mostly present on stances and 50–55% organic material and
the enamel surface. The prismatic rods have water. Inorganic portion consists of calcium
different refractive indices, dispersed at different and phosphate in the form of hydroxyapatite.
densities; the structure is optically anisotropic Cementum has the highest fluoride content of all
medium, which shows different color parameters the mineralized tissues. Organic portion consists
in different directions for different wavelengths. of type-I collagen and protein polysaccharides.
Hence it is impossible to do perfect matching of
color parameters with artificial materials.
Physical Properties
DENTIN • The hardness of fully mineralized cementum
is less than that of dentin.
The bulk of the tooth substance is dentin, which • It is light yellow in color.
resembles base in many respects. As with • Lighter in color than dentin.
4 Section 1 Basic Dental Materials Science
Table 1.1 Properties of tooth

Property Enamel Dentin
Density (cm3) 2.97 2.14
Proportional limit (MPa) 224 148
MOE (MPa) 88,900 18,600
Ultimate compressive 380 300
strength (MPa)
UTS (MPa) 10 57
Shear strength (MPa) 90 135
3
Modulus of resilience ( MJ/m ) 0.55 0.94
Surface hardness (KHN) (Kg/ 343 68
mm2)
Specific heat (cal/gm/°C) 0.18 0.28
Fig. 1.1 Cross-section of tooth structure
Thermal conductivity (cal/ 0.0022 0.0015
sec/cm2)
PERIODONTAL LIGAMENT Thermal diffusivity (mm2/sec) 0.469 0.783
The periodontal ligament is a fibrous connective COTE (X10–6 or ppm) 11.4 8.3
tissue that is noticeably cellular and contains
numerous blood vessels. The periodontal
ligament occupies the periodontal space, which more flexible and tougher. The high modulus of
is located between the cementum and the elasticity results in less resilience of enamel in
periodontal surface of the alveolar bone. The comparison with dentin (Table 1.1).
majority of the fibers of the periodontal ligament Dentin is considerably stronger in tension
are collagen, and the matrix is composed of than enamel. The low thermal conductivity of
variety of macromolecules. enamel and dentin aids in preventing thermal
shock and pulpal pain when hot or cold foods
Functions or drinks taken into the mouth. Enamel is
translucent and exhibits a property called
• Attachment and support fluorescence.
• Nutrition
• Synthesis and resorption
• Proprioception. SUGGESTED READING
1. Bertassoni LE, Habelitz S, Kinney JH, Marshall
PROPERTIES SJ, Marshall GW Jr. Biomechanical perspective
on the remineralization of dentin, Caries Res.
The properties of enamel may vary somewhat 2009;43:70-7.
with its position on the tooth, i.e. cuspal enamel 2. Chai Y, Slavkin HC. Prospects for tooth regene
being stronger than enamel on the sides of the ration in the 21st century: a perspective. Microsc
tooth. The proportional limit, ultimate compres Res Tech. 2003;60(5):469-79.
sive strength, modulus of elasticity of enamel are 3. Dhoble A, Padole P, Dhoble M. Bone mechanical
properties: a brief review, trends biomater. Artif
greater than corresponding values for dentin.
Organs. 2012;26(1):25-30.
However, dentin is capable of sustaining signi
4. Du C, Moradian-Oldak J. Tooth regeneration:
ficant plastic deformation under compressive challenges and opportunities for biomedical
loading before fracture. Thus, enamel is stiffer material research. Biomed Mater. 2006;1(1):
and more brittle material than dentin. Dentin is R10-7.
Chapter 1 Properties of Tooth Structure 5
5. Harold C Slavkin. The future of dentistry. Dent structure, chemical composition and mecha
Today. 2006; 25(10):90-2. nical properties of collagen fibers in the perio
6. Hassan R, Caputo AA, Bunshah RF. Fracture dontium. Biomaterials. 2007;28(35):5238-45.
toughness of human enamel. J Dent Res. 1981; 10. Solheim T. A new method for dental age estima
60(4):820-7. tion in adults. Forensic Science International.
7. Ho SP, Balooch M, Goodis HE, Marshall GW, 1993;59:137-47.
Marshall SJ. Ultrastructure and nanomechanical 11. Thesleff I, Tummers M. Stem cells and tissue
properties of cementum dentin junction. J engineering: prospects for regenerating tissues in
Biomed Mater Res A. 2004;68(2):343-51. dental practice. Med Princ Pract. 2003;12(Suppl
8. Ho SP, Goodis HE, Balooch M, Nonomura G, 1):43-50.
Marshall SJ, Marshall GW. The effect of sample 12. Vasudeva G, Pawah S. Dentistry in the 21st
preparation technique on determination of century: a look into the future. J Oral Health
structure and nanomechanical properties of Comm Dent. 2009;3(1):9-14.
human cementum hard tissue. Biomaterials. 13. Vystrèilová M, Novotný V. Estimation of age at
2004;25(19): 4847-57. death using teeth. Variability and Evolution.
9. Ho SP, Marshall SJ, Ryder MI, Marshall GW. 2000;8:39-49.
The tooth attachment mechanism defined by
Standards for
Dental Materials 2
The science of dental materials involves a e.g.: American Dental Association (ADA)
study of the composition and properties of International Standard Organization
materials and the way in which they interact (ISO)
with the oral environment. The success or Fédération Dentaire Internationale
failure of a treatment depends on the selection (FDI).
of materials with adequate properties and their A series of similar specifications are also avail
manipulation. able for products in Australia, Japan, and other
The materials used in dentistry are rigid several countries throughout the world. Recently
polymers, elastomers, metals, alloys, ceramics, a program for international specification was
inorganic salts and composite materials. Many established that induces the combined efforts of
dental materials are fixed either permanently in Fédération Dentaire Internationale (FDI) and the
the patient’s mouth or removed intermittently International Organization for Standardization
for cleaning; such materials have to withstand (ISD). Through the specification the quality of
the effects of a most hazardous environment. each product is maintained and improved.
SELECTION OF DENTAL MATERIALS

The process of dental materials selection involves AMERICAN DENTAL
analysis of the problem, consideration of require ASSOCIATION (ADA)
ments, comparison of available materials and The work at American Dental Association
their properties, and choice of material. research division is divided into a number of
categories, including the determination of those
EVALUATION OF MATERIALS physical and chemical properties of dental
The most manufacturers of dental materials materials based on their clinical significance, and
operate an extensive quality assurance program. the development of new materials, instruments
The materials are thoroughly tested before being and test methods.
released to the general practitioners. The first ADA specification was for amalgam
Specification and standardization of both alloy, formulated and reported in 1930. The
national and international standard organization details of first 25 specifications were included
have been developed to aid producers, users in a book, “American Dental Association Guide
and consumers in the evaluation of the safety to Dental Materials and Devices” (1974). More
and effectiveness of dental products. Such recent specifications and revisions are published
specifications— in the “Journal of American Dental Association”
• Maintain quality levels for dental materials. (JADA).
• Give details for the testing of certain products, A close examination of each of the speci
methods of calculating results and minimum fications reveals a general pattern of standar
permissible results, which is acceptable. dization common to each material.
Chapter 2 Standards for Dental Materials 7
• These features include an item on scope and Table 2.1 ADA Specification numbers of dental
classification of the material. This defines materials
the application and general nature of each ADA Materials
material. specification
• Each specification includes information on number
other applicable specification. 1 Dental amalgam
• The requirements of each material take note 2 Gypsum bonded investment
of such factor as uniformity color or general 3 Impression compound
working characteristics of material and 4 Inlay casting wax
general limitation of test values. 5 Dental casting alloys
• The method of sampling, inspection, and 6 Dental mercury
7 Dental wrought gold alloy
testing procedure including details of
8 Zinc phosphate cement
sample preparation and physical test to be 9 Silicate cement
performed. 10 Dental rubber (obsolete)
• Each specification includes information on 11 Agar impression material
preparation for delivery with instructions 12 Denture base resins
concerning packaging, instructions for use 13 Cold-curing repair resin
and marking with a lot of numbers and date 14 Base metal casting alloys
of manufactures. 15 Synthetic resin teeth
16 Zinc oxide eugenol impression paste
• Each specification is included notes that
17 Denture base temporary relining
provide additional information on intended resin
uses and references to the special items. 18 Alginate impression material
19 Elastomeric impression material
Certification and Acceptance Program 20 Duplicating material
21 Zinc silicophosphate cement
ADA through the Council on Dental Material 23 Excavating burs
instruments and Equipment maintains a 24 Base plate wax
program for certification of dental material and 25 Gypsum products
devices. Under this program the manufacturers 27 Direct filling resins
28 Endodontic files and reamers
certify that the product comprises with ADA
30 Zinc oxide eugenol and
specification and the manufacturer is in noneugenol cements
compliance with the ADA advertising and 32 Orthodontic wires not containing
exhibition standard. precious metals
Research division collects the samples 37 Dental abrasive powders
randomly and tests the qualities of the material 38 Metal ceramic system
such as physical and other properties. If it 39 Pit and fissure sealants
has sufficient values equal to ADA specifica 42 Phosphate bonded investment
46 Dental chairs
tion values, they will give the standardization
55 Dispensers of alloy and mercury
mark. Then the manufacturer can distribute the for amalgam
material. 57 Endodontic filling materials
ADA specification numbers of selected 58 Root canal files (H-files)
dental materials were mentioned in Table 2.1. 61 Zinc polycarboxylate cement
66 Glass ionomer cement
69 Dental ceramics
INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS 72 Endodontic spreaders
87 Impression trays
For many years, these standards have been great
106 Dental amalgam capsules
interest in the establishment of specifications
for dental materials on an international level. to the formation of an ISO committee. The
It includes the combined efforts of “Fédération responsibility of this committee is to standardize
Dentaire International” (FDI) and “International terminology, test methods and specifications for
Standards Organization” (ISO). dental materials, instruments, appliances and
equipment.
Federation Dentaire International
Initiated and supported a program for the formu OTHER STANDARDS AND
lation of international specifications for dental ORGANIZATIONS
materials. As a result, several specifications for
The work at the National Institute and Technology
dental materials and devices have been adopted.
(NIST) has stimulated comparable programs in
International Standards other countries, Australia, Japan, and other
countries throughout the world.
Organization (ISO)
Specifications and standards have been
ISO is an international, nongovernmental organi developed to aid producers, users and consumers
zation. Primary objective is the development in the evaluation of the safety and effectiveness
of international standard. ISO standard led of dental materials.
General Properties of
Dental Materials 3
INTRODUCTION SOLIDS
Dental materials are available in the form of Based on the internal structure, solids are
powder, liquid, pastes and gels. Many of the classified into amorphous and crystalline solids.
dental materials in use today are manipulated Amorphous solids have haphazard atomic
by the dentist in a plastic or semi-liquid state. arrangement, e.g. glasses, whereas crystalline
Either in the plastic or semi-liquid condition solids have a highly regular and well-defined
they are formed to the required shape, then atomic structure, e.g. metals.
by a physical change or chemical reaction,
they become a solid. The suitability of a dental CHANGE OF STATE
material depends upon its properties in the
finished or solid condition. Atoms and molecules are held together by
The internal structure of solids and liquids atomic interactions. When water boils, energy
affects the way in which they react to the environ is needed to transform to vapor. This energy is
ment in which they are placed. Before going to known as heat of vaporization. The same amount
study dental materials science, one should have of energy is required for condensation of water
the basic knowledge of the forces, which hold vapor, i.e. matter is made of atoms and for these
the atoms or molecules of materials in a certain atoms to be held together there must be a force.
relation and which resist changes of shape of Matter exists in three forms such as solids,
that material. liquids and gases. The difference in these forms
is mainly due to differences in energy.
For example, when 1 gm of water is to be
LIQUIDS changed into gaseous state at 100°C, 540 cal of
An essential feature of liquid state is irregularity heat is needed. Thus gaseous state has more
and undefinition of structure, so liquids have energy than liquid state. Although molecules in
little or no ordered arrangement of atoms. The gaseous state exert a certain amount of mutual
atoms are attracted to each other within the attraction they can readily move because of
liquid, whilst those at its free boundaries are high kinetic energy. This also explains why
attracted more by the same atoms within the gaseous molecules need to be confined to avoid
liquid than to the air, produces a boundary dispersion.
between the atmosphere and the surface of the Although atoms may also diffuse in liquid
liquid. state, their mutual attraction is greater, and
Within a liquid, the thermal energy is suffi energy is required for this separation. If kinetic
cient to keep the atoms in constant relative energy (KE) of liquid decreases sufficiently when
motion. Change in atomic relations, results in its temperature is decreased, liquid changes
flow or deformation. into solid during which KE is released in the
form of heat. This energy released is known as

latent heat of fusion. The temperature at which
solid changes into liquid is known as melting
temperature.
INTERATOMIC BONDS
The forces of attraction between atoms or
molecules may be divided into:
• Primary bonds
• Secondary bonds.
Fig. 3.1 Metallic bonding
Primary Bonds
They may be of three types: itself produce strong forces of attraction bonding
• Ionic the metal together (Fig. 3.1).
• Covalent In general, metal atoms which have only
• Metallic. a few loosely held valence electrons are more
metallic in their bonding.
Ionic Bond For example: Na, K, Cu, Ag, Au have high
electrical and thermal conductivity since their
It occurs as a result of mutual attraction of valence electrons are very mobile.
positive and negative charges. As the number of valence electrons increases,
For example, NaCl. the bonding becomes less metallic and more
covalent.
For example: Fe, Ni, W, and Ti.
Tin exists in two forms of bonding, one
mostly metallic and the other mostly covalent.
Interatomic Secondary Bonds

In contrast with primary bonds, secondary bonds
do not share electrons but charge variations
Covalent Bond among molecules or atomic groups induce polar
In many chemical compounds, adjacent atoms forces that attract the molecules.
share two valence electrons.
For example: H2 molecule, in this single outer Hydrogen Bonding
most electron in each hydrogen atom is shared For example in H2O molecule two hydrogen
with that of other. atoms are attached by oxygen atom. These
bonds are covalent as they share electrons. The
hydrogen bond, which has associated positive
charge of hydrogen caused by polarization.
van der Waals Forces

Metallic Bond
These forces form the basis of dipole attraction
The valence electrons from each metallic atom in a symmetric atom example inert gas a fluxua
form an electron cloud. The positive ions formed ted dipole is formed, which will attract other
by the loss of electrons and the electron cloud similar dipoles that is within an atom there is
Chapter 3 General Properties of Dental Materials 11
accumulation of atoms in one half which leads to
negative polarity and other half, positive polarity.
Interatomic Distance
The distance between two atoms is known as
interatomic distance. These forces are of two
types, attractive and repulsive forces. The net
force between two atoms is sum of both repulsive
and attractive forces.
The atoms approach too closely they are
repelled from each other by their electron
charges. On the other hand, forces of attraction
tend to draw the atoms together. The passion at
which these forces of repulsion and attraction
become equivalent magnitude (opposite in
direction) is the equilibrium passion of the Figs 3.2A to K Different crystal arrangements (A)
atoms. At this passion, atoms are with minimum Rhombohedral (B) Orthorhombic (C) Monoclinic (D)
energy and maximum stability. The interatomic Triclinic (E) Tetragonal (F) Simple hexagonal (G) Close
distance can be increased or decreased by packed hexagonal (H) Rhombic (I) Simple cubic (J) Body
application of mechanical forces. centered cubic (K) Face centered cubic
CRYSTALLINE STRUCTURE
also called amorphous that means materials
Space lattice or crystal lattice can be defined as without any form.
an arrangement of atoms in space such that in In crystalline structure, the arrangement
every atom it is in similar relation to every other of atoms in the lattice is in order and follows a
atom. Space lattice may be the result of primary particular pattern. In non-crystalline structures
or secondary bonds. There are 14 possible types or amorphous structures, e.g. waxes, used
of lattice forms, but three relatively cubic crystal in dentistry, the molecules are distributed
structure of lattice are found for most of the randomly.
metals. However, there is tendency for arrangement
E.g.: of atoms or molecules to be regular. For example
1. Simple cubic glass is considered to be non-crystalline solid,
2. Face centered cubic yet its atoms bind to form short-range order
3. Body centered cubic. rather long-range order lattice. Since such an
The solid circles in the Figures 3.2A to K arrangement is also typical of liquids such solids
represent the passion of atoms. There passions are referred to as super-cooled liquids. Polymer
are located at the points of intersection of may be completely crystalline, or noncrystalline
three sets of parallel planes, each set being or mixture of two.
perpendicular to other plane. These planes are The success or failure of many forms of
referred as crystal planes. treatment depends on the correct selection
of materials possessing adequate properties
NONCRYSTALLINE STRUCTURE combined with careful manipulation.
The various types of materials used in
Noncrystalline solids lack a systematic and dentistry are rigid polymers, elastomers, metals,
regular arrangement of atoms over relatively large alloys, ceramics, inorganic salts and composite
atomic distances. Sometimes such materials are materials. Many dental materials are fixed
permanently into the patient’s mouth or are Adsorbate: The molecules, which get adsorbed
removed intermittently for cleaning; such onto the surface of material are called as
materials have to withstand the effects of a most “adsorbate”.
hazardous environment. Adsorption process is of two types. They are:
Temperature variations, wide variations in • 1. Physical adsorption or physisorption
acidity or alkalinity and high stresses all have 2. Chemisorption.
an effect on the durability of materials. Normal • In physisorption, the process consists of just
temperature variations in the oral cavity lie a physical phenomenon where just the van
between 32°C–37°C depending upon whether der Waals force is in action.
the mouth is open or closed. The ingestion of hot • In chemisorption, it involves a chemical
or cold food or drink extends this temperature process where exists a chemical interaction
range from 0°C–70°C. Alkalinity or acidity of between the surface atoms of adsorbent and
fluids in the oral cavity as measured by pH varies the atoms of adsorbate.
from around pH 4–pH 8.5. Whilst the intake of • Differences between physisorption and
acid fruit juices or alkaline medicaments can chemisorption are given in Table 3.1.
extend this from pH 2–pH 11.
Applications in dentistry: Applications can
be categorized as constructive and destructive
Surface Properties applications.
Constructive applications: The process of adsorp
ADSORPTION tion to the surface of the substance is important
This is a reaction involving attraction of a in the wetting process in which the substance is
substance onto the surface of a material. coated or wetted with a foreign substance, such
• It is common for both liquids and solids to as liquid for example, the degree to which the
adsorb gases or other liquids on their surface. saliva will wet or adhere to the surface of a resin
• This is because of certain forces (intermole denture depends on the tendency for surface
cular or van der Waals forces), the surface of adsorption.
the material has the tendency to attract and Destructive applications:
retain molecules of other species, with which 1. Gold foils: Gold like most metals attracts
it is brought into contact. gases to its surface. This causes temporary
• The molecules remain only at the surface and noncohesiveness, i.e.; any adsorbed gas
do not go deeper into the bulk. film prevents the intimate atomic contact
Adsorbent: The material, which takes up or between the sheets.
adsorbs the molecules onto its surface is called 2. In oral cavity: Many problems arise due to
as “adsorbent”. the deposits on the surface of teeth/resto
Table 3.1 Differences between physisorption and chemisorption

Physisorption Chemisorption
1. It occurs only at low temperatures. 1. Occurs at all temperatures.
2. Magnitude of physisorption decreases with rise in 2. Magnitude of chemisorption increases with
temperatures. rise in temperature.
3. Heat evolved in this is very high (40-400 kJ/mol). 3. Heat evolved is quite low (4-40 kJ/mol).
4. Process is reversible, i.e.; the adsorbate can be 4. Process is irreversible, i.e. the adsorbate
separated from the adsorbent. cannot be recovered from the adsorbent.
rations. Deposits are nothing but the strong repeated wetting and drying of finished dentures
adsorption of various materials onto the because irreversible warpage of the denture
surface of the tooth. bases may result.
• Deposits are of two types:
a. Hard deposit
DIFFUSION
e.g. calculus
b. Soft deposits Diffusion is the movement of solvent molecules
e.g.: Plaque: food particles containing from a region of higher concentration to a region
micro -organisms. of lower concentration.
• These deposits might be the initial stage Application in dentistry:
finally leading to caries. • Salts and dyes diffuse through dentin.
• Stains and discoloring agents will diffuse
ABSORPTION through plastic restorative materials.
In this process, the substance adsorbed is sucked
into or penetrates in a type of diffusion process.
• Basically the process of absorption is a
SURFACE TENSION
combination of adsorption and penetration Surface tension may be defined as the force
or diffusion. acting tangentially to the liquid surface and
• When the dry grapes are being kept immersed perpendicular to the unit length of an imaginary
in water, it imbibes water and hence swells. line drawn on the surface.
Application in dentistry:
1. When the hydrocolloid impression is being
stored in the presence of moisture (water),
they absorb water and swell. Thus it is the Units: Newton/meter or Dynes/cm
factor, which reduces dimensional stability. • The increase in energy per unit area of a
Immersion of impression materials in the surface is referred to as the surface energy.
disinfectant solution for long time also • Greater the surface energy, greater the capa
causes absorption of the disinfectants by the city for adhesion.
materials. • The surface tension and adhesive qualities
2. Calcium sulfate hemihydrate is hygroscopic of given solid can be reduced by any surface
material and easily absorbs moisture from impurities.
the humid atmosphere to form calcium • The surface tension values of different liquids
sulfate dihydrate. Formation of dihydrate at 20°C are as follows:
on the hemihydrate powder results in Water = 72.8 dynes/cm
lengthening of the setting time. Benzene = 29 dynes/cm
Alcohol = 22 dynes/cm
SORPTION Ether = 17 dynes/cm
Mercury = 465 dynes/cm
This is a process in which both adsorption and
Factors affecting surface tension:
absorption are known to exist and it is not clear
1. Temperature: As temperature rises, surface
which process is predominating.
tension decreases.
Application in dentistry: The sorption of water Temperature ∝ 1/Surface tension
alters the dimensions of acrylic dentures. This For example, surface tension of water at
change in dimension is reversible and plastic 0°C – 76 dynes/cm
may go through numerous expansions and 25°C – 72 dynes/cm
contractions when alternately soaked in water 50°C – 68 dynes/cm
and dried. However, the patient should avoid 100°C – 59 dynes/cm
2. Purity: Surface tension of liquids is also If the adherent is having more surface
reduced by the presence of impurities. energy and less surface tension the contact
For example, detergents such as sodium angle would be zero, which results in complete
lauryl sulfate or the ingredients of soaps wetting of adherent surface and will take place
including sodium stearate or sodium by the adhesive (Fig. 3.3A). If the energy of the
oleate, which have long hydrocarbon chains surface of the adherent is reduced slightly by
attached to hydrophobic groups, are partially contamination or by the increase in surface
effective in reducing surface tension. tension of solid results a slight increase in the
3. The functional chemical group or the type contact angle (Fig. 3.3B). A very high contact
of crystal plane of a space lattice present at angle may be formed in the case of solids with
the surface may affect the surface energy. low surface energy, such as “polytetra fluoro
ethylene” (Teflon) (Fig. 3.3C).
Applications in dentistry: In dentifrices, deter The tendency for the liquid to spread
gents such as sodium lauryl sulfate or sodium- increases as the contact angle decreases and thus
N-lauroylsarcosinate are added as surface-active contact angle is a useful indicator of spreadability
agents. In the paste form its composition is about or wettability.
1–2% and in powder form the composition of
detergents is about 1–6%. These detergents Factors affecting contact angle:
improve the ability of the dentifrice to wet the 1. The surface of the adherent should be clean.
tooth surface and thus it aids in removing debris 2. The surface energy of the adherent should
from tooth surface. be high so that the liquids wet their surface.
3. There should not be any irregularities.
WETTING Applications in dentistry: In rubber impression
To produce adhesion, the liquid must flow easily materials, wettability may be assessed by
over the entire surface and adhere to the solid; measuring the advancing contact angle of water
this character is referred to as “wetting”. on the surface of the set impression material. The
hydrophilic addition silicones and polyethers are
Factors affecting wetting:
wetted best and the condensation silicones and
1. The surface of the adherent should be clean.
hydrophobic addition silicones the least.
2. The surface energy of the adherent should
be high so that the liquids wet their surface. Material Advancing contact angle
3. There should not be any irregularities. of water (degree)
Polysulfide 82
ANGLE OF CONTACT Condensation silicones 98
Addition silicone
The contact angle is the angle formed by the Hydrophobic 98
adhesive with the adherent at their interface. Hydrophilic 53
• The extent to which an adhesive wets the Polyether 49
surface of an adherent may be determined
by measuring the contact angle between Wetting is more important in the retention
adhesive and the adherent. of a denture under static conditions. The
Figs 3.3A to C Contact angles of different solids with different surface energies
wetting of the plastic surface depends on the Zinc polycarboxylate cement: This cement also
energy relationship between solid and liquid. If adheres chemically to the tooth structure. The
complete wetting occurs, the liquid will spread polycarboxylic acid is believed to react via
on the solid. If partial wetting occurs, the liquid carboxyl groups with calcium hydroxyapatite.
forms droplets on the surface. The plastics used The inorganic content and homogeneity of
in dentistry are only partially wetted by saliva, enamel are greater than those of dentin. Thus,
but the wetting may improve after contact with the bond strength to enamel is greater than that
oral fluids because of the adsorption of certain of dentin.
components of the saliva by the plastic denture.
Zinc phosphate cement: The zinc phosphate
ADHESION cement does not involve any chemical reaction
with surrounding hard tissue or other restorative
Adhesion occurs when two unlike molecules materials. Therefore, primary bonding occurs by
join together on being brought into contact due mechanical interlocking at interfaces and not by
to force of attraction between them. chemical interactions.
An “adhesive” is a material used to produce
adhesion and the substance to which adhesive
is applied is called “adherent”. The attachment COHESION
of plaque or calculus to tooth structure can be Cohesion occurs when two like molecules or
partially explained by an adhesion mechanism. substances join together on being brought into
Bonding may be achieved by one of the two contact due to the force of attraction between
mechanisms: them.
1. Mechanical bonding
2. Chemical bonding. Application in dentistry: Pure gold either in foil
In mechanical attachment the adhesive or in other forms is cohesive and can be welded
simply engages in undercuts in the adherent to itself at mouth or room temperature simply by
surface. When the surface irregularities respon the application of force. The surface should be
sible for bonding have dimensions of only completely clean if welding is to be done. Pure
a few micrometers, the process known as uncontaminated foil, when properly annealed is
“micromechanical attachment”. This is different always cohesive. Since gold foil can be produced
from macromechanical attachment, which forms in a sufficiently clean and pure condition, it can
the basis of retention for many filling materials, be cold-welded.
using undercut cavities.
In the case of chemical attachment, the
adhesive has a chemical affinity for the adherent Mechanical Properties
surface.
Mechanical properties are defined by the laws
If the attraction caused by van der Waals
of mechanics, i.e. the physical science that
forces or hydrogen bonds, the resultant bond
deals with energy and forces and their effects
may be relatively weak. On the other hand, the
on bodies.
formation of ionic or covalent links may result
in stronger bond.
Force
Applications in Dentistry
Polyacrylate cement: An interesting feature of “Force is that which alters the state of rest or
polyacrylic cement is its bonding to enamel and motion possessed by a body.”
dentin, which is attributed to the ability of the A force is defined by three characteristics:
carboxylate groups in the polymer molecule to 1. The point of application
chelate calcium. The bond strength of enamel 2. The magnitude
is several times to dentin. Optimum bonding 3. The direction of application.
requires cleaned tooth surfaces. Unit: Pound or Newton.
Work
Whenever force acting on a body causes it to
move; the force is said to do work and work is
measured by the product of force and a distance
moved by the body along the line of action of
that force.
Power
It is the rate at which work is done.
Energy
It is the capacity of a body to perform work and
it is measured by the work. It is capable of doing Figs 3.4A to D (A) Compressive stress (B) Tensile stress
by virtue of its velocity or position. (C) Shear stress (D) Flexural stress, where F is force
Mechanical energy is of two types:
1. Kinetic energy
2. Potential energy. each other. When compression is applied
they resist being forced more closely together
(Fig. 3.4A).
STRESS 2. Tensile stress: Tension results in a body, when
Whenever force acts on a body tending to pro it is subjected to two sets of forces directed
duce deformation, a resistance that is developed away from each other in the same straight
to the external force application. The internal line.
reaction is equal in intensity and opposite in When tension is applied, the molecules
direction to the applied external force and is must resist being pulled apart (Fig. 3.4B).
called as stress. Both the applied force and 3. Shear stress
internal resistance are distributed over a given • A shear stress tends to resist the sliding
area of the body and so the stress in structure is of portion of a body over another.
designated as force/unit area. • Shear stress is a result of two sets of forces
“Stress is the force per unit area acting on being directed towards each other but
millions of atoms or molecules in a given plane not in the same straight line (Fig. 3.4C).
of material”. 4. Flexural (bending) stress: Bending a beam at
3-point loading produces flexural stress. This
Units: PSI (pounds per square inch), Pa, MPa. situation is commonly encountered in the
1 Pa = 1 N/m2 construction of a fixed bridge in prosthetics
MPa = MN/m2 (Fig. 3.4D).
1Mpa = 106 or 150 PSI
STRAIN
When external force or load is applied to a
material the phenomena of strain occurs; i.e.
Types of Stress the change in the dimensions of the material
1. Compressive stress: Compression results when described as change in length (deformation)
the body is subjected to sets of forces in the per original unit length of the body when it is
same straight line that are directed towards subjected to a force or stress.
Since the stress in a structure varies directly
with the force and inversely the area, so it
is necessary to recognize that the area over
which the force acts is a most important factor
of consideration. Thus for a given force the
smaller the area over which it is applied (small
restoration), the larger the value of the stress.
The importance of strain in dentistry for
example, orthodontic wire or a clasp in a metal
Figs 3.5A and B (A) Compression results in shortening partial denture should withstand a large amount
of body (B) Tension results in elongation of the body, of strain before failure as it can be bent and
where F is force, L is length of the sample, and DL is adjusted with less chance of fracture.
change in the length (deformation)
THE STRESS-STRAIN
Strain is denoted as ‘ε’ RELATIONSHIP OR S-S CURVE
A convenient means of comparing the mechanical
properties of materials is to apply various forces to
material to determine the corresponding values
of stress and strain. A plot of the corresponding
• Has no unit of measurement. values of stress and strain is referred to as
• Strain under tensile stress is an elongation “s-s curve” (Fig. 3.6). This diagram provides quan
in the direction of loading (Fig. 3.5A). tities used to describe the material properties,
• Strain under compression is shortening of the such as:
body in the direction of loading (Fig. 3.5B). 1. Proportional limit
2. Elastic limit
3. Yield strength
Types of Strain
4. Ultimate strength
1. May be elastic or recoverable, i.e. the material
is returned to its original length after removal
of the applied force.
2. The material may remain deformed in which
case the strain is not recoverable is called
“plastic”.
3. A third possibility is that strain may be
partially recoverable. The extent to which the
strain is recovered as a function of the elastic
properties of materials.
Importance of Stress and Strain

Most applications of materials in dentistry have a
minimum mechanical property requirement. For
example, certain materials should be sufficiently
strong to withstand biting forces without fracture.
Others should be rigid enough to maintain the
shape under force. Such properties are generally Fig. 3.6 S-S curve (Abbreviations: EL: Elastic limit;
characterized by the stress-strain relationship. PL: Proportional limit; MOE: Modulus of elasticity)
5. Breaking stress or fracture stress (describes elastic behavior of materials). A high

6. MOE value of elastic limit is necessary requirement
7. Modulus of resilience for materials used for making appliances or
8. Ductility and malleability. restorations, since the structure is expected to
return after it has been stressed (Fig. 3.6).
Elastic limit deals only with the elasticity of
PROPORTIONAL LIMIT
the material, but proportional limit deals with
Proportional limit may by defined as the greatest proportionality stress and strain. Theoretically,
stress that a material will sustain without a the values will be same.
deviation from the proportionality of stress to
strain.
YIELD STRENGTH (PROOF STRESS)
It is found by plotting the s-s diagram and
determine the point at which first deviation “Yield strength is defined as the stress at which
from linearity is noticeable (Fig. 3.6). The region a material exhibits a specified limiting deviation
of the s-s curve before the proportional limit is from proportionality of stress to strain” or “It is
called the “elastic region”. So within this range defined as the stress at which the material begins
of stress application the material is elastic in to function in a plastic manner.”
nature and no permanent deformation occurs Selecting a desired offset, and drawing a line
in the structure. parallel to the linear region of the s-s curve as
The region of the curve beyond this propor shown in Figure 3.7, determine the yield stress.
tional limit is called as “plastic region” and The point at which the parallel line intersects
any application of a stress greater than the the s-s curve is the “yield stress” (a value of 0.1
proportional limit results in permanent strain or 0.2 of the plastic strain is often selected and is
or deformation in the sample. referred to as “percent offset” or “proof stress”).
Application Applications
When a restoration is stressed, the stress should 1. Constructive application: In the process
not be greater than the proportional limit. If the of shaping an orthodontic appliance or
proportional limit is exceeded, the deformation adjusting a clasp on a cast removable partial
is permanent and the restoration no longer fits. denture it is necessary to induce a stress into
Therefore a high proportional limit is indicated the structure in excess of the yield strength, if
for any material employed in a partial denture the material is permanently bent or shaped.
or crown and bridge application.
For example, connectors of partial denture
should not undergo permanent deformation,
if they have to retain their shape. Cr-Co alloy
is usually popular for this application since
it can withstand high stresses without being
permanently distorted.
ELASTIC LIMIT
“Elastic limit is the maximum stress that a
material can withstand without undergoing
permanent deformation.”
Elastic limit corresponds to the stress Fig. 3.7 Yield strength of a material measured at
beyond which strains are not fully recovered 0.1% offset
2. Destructive application: Any dental structure material are responsible for the property of
or restorat ion for example crown and elasticity. The stronger the basic attraction forces,
bridge, which is permanently deformed the greater the values of the elastic modulus and
during services through the forces of masti the more rigid is the material.
cation and use is usually a functional
or chemical failure to some degree. The
restoration or appliance may no longer fit
as original design (proper occlusion relation
ship is lost). Any alloys used for making the
crowns and bridges should have highyield
strength.
POISSON’S RATIO
When a test sample is stressed by a uniaxial force, Applications
it is strained in the direction of force and also in
Orthodontic wires: A wire (active components)
a direction of perpendicular to the direction of
should have a value of stiffness as indicated by
the force.
low MOE (flexible), which enables it to apply
The strain in the direction of force is known
a suitable force for tooth movement to an
as “longitudinal strain”, and that perpendicular to
orthodontic movement. A flexible component
it is known as “lateral strain”. The ratio between
will be able to apply lower and a more constant
the lateral strain and longitudinal strain is called
force over a great distance.
as “Poisson’s ratio”.
Reactive components: These anchor the appliance
to teeth, which are not to be moved, should not
deform wires used for this purpose should have
higher MOE.
Under compressive loading there is an
increase in the cross-section of the material. Restorative materials: Stiffness is important in
Under tensile loading the material elongates the selection of restorative materials. Since large
in the direction of load, there is a reduction in deflections under stress are not desired. For
cross-section. example a restoration or filling must not alter the
shape within the tooth when the patient bites on
it otherwise the tooth will break and the filling
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY (MOE) OR will become loose. Therefore a material, which
ELASTIC MODULUS is placed in the mouth, should have higher MOE
“The term elastic modulus represents the relative coupled with a high proportional limit.
stiffness or rigidity of the material within the Rigidity or stiffness: Stiffness is the resistance
elastic range”. of the material to elastic deformation, i.e. a
If any stress value equal to or less than the material, which suffers a slight deformation
proportional limit is divided by its corresponding under a given load, has a high degree of stiffness.
strain value, a constant of proportionality will For example, stiffness is important in the
result (Fig. 3.6). selection of restorative materials since large
deflections under stress are not desirable.
FLEXIBILITY
Elastic quality of a material represents Maximum flexibility is defined as the strain,
a fundamental property of a material. The which occurs when the material is stressed to
interatomic or intermolecular forces of the its proportional limit.
The relationship between the maximum absorb considerable amounts of energy

flexibility, proportional limit and MOE may be without being permanently distorted. The
expressed mathematically as follows: energy is stored and released when the
material springs back to its original shape
after removal of the applied stress. Hence
such liner serves as a “shock absorber”
between occlusal surfaces of denture and the
Applications underlining oral tissues, and will protect the
affected soft tissues from impact energies of
Elastic impression materials should be flexible mastication.
for easily removable over undercuts. 2. Orthodontic wire: Resilience has particular
importance in the evolution of orthodontic
RESILIENCE (CUSHION LIKE) wires. Since the amount of work expected
from a particular spring in moving a tooth
“It can be defined as the amount of energy
movement when the wire is located to the
absorbed by a structure when it is stressed to its
maximum elastic force or stress value.
proportional limit” or “it is the energy needed
3. The modulus of resilience of dentin is greater
to deform the material to its proportional limit”.
than that of enamel, thus is able to absorb
impact energy. Enamel is a brittle substance
Modulus of Resilience
with a comparably high MOE, PL and a low
The resilience of a material is usually measured modulus of resilience however supported
in terms of its modulus of resilience. This is by the dentin with its ability to deform
the amount of energy stored in a body when elastically (high modulus of resilience) teeth
1 unit volume of a material is stressed to its seldom fracture under normal occlusion.
proportional limit, or it is measured by the area
under the elastic portion of the stress-strain
curve (Fig. 3.8). DUCTILITY AND MALLEABILITY
Units: MJ/m3. Ductility
Applications Ductility represents the ability of a material to

sustain a large permanent deformation under
1. Resilient liner: These are the soft cushions a tensile load without rupture or it is the ability
like liners given to the denture base to of a material to draw into a wire under a force
of tension.
• A material with a high value of plastic defor
mation is generally ductile.
Malleability
Malleability represents the ability of a material
to sustain a large permanent deformation under
a compressive load without rupture or it is the
ability of a material to hammer into sheets under
compression.
Applications
1. Orthodontic wires: Alloys used for wires,
Fig. 3.8 Area of resilience in the s-s graph show a high degree of ductility since they
are extended considerably during production or “It is the amount of energy required to stress
process. In addition, clasps of denture cons the material to the point of fracture”.
tructed from ductile alloys can be altered by
bending. Measurement
2. Direct filling gold: Due to its high ductility Toughness is measured by the amount of energy
and malleability it is capable of adapting to that a unit volume of the material has absorbed
cavity walls. after being stressed up to point of fracture.
3. The malleability of stainless steel is utilized
when forming a denture base by swaging Unit: Mega Joule/m3 (MJ/m3).
technique. So, this involves the adaptation
of a sheet of stainless steel over a preformed
BRITTLENESS
cast. “It is defined as a tendency to fracture without
appreciable deformation is therefore opposite
ELONGATION of ductility”.
“The deformation that results from the application • Brittle material is liable to fracture at or near
of a tensile force is elongation”. to its proportional limit.
• The total percentage elongation includes • Brittle materials are good under compression
both the elastic elongation and plastic but not under tension.
elongation (Fig. 3.9). For example: Gypsum products, dental
cements, dental amalgam, dental ceramics,
etc.
ULTIMATE STRESS
Application “Ultimate stress is the maximum stress that a
An alloy that has a high value for total elongation material can withstand before failure”.
can be bent permanently without danger of
fracture, i.e.; clasps can be adjusted, orthodontic
Ultimate Tensile Stress
appliance can be prepared, if they are prepared “A maximum stress that a material can withstand
from alloy have high values of elongation. before failure in tension”.
TOUGHNESS Ultimate Compressive Stress

“A maximum stress that a material can withstand
“Toughness is the ability of the material to absorb
before failure in compression”.
energy during plastic deformation up to fracture”
Application
The ultimate stress of an alloy has been used
in dentistry to give an indication or the size or
cross-section required for a given restoration. An
alloy that has been stressed to near the ultimate
stress will be permanently deformed.
BREAKING STRESS
“The stress at which the material fractures is
Fig. 3.9 Percentage of elongation called as fracture stress or breaking stress”.
A material does not necessarily fracture at 3. Shear strength

the point at which the maximum stress occurs. 4. Flexural strength (modulus of rupture)
After a maximum stress is applied the test bar 5. Impact strength
shows a reduction in c/s area called “necking”. As 6. Fatigue strength
a result the load carrying capability of the test bar 7. Tear strength.
is reduced until the fracture occurs. Accordingly,
the stress at the end of the curve is less than that
TENSILE STRENGTH
some intermediate point on the curve.
“Tensile strength is defined as the maximum
True Stress stress that a material can withstand before
fracture in tension”.
“It is defined as a ratio of load to the actual or • Tensile strength is measured when maximum
instantaneous area of cross-section”. load in tension is delivered on the original
cross-sectional area of the sample.
True Strain • Tension strength is generally determined by
subjecting a rod, wire, or dumb-bell-shaped
“It is defined as a ratio of increase in length to the
specimen to tensile loading.
instantaneous length of the specimen”.
• Such a test is difficult to perform for brittle
materials. Another test is used for deter
True Breaking Stress (TBS) mining tensile strength is called “Diametral
After the ultimate stress the sample develops a compression test”.
neck, i.e. a local decrease in cross-sectional area
at which further deformation is concentrated. Diametral Compression Test
The load now acts on a diminishing area and Also called as “Indirect tensile test” for brittle
produces a stress sufficient to fracture the materials.
material. “The stress is obtained by dividing In this method a disk of the brittle material
the breaking load by actual cross-sectional area is compressed diametrically in a testing machine
known as the true breaking stress”. Theoretically, until fractures. The compressive stress applied to
it would be higher than the ultimate stress. the specimen that introduces a tensile stress in
the material perpendicular to the plane of the
STRENGTH force application of the test machine (Fig. 3.10).
“Strength is the capability of the material to
withstand stress without undergoing fracture”. FATIGUE STRENGTH
Unit: MPa or PSI. A subject that has been subjected to a stress
below the proportional limit and subsequently
Applications relieved of this stress should return to its original
form without any change in its properties or
Dental materials should have good strength to
withstand stresses due to forces of mastication.
For example, among all the cements the silicate
cement (180 MPa) is having high strength
and zinc oxide eugenol cement is the weakest
(20 MPa).
TYPES OF STRENGTH
1. Tensile strength
2. Compressive strength Fig. 3.10 Diametral test for brittle materials
internal structure. When the stress is repeated a the properties that are related to hardness of
great number of times, the strength of materials a material are strength, proportional limit,
may be drastically reduced and causes ultimate ductility, etc.
failure. This is called “Fatigue failure”. Hardness tests are included in numerous
ADA specifications for dental materials. Any
Applications test method will involve complex stresses in the
In denture base resin, denture breaks due to material. Each of these differs slightly from the
fatigue from repeating loads during service. others and each presents certain advantages,
and disadvantages. They have a common quality;
each depends on the penetration of some small
SHEAR STRENGTH symmetrically shaped indenters onto the surface
“The maximum stress that a material can with of object being tested. The indenter may be steel
stand before fracture in a shear mode of loading”. cone, steel ball, diamond pyramid or similar
• A common method of testing the shear form.
strength of the dental material is the “punch A standardized force or weight, which
method”. Stress distributed caused by this varies with each test method, is applied to
method is not pure shear. the penetrating point through an appropriate
mechanism. Such a force application to the
F
Shear strength = _______ indenter produces a symmetrically shaped
πdh indentation, which can be measured for depth,
area or width of the indentation, produced. With
where F = Compressive force a fixed load applied to a standardized intender,
d = Diameter of punch the dimension of the indentation will vary
h = Thickness of specimen inversely with the resistance to penetration of
material being tested.
IMPACT STRENGTH
Methods
“Impact strength is the capability of the material
to withstand fracture under an impact force” or 1. Moh’s scratch test method
“energy required to fracture a material under an 2. Indentation method
impact force”. Impact strength can be tested by— 3. Penetration method.
1. Charpy type impact tester
2. Izod impact tester. Moh’s Scratch Method
It is very crude method. This method is done
TEAR STRENGTH by scratching one with other. The hardness is
indicated in Moh’s scale, value ranges from 0.2
“Tear strength is the capability of a material to to 10.
withstand fracture under tearing forces”. Recently, Bier Baum developed a scratching
method to compare surface hardness.
Applications
Impression material should be sufficiently elastic Indentation Method
to be drawn over undercuts. Tearing occurs when Indentation test is further divided into two types
severe undercuts are present. So removal should based on the size of the indenter used:
be at a sharp to reduce permanent deformation a. Macrohardness test
and maximize strength. • Brinell’s hardness test
• Rockwell hardness test.
HARDNESS b. Microhardness test
Hardness is defined as resistance to permanent • Vicker’s hardness test
scratching or indentation or penetration. Among • Knoop’s hardness test.
Table 3.2 Hardness numbers of selected dental

materials
Material Hardness
Tooth enamel 270-380 KHN
Dentin 60-70 BHN
Porcelain (fused) 415 VHN
Yellow cast gold alloys (hardened) 260 BHN
White gold (as cast) 150 BHN
Figs 3.11A to C (A) Brinell’s hardness test: spherical
steel ball indenter; (B) Rockwell’s hardness test: spherical Hard inlay gold 92-140 BHN
steel ball indenter; (C) Rockwell test: conical diamond Amalgam 90 BHN
indenter. Where P is applied load, d is diameter of
indentation and DI is depth of indentation Stainless steel (soft) 180 KHN
Stainless steel (cold worked) 350 BHN
Co-Cr alloys 270-370 BHN
Brinell’s hardness test: It is the oldest method
Yellow wrought gold alloys (work 250-350 BHN
used to test alloys and metals. As shown in Figure
hardened)
3.11A, the test involves a spherical hardened
steel ball of suitable diameter (10 mm) “D” Silicate cement 58 BHN
is pressed on the surface of a test material by Hardened carbon steel 700-850 BHN
applying a load “P” for certain time and removed. Zinc phosphate cement 36 BHN
The diameter of indentation “d” is measured. The
Pure gold 18-30 BHN
force acting per unit area expressed as kg/mm2
is calculated and is known as Brinell’s hardness Composite filling 25-35 BHN
number “BHN”. “d’ is measured with a calibrated Acrylic polymer (heat-cure) 18-22 BHN
marking on eyepiece of microscope. BHN is Acrylic polymer (self-cure) 16-18 BHN
computed by a formula
Vinyl denture base 14-20 BHN
2P
BHN = ______________________ Gold foil restoration 20-60 BHN
π D [D-(D2-d2)½] Soft inlay gold 40-75 BHN
Smaller the area of indentation, harder is the
material, larger is BHN. Rockwell’s hardness test: It was developed as
To measure the hardness of small samples a rapid method for hardness determination.
of materials used in dentistry, a smaller version It is mainly used for brittle and not very hard
of instrument known as “Baby Brinell’s” has a materials. The indenter is hardened steel ball
small spherical ball of 1.6 mm diameter and load (Fig. 3.11B) or conical diamond indenter (Fig.
of 123N. BHN of selected dental material were 3.11C). Depth of indentation is measured and
mentioned in the Table 3.2. Rockwell Hardness Number (RHN) is calculated.
Disadvantages: First, minor load of 3 kg is applied; the “0” on
• Cannot be used for very hard metals, as ‘d’ scale is adjusted. Load is increased to major load
cannot be measured properly. of any suitable value like 10, 20, 40 kg and large
• Cannot be used for brittle materials. diameter ball (12.7 mm) and RHN is found on
• Cannot be used for elastically recovering proper corresponding scale. This test method has
material. direct value reading, i.e. no formula is needed
• It does not give a more reliable or correct (Fig. 3.11B).
value due to large depth of indentation, how Another advantage is it can be used for mea
ever the instrument and method is simple. suring percentage elastic recovery of materials by
Knoop’s hardness test: It was developed to fulfill
the needs of microindentation test method.
Load is applied with a carefully prepared
diamond-indenting tool (indenter has its oppo
site face inclined at a 130° to 172.5°). It produces
indentation of orthorhombic shape and length
of indentation is measured as shown in Figure
3.12B.
The elastic contraction takes place along
minor diagonals and not along major diagonals.
Figs 3.12A and B (A) Vicker’s hardness test (B) Knoop’s Hence major diagonals are measured. Higher the
hardness test. Where P is applied load, L is length of value of KHN, harder is the material.
diagonals This is the most popular method and is used
for almost all dental materials even if they are
available in small quantities. Only disadvantage
keeping the indenter with certain load on sample is its high cost and requiring a highly polished
for 10 min. This is useful for plastic, elastomers, surface.
and viscoelastic materials.
Disadvantages Penetration Method or Shore A—
• Cannot be used for very hard. Durometer Test
• It does not give real surface hardness. This method is particularly useful to compare the
Vicker’s hardness test: It is also called as 136° hardness of rubber in industry and elastomeric
diamond pyramid, as diamond pyramid indenter impression materials in dentistry.
is forced into the material with a load varying The instrument consists of a blunt pointed
from 1 to 120 kg. As shown in Figure 3.12A, the indenter 0.8 mm in diameter that tapers to a
indenter produces a square indentation; the cylinder 1.6 mm. With the help of a spring it can
length of diagonals are measured. be loaded to any suitable value. It is connected
The hardness number calculated is called as to a pointer with lever arrangement. The pointer
“Vicker’s hardness number” (VHN). moves over a semicircular scale giving enlarged
To get real value for surface hardness, the reading of depth of penetration. Initially the
depth of indentation must be minimum. This reading of the pointer is adjusted to a zero when
produces an indentation to a depth of 10-15 µ tip of indenter touches the bottom and a maxi
on a well-polished metal surface. mum 100 reading is given when tip is on the
This method is convenient to use for very surface.
The elastomeric mix is loaded in a small
hard materials like chrome cobalt, stainless steel,
conical vessel and penetrometer is lowered
and alumina.
at every ½ minute interval. Because rubber is
Disadvantages viscoelastic, it is difficult to obtain an accurate
• Cannot be used for elastically recovering reading, since the indenter continues to penetrate
mater ials as “length of diagonals (L)” the rubber as a function of time. The usual
becomes smaller when the indenter is method is to press down firmly and quickly on
removed. the indenter and record the maximum reading
• As high polished surface of material is as shore A – hardness.
required, the surface hardness may be
greater than the actual value since the Abrasion Resistance
polishing causes increase in hardness due Like hardness, abrasion is influenced by a num
to work hardening. ber of factors. Hardness has often been used
to indicate the ability of a material to resist Table 3.3 Heat of fusion

abrasion.
Materials Heat of fusion (Cal/gm)
Gold 16
Thermal Properties Silver 26
Copper 49
MELTING AND FREEZING Chromium 75
TEMPERATURE Aluminum 94
The temperature at which a material melts
or freezes is an important quality. Materials to the mass to cause liquefaction and as long
should have a melting or softening point at as the mass remains molten, the heat of fusion
a temperature only slightly above the body is retained by the liquid state is liberated. The
temperature, but in no case should it be less than difference in energy content is necessary to
the temperature of the mouth. maintain the kinetic molecular motion, which
Many times this temperature of softening or is charact eristic of the liquid state. Heat of
melting is the main factor in determining the fusion and melting point of various metals are
choice of or selection of a material for use in the mentioned in the Tables 3.3 and 3.4.
mouth or laboratory. The melting temperature
likewise is important in the fabrication of Table 3.4 Melting point and densities of various
materials outside the mouth. metals
• The melting temperature of metals and alloys Materials Melting point Density (g/
used for restoration is important in that it (°C) cm3)
limits the qualities of mold materials into Gold 1063 19.30
which the metals may be cast.
Mercury –39 13.55
• Knowledge of melting temperature of solders
in relation to that of the structure being Nickel 1455 8.90
soldered is necessary if proper assembly is Platinum 1774 21.45
to be obtained. Tin 232 7.28
Most materials used in dentistry have melting
Zinc 419 7.14
ranges rather than melting points because they
are not single elements or components. Aluminum 660 2.70
Cadmium 321 8.64
HEAT OF FUSION Cobalt 1495 8.90

Chromium 1890 7.20
The heat of fusion, L, is the heat in calories or
joules, J required to convert 1 gm of a material Copper 1083 8.92
from the solid to the liquid state at the melting Gallium 30 5.90
temperature. Indium 156 7.30
Equation for the calculation of heat of fusion
Lead 327 11.34
is
L = Q/m Iron 1535 7.86
where Q = Total heat absorbed. Molybdenum 2620 10.20
m = Mass of substance melted. Palladium 1549 11.97
The heat of fusion is closely related to the Silver 961 10.50
melting or freezing point of the substance
Iridium 2454 22.40
because when the change in state occurs, it is
always necessary to apply the additional heat Titanium 1668 4.43
In general, the specific heat of liquids is
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
higher than the specific heat of solids.
The thermal conductivity (K) of a substance is the
quantity of heat in calories or joules per second Applications
passing through a body of 1 cm thick with a
cross-section of 1 cm2 when the temperature During the melting and casting process the
difference is 1°C. specific heat of the metal or alloy is important
because of the total amount of heat that must be
Units: Cal/sec/cm2 or °C/cm. applied to the mass to raise the temperature to
The conductivity of a material changes the melting point.
slightly as the surrounding temperature is Specific heat of gold and the materials used
altered but generally the difference resulting in gold alloys is low, so prolonged heating is
from temperature changes is much less than the necessary.
difference that exists between different types of
materials.
THERMAL DIFFUSIVITY
Applications The value of thermal diffusivity of a material
Restorative materials: When a large gold or controls the time rate at temperature change as
amalgam restoration is used in the deep cavity heat passes through a material.
and an inadequate thickness of dentin is present, It is a measure of the rate at which a body
a layer of cement called as base is placed under with a non-uniform temperature reaches a state
the permanent restoration to protect the pulp of thermal equilibrium.
from thermal shock because these restorative h = K/Cp.
materials are good conductors of heat. Where h = thermal diffusivity
K = thermal conductivity
Denture base materials: The difference in thermal Cp = temperature dependent specific
conductivity of denture base materials likewise heat capacity.
may cause differences in soft tissue response. A = temperature dependent density
good thermal conductor is preferred for denture
bases to maintain good health in the supporting Units: m2/sec or cm2/sec or mm2/sec.
tissues by having the heat readily conducted to
and from the tissue by the denture base.
Applications
Restorative materials: Many restorative materials
are metallic, because of free electrons present
SPECIFIC HEAT in metal; these materials are good thermal
The specific heat (Cp) of a substance is the conductors that the tooth pulp may be adversely
quantity of heat required to raise the temperature affected by thermal changes. In many instances,
of a unit mass of substance by 1°C. it is necessary to insert a thermal insulator
The heat required to raise the temperature of between the restoration and the tooth structure.
1 gm of water from 15° to 16°C is 1 cal, which is In this respect, a restorative material that exhibits
used as the basis for the definition of heat unit. a low thermal conductivity is more desirable.
Unit: Cal/g/°C Denture base materials: Artificial teeth are held
When the mass of a body is disregarded, in a denture base that is ordinarily constructed
the heat capacity of a substance is the quantity of a synthetic resin, a poor thermal conductor.
of heat required to raise the temperature of a In upper denture, the base usually covers most
body 1°C and is controlled by the mass of the of the roof of the mouth (hard palate). Its low
substance. Thus the total heat required depends thermal conductivity tends to prevent heat
on the total mass and the specific heat of the exchange between the supporting soft tissues
substance. and the oral cavity itself. Thus patient partially
loses the sensation of hot and cold while eating

and drinking. The use of metal denture base
may be more comfortable and pleasant from this
standpoint as it has high thermal diffusivity when This type of expansion is seen in solids,
compared to acrylic denture bases. liquids and gases. It is observed that ‘γ’ is thrice
its α.
COEFFICIENT OF THERMAL Finally, it can be written as α: β: γ = 1: 2: 3.
EXPANSION (COTE)
Applications
The increase in the size of material on heating is
called thermal expansion. This property is seen Impression materials: COTE should be minimum
in solids, liquids, and gases. to minimize contraction or dimensional change
when cooled from mouth temperature to room
Coefficient of Linear Expansion temperature. On being withdrawn from the
patient’s mouth which is at a temperature of
The change in length per unit length of a material 32-37°C to a room temperature of around 23°C,
for a 1°C change (rise) in temperature is called the impression undergoes approximately 10°C
as coefficient of linear expansion. It is denoted cooling. This results in thermal contraction, the
by ‘α’. magnitude of which depends on the value of
Units: /°C. COTE of that particular impression material used
This type of expansion is seen in solids. and the impression tray to which it is attached.
Dental waxes (pattern waxes): The COTE of wax
is higher than that of any other dental material.
In the direct technique, softened wax is forced
into the tooth cavity and held under pressure
till it hardens. So the technique is carried out at
Coefficient of Superficial Expansion
around 37°C. Before investment, the wax pattern
The change in area per unit area of a material pulls down from 37°C–23°C (room temperature),
for a 1°C change (rise) in temperature is called which causes a linear shrinkage of 0.6%.
as coefficient of superficial expansion. It is In the indirect technique, softened wax is
denoted by ‘β’. forced into cavity on the gypsum die. Since this
Units: /°C. procedure is carried out at room temperature
rather than mouth temperature, inlay wax
for indirect pattern may soften at a lower
temperature than direct pattern waxes. Thus the
value of α is much lower, in the range of 0.2-0.4%.
This type of expansion is seen in solids. It is Denture base resins: Denture base and the
observed that β is twice its α. artificial teeth should have same values of COTE.
β = 2α Acrylic resin teeth are more compatible with
acrylic denture base than porcelain teeth. There
is a severe mismatch in COTE and modulus of
Coefficient of Cubical Expansion elasticity between porcelain and acrylic resin.
The change in volume per unit volume of a This may lead to crazing of denture base in the
material for a 1°C change (rise) in temperature region around the base of porcelain teeth.
is called as coefficient of cubical expansion. It Restorative materials: The COTE should be
is denoted by ‘γ’. minimum or zero to minimize percolation.
Units: /°C. When a patient takes hot drinks or cold drinks,
It can be determined experimentally that
the resistance of a homogeneous conductor of
uniform cross-section at a constant temperature
varies directly with the length and inversely with
the cross-sectional area of the sample, according
to the equation as follows:
Figs 3.13A and B (A) Imbibition of fluids

(B) Exudation of fluids The change in electrical resistance has been
used to study the alteration in internal structure
of various alloys as a result of heat treatment.
restorative materials will be subjected to tempera For example: In gold-copper alloy system,
ture changes in mouth that results in dimensional change in internal structure caused by an
changes. Due to this expansion or contraction of accompanying change in conductivity.
the restorative material, the restoration may leak Resistivity is important in the investigation
or it may debond from the tooth. of the pain perception threshold resulting from
During contraction, depending on the value applied electrical stimuli and of displacement of
of α of restoration comparative to tooth a gap fluid in teeth caused by ionic movements.
will develop at the junction. This will lead to When electrical resistance of normal and
imbibition of fluids containing bacteria, and carious teeth is observed, less resistance obser
then exuding them as the temperature rises. ved by the carious teeth. Enamel is relatively
This pumping action of alternately imbibing and poor conductor of electricity whereas dentin is
exuding fluids has been termed as percolation somewhat better.
(Figs 3.13A and B).
If the values of α of tooth and restorative DIELECTRIC CONSTANT
material match then the magnitude of gap
formed will be less. Material that provides electrical insulation is
Among all the restorative materials, acrylic known as a dielectric.
has the highest COTE; it will shrink or expand The dielectric constant or relative permittivity
almost 7 times that of tooth structure for every ‘εr’ compares the permittivity ‘ε’ of the dielectric
degree change in temperature. to the permittivity ‘ε0’ of empty space.
To minimize the marginal leakage, the walls εr = ε/ε0
of the cavity are lined with or coated with cavity where ‘ε0’ of vacuum is 8.854 × 10–12 Farad/m.
varnish. Dielectric constant varies with temperature,
bonding, crystal structure and structural defects
of the dielectric.
Electrical Properties The dielectric constant of dental cements
generally decreases as the material hardens.
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY
OR RESISTIVITY ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE
The ability of a material to conduct an electric The electromotive force series is a listing of
current can be stated either specific conductance electrode potentials of metals according to the
or conductivity or conversely as the specific order of their decreasing tendency to oxidize in
resistance or resistivity. solution.
Metals and alloys used for dental restorations a metallic restoration is contacted by metallic
or instruments that are susceptible to corrosion. spoon.
Some understanding of the relative position of Galvanic shock can be experienced as a pain
the metal in the electromotive series is desirable. sensation caused by electric current generated by
• This serves as the basis of composition of the a contact between two dissimilar metals, forming
tendency of metals to oxidize in air. the battery in the oral environment. The flow of
• Those metals with large negative electrode current takes place through the pulp, the patient
potentials are more resistant to tarnish than experiences pain and corrosion.
those with a high positive electrode potential.
Galvanism When Two Fillings are
Brought in Contact
GALVANISM
When the two fillings are brought into contact the
The presence of dissimilar metals in the oral potential is suddenly short circuited through the
cavity may cause a phenomenon called as “galva two alloys. The result may be sharp pain.
nic action” or “galvanism”. This results from a For example, when amalgam restoration
difference in potential between dissimilar fillings is placed on the occlusal surface of an upper
in opposing or adjacent teeth. tooth directly opposing a gold inlay in a lower
These fillings in conjunction with saliva or tooth. Since both restorations are wet with saliva
bone fluid as electrolytes make up an electric an electrical couple exists, with a difference in
cell. Here the two metal restorations act as potential between the dissimilar restorations, it
electrodes. can be shown in the Figure 3.14A.
For example, many patients occasionally It is known that gold and amalgam resto
experience a mild electrostatic discharge when rations in the same mouth will develop a greater
Figs 3.14A and B (A) Possible path of Galvanic current in the mouth
(B) Possible pathway of Galvanic current in the single restoration
electrical potential than amalgam-amalgam or
ZETA POTENTIAL
gold-gold combinations.
A charged particle suspended in an electrolytic
Galvanism When Two Fillings solution attracts ions of opposite charge to
those at its surface. The layer formed by these
are not in Contact
ions is called the “stern layer”. To maintain the
When teeth are not in contact the difference in electrical balance of the suspending fluid, ions
electrical potential between the two fillings still of opposite charge are attracted to the stern
exists, a circuit exists. Saliva forms the electrolyte layer. The potential at the surface of that part
and the hard and soft tissues can constitute the of the diffuse double layer of ions is called as
external circuit. “the electrokinetic” or “zeta potential”.
For example, when an amalgam restoration Zeta potential may affect the near surface
is placed in the occlusal surface of the upper mechan ical properties such as wear of the
tooth which opposites a gold crown in a lower material.
tooth. The electric current measured under
these conditions between a gold crown and an
amalgam restoration in the same mouth but not Rheological Properties
in contact; appear to be approximately 0.5 to 1 ‘Rheology’ is the study of the flow and defor
µA. mation of materials. This term can be applied
to both solids and liquids. This is of importance
Galvanism in Single Isolated in dental materials in the following instances.
Metallic Restorations • Many dental materials are mixed as fluid
pastes, which subsequently solidify.
The current is even present although it is of less • The mixed pastes are adapted to the required
intense. In this condition, the cell is generated shape.
by the potential difference created by two • The setting of such materials initially involves
electrolytes such as saliva and tissue fluids as a change in viscosity with time and then
shown in Figure 3.14B. The interior surface of the development of elastic modulus as
restoration exposed to the dental fluid have more solidification proceeds. From the physical
active potential. analysis of these properties a working time
and setting time can be defined.
• Flow and deformation of solids is also impor
Clinical Significance of Galvanic Currents tant. In practice, some solids are viscoelastic,
Small galvanic currents associated with electro such materials combine with viscous flow
galvanism are continuously present in oral and elasticity and their properties are time
cavity. dependent.
• Cements are good electrical insulators. But
once they are wetted with dentinal fluids FLOW
or oral fluids by marginal leakage they will Flow is the ability of a material to undergo plastic
become poor insulator. deformation by the external force or by its own
• Postoperative pain occurs immediately after weight.
insertion of a new restoration and generally Flow is a property usually attributed to the
it subsides in few days. amorphous state as in this type of stress; the
• Coating with varnish can prevent electrical forces of attraction between atoms are not as
conductivity. great as in crystalline state.
• Galvanic current could account for dyscrasias
(lichenoid reaction, ulcer, cancer, etc.) but no Factors Affecting Flow
evidence has been found. • Temperature.
• Load applied. Applications

• Time for which force is applied.
Dental amalgam has components with melting
points only slightly above the room temperature.
Applications Because of its low melting range, dental amalgam
Flow is an essential property for all impression can slowly creep from a restored tooth site under
materials. When the impression material is periodic sustained stress. The creep produces
first inserted into the mouth they should have continuing plastic deformation so the process
high flow property to record accurate and fine can be destructive to dental restoration.
impression of the oral cavity and should have
minimum flow after hardening to minimize the VISCOSITY
possibility of distortion of the impression during
Viscosity (η) is the resistance of a liquid to flow
removal from the mouth.
and equal to shear stress divided by shear strain
Similarly dental inlay waxes should have
rate.
high or maximum flow before hardening to get
all the fine details of the cavity and should have
minimum flow after hardening to minimize the
possibility of distortion of the pattern during
removal from the tooth cavity or die.
For example, the two parallel layers of the
liquid are moving with different velocities, the
CREEP experience tangential forces which tend to retard
the faster layer and accelerate the slower layer,
Creep is a rheological behavior of a solid mate
these forces are called as forces of viscosity.
rial under certain combination of stress and
The forces of viscosity on a layer is found to
temperature. All materials that are subjected
be proportional to the area (A) of the layer and
to a constant stress exhibit an increase of strain
velocity gradient, i.e. dv/dn of the layer in the
with time. This phenomenon of time dependent
normal direction.
plastic deformation in crystalline materials is
called as ‘creep’. Units: Poise
If a metal is held at a temperature near its 100 centipoises (cp) = 1 poise.
melting point and is subjected to a constant 1 poise = 1 degree × sec/cm2
applied force, the resulting deformation or strain
will be found to increase as a function of time. Newtonian Viscosity
It is an ideal fluid demonstrates of shear stress
that is proportional to shear rate and then the
Types of Creep
plot is a straight line as shown in Figure 3.15.
Static Creep Such behavior is called Newtonian.
Static creep is the time dependent plastic
Pseudoplastic
deformation produced in a completely set solid
subjected to a constant stress. Viscosity decreases with increase in shear rate as
shown in Figure 3.15, e.g. addition polysilicones.
Dynamic Creep Dilatant (Shear Thickening)
Dynamic creep is the time dependent plastic Viscosity increases with increase in shear rate.
deformation produced in a completely set solid These types of liquids become more rigid as the
when subjected to a fluctuating stress, such as rate of deformation increases (Fig. 3.15), e.g.
fatigue type or cyclic stresses. Fluid denture base resins.
form, Agar is sufficiently flexible to be withdrawn
from undercuts. The materials are viscoelastic
and the elastic recovery can be optimized by
using correct technique. These materials are
viscoelastic and are likely to undergo permanent
deformation if subjected to stresses for more
than a few seconds.
Fig. 3.15 Relationship between viscosity and shear

strain rate
Optical Properties
Each restorative material has some properties
Plastic that are necessary to permit a material to restore
the function of damaged or missing natural
Plastic materials behave like a rigid body until tissues. Another important goal of dentistry is
some minimum value of shear stress is applied. to restore the color and appearance of natural
They began to flow until a certain minimum dentition. Esthetic considerations in restorative
amount of stress applied (Fig. 3.15). and prosthetic dentistry have assumed a high
priority within the past several decades.
Applications Light is an electromagnetic radiation that
can be detected by the human eye. Visible light
Viscosity is an essential property for all impression
(Table 3.5) is a very small part of the electromagnetic
materials. When the impression material is being
spectrum (Table 3.6), being that region of the
removed from the mouth they should have high
spectrum of the wavelength approximately
viscosity to minimize the possibility of distortion
380-780 nm. White light is made up of mixtures
of the impression.
of color.
Impression compound is the most viscous of
For an object to be visible, it must reflect or
the impression materials. The very high viscosity
transmit light incidents on it from an external
of impression compound is significant in two
source. The latter is the case for objects that are
ways:
of dental interest. The incident light is usually
• Firstly, it limits the degree of fine details,
polychromatic, i.e. some mixture of the various
which can be recorded in an impression.
wavelengths.
• Secondly, it characterizes the compound as
The phenomenon of vision and certain
a mucocompressive impression material.
terminology can be illustrated by considering the
VISCOELASTICITY
Table 3.5 Wavelength of different regions
In practice, many materials show a combination of visible spectrum
of both elastic and viscous properties. This Color Approximate wavelength
phenomenon is termed as viscoelasticity. Violet 380-430 nm
Blue 430-460 nm
Applications Blue-Green 460-500 nm
Reversible hydrocolloid: In the sol form Agar is Green 500-570 nm
sufficiently fluid to allow detailed reproduction Yellow 570-590 nm
of hard and soft oral tissues. Its low viscosity
Orange 590-610 nm
classifies it as a mucostatic material, as it does
not compress or displace soft tissues. In the gel Red 610-710 nm
Table 3.6 The electromagnetic spectrum
Nomenclature Frequency (Hz) Approximate wavelength (m)

19 22
g-rays 3 × 10 –3 × 10 10–14–10–11
16 19
X-rays 3 × 10 –3 × 10 10–11–10–8
Ultraviolet rays 6 × 1014–3 × 1016 10–8–5 × 10–7
Visible light 3 × 1014–6 × 1014 4 × 10–7–8 × 10–7
12 14
Infrared 3 × 10 –3 × 10 10–6–10–4
Microwaves 3 × 108–3 × 1012 10–3–1
Radiowaves <3× 108 >1
response of the human eye to light coming from Hue

an object. Light from an object that is incident on
an eye is focused on the retina and is converted Hue is commonly referred to as color. It is the
into nerve impulses that are transmitted to dominant wavelength of a color and is the
the brain. Cone-shaped cells in the retina are wavelength of a monochrom atic light that
responsible for color vision. These cells have when mixed in suitable proportions with an
threshold intensity required for color vision achromatic color will match the color perceived.
and also exhibit a response curve related to the Light having short wavelengths (350 nm) is
wavelength of the incident light, because a neural violet in color, and light having long wavelengths
response is involved in color vision, constant (700 nm) is red, between these two wavelengths
stimulation by a single color may result in color are those corresponding to blue, green, yellow,
fatigue and a decrease in the eye’s response. and orange colors. This attribute of color
The signals from the retina are processed perception is also known as hue.
by the brain to produce the psychophysiologic
perception of color. Defects in certain portions of Value
the color-sensing receptors result in the different Value is the luminous reflectance. It is the light
types of color blindness and thus, people vary ness or darkness of a color. Value is the most
greatly in their ability to distinguish colors. important color factor in tooth color matching.
The value of a color permits an object to be
COLOR classified as equivalent to a member of a series
achromatic objects ranging from black to white
The perception of the color of an object is the for light diffusing objects and from black to per
result of a physiological response to a physical fect clear and colorless for transmitting objects.
stimulus. The sensation is a subjective experience, A black standard is assigned a luminous
whereas the beam of light, which is the physical reflectance of zero; whereas a white standard is
stimulus that produces the sensation is entirely assigned 100. This attribute of color perception is
objective. The perceived color response results described as value in one visual system of color
from either a reflected or a transmitted beam of measurement.
white light or a portion of that beam.
According to Grassmann’s laws, the eye can
distinguish differences in only three parameters
Chroma
of colors. The parameters are as follows: Chroma is excitation purity and is a measurement
• Hue of color intensity, i.e. the amount of a saturation
• Value of hue in a color (degree of saturation of a parti
• Chroma. cular hue). The higher the chroma more intense
Secondary Colors
A secondary color is obtained by the addition of
two primary colors (Fig. 3.17).
E.g.: Blue + Green = Cyan (peacock blue).
Green + Red = Yellow.
Red + Blue = Magenta.
Fig. 3.16 Light transmission through a prism Complementary Colors

Two colors are said to be complementary if they
is the color (dark). So chroma, it can not exist are combined to produce white color (Fig. 3.17).
itself but it is always associated with hue and E.g.: Blue + Yellow
value. The excitation purity of a color describes Green + Magenta
the degree of its difference from achromatic Red + Cyan
color perception more resembling it. Numbers
representing excitation purity ‘range 0-1, this Transmitted Color
attribute for color perception is also known as It is the resultant color of light transmitted by the
chroma. object and the color, which is not transmitted
is an absorbed color (Fig. 3.18), e.g. a yellow
COLORS AND COLOR MIXING color filter absorbs blue and transmits yellow,
similarly green filter transmits green color and
White Light absorbs magenta.
White light contains a mixture of colors. It is
dispersed into components by passing it through Reflected Color
a prism (Fig. 3.16). Materials gain their reflected colors by reflecting
them and absorbing other colors. For example,
Primary, Secondary and blue object reflects only blue color and absorbs
Complementary Colors all other colors (Fig. 3.18).
• A white object reflects all incident colors and
Primary Colors a black object absorbs all incident light and
does not reflect any color.
Blue, green and red are primary colors, combining • An object appears black when no light is
of suitable proportions of these colors results in reflected.
white color (Fig. 3.17).
Fig. 3.17 Equilateral triangle representing color

mixing where ‘w’ is white color Fig. 3.18 Light transmission and reflection
base material. To match the pink soft tissues

COLOR MIXING
of the mouth various blends of red and white
are necessary, with occasional need for blue,
Addition or Additive Mixing
brown and black in small quantities. The color
This process applies only to colored lights reflect and translucency of human tissue shows a wide
ing from white surface, the resultant is an additive variation from patient to patient and from one
combination of colors. tooth or area of the mouth to another.
It can be represented by an equilateral
triangle (Fig. 3.17). In which primary colors are at
MEASUREMENT OF COLOR
the corners and secondary colors at the midpoint
of sides. Two colors said to be complement if they The color of dental restorative materials is most
combine to produce white. commonly measured in reflected light by two
techniques.
Subtractive Mixing • Instrumental technique, done with the help
of spectrop hotometers and colorimeters
This process applies to pigments and paints. (Figs 3.19A and B).
Each component reflects its own color and • Visual technique, a popular system for visual
absorbs other color, resultant is the color, which determination of color is the Munsell color
is nonabsorbed. system (Fig. 3.19C).
PIGMENTATION LIGHT AND INTERFACES

Pleasing esthetic effects are sometimes produced When a beam of light strikes on an object the
in a restoration by the incorporation of colored following things can happen:
pigments in non-metallic materials such 1. Reflection
as composite resins, dental acrylics, dental 2. Refraction
porcelain and silicone maxillofacial materials. 3. Transmission
Usually inorganic pigments rather than 4. Absorption
organic dyes are used. Since the pigments are 5. Scattering of light.
more permanent and durable in their color
qualities. When the colors are combined with
Reflection
proper translucency, the restorative materials
may be made to match closely the surrounding When a light, traveling in a homogeneous
tooth structure or soft tissue. medium, falls on the surface of another medium,
To match tooth tissue; various shades of a part of incident light is sent back to the first
yellow and gray are blended into the white medium (Fig. 3.20A).
Figs 3.19A to C (A) Colorimeter, (B) Spectrophotometer, and (C) Munsell color system
Scattering of Light
Presence of scattering centers such as opacifiers
(e.g.: TiO2), air bubbles in the medium causes
light to emerge in all directions.
The effect of scattering is dependent on size,
shape, and refractive index of the material and
the amount of scattering centers present. Opacity
increases with increase in scattering.
Opacity
Opacity is the property of materials that prevents
the passage of light. When all the colors of
spectrum from a white light source such as
sunlight are reflected from an object with same
Figs 3.20A and B Light transmission and reflection intensity as received, the object appears white.
through the objects with smooth and rough surfaces An opaque material may absorb some of
respectively light and reflect the remainder. For example, red,
orange, yellow, blue and violet are absorbed, the
material appears green in reflected white light.
Refraction
When a ray of light traveling in a homogeneous Translucency
medium, enter into another medium there The translucency of an object is the amount
will be change in direction or in path of ray of incident light transmitted by the object that
(Fig. 3.20A). scatters part of the light.
Reflection results from the difference in the • A high translucency gives a lighter color
refractive indices of two mediums. appearance.
• Translucency decreases with increase in
Transmission scattering in the material.
• Some translucent materials used in dentistry
Substances, which are transparent, can transmit are porcelain, composite resins, plastics, etc.
light (Figs 3.20A and B). Rough surfaces give rise
to diffuse light, i.e. transmitted light emerges
in all directions; diffusion transmission gives a
Transparency
translucent appearance. Transparent materials allow the passage of light
in such a manner that little distortion takes place
Absorption and objects may be clearly seen through them,
e.g. glass.
Lambert’s law of absorption states that each
specific light of substance absorbs an equal Refractive Index or Index of Refraction
fraction of light passing through it.
The index of refraction for any substance is the
IX/I0 = e–Kx
ratio of the velocity of light in a vacuum or air to
Where IX = Intensity of light after passing its velocity in the medium.
through the distance of materials. When a ray of light travels from one medium
I0 = Initial intensity to another, the ratio between ‘sin’ of angle of
K = Absorption coefficient of material. incidence and ‘sin’ of angle of reflection is called
then called as an isomeric pair; they are color

matched under all light sources.
FLUORESCENCE
Fluorescence is the emission of light by an
object at different wavelengths from those of
the incident light.
When the molecules of a substance absorb
radiation they are raised to a high energy state
Fig. 3.21 Representation of light traveling from one and the excess energy is emitted out with greater
medium to another wavelength within short time (approximately
10–8 seconds), this phenomenon is called as
refractive index of second medium with respect fluorescence.
to first medium (Fig. 3.21). The wavelength of the emitted light usually
The refractive index is a characteristic is longer than that of the exciting radiation.
property of the substance and is used extensively Natural teeth fluoresce in the blue region
for identification. when illuminated by ultraviolet light. Some
anterior restorative materials and dental por
celains are formulated with fluorescing agents
METAMERISM to produce the natural appearance of teeth
The change in color matching of two objects under structure.
different light sources is called metamerism. Two
objects that are matched under one light source
but are not matched under other light sources
Biocompatibility
are called a metameric pair (Fig. 3.22). The term biocompatibility is used to describe
An example of metamerism is when a the state of affairs in a biomaterial exists within
shade guide tooth matches the tooth under a physiological environment, without either the
incandescent light. material adversely and significantly affecting
Metamerism results from possible differences the body, i.e. biomaterials being harmonious
in illumination between the dental clinic and the with life and not having toxic or injurious effects
dental laboratory, causing poor matching in a on biologic junctions. Outwardly there are two
fabricated restoration such as a porcelain crown. broad aspects of biocompatibility, such as
The ideal situation is to have objects possess • The effects on the material.
the same color reflectance. The objects are • The effects on the tissues.
These are, however, very much interrelated
for it is often an adverse effect on a material by
the physiological fluid, leading to the release of
particulate or soluble matter from the material
that can cause adverse response from the tissues.
Biocompatibility is largely about the chemical
interaction that takes place between the material
and the body fluids and the physiological
responses to these reactions. Thus for example
the biocompatibility of metallic materials is the
Fig. 3.22 Metamerism—a pair of objects color is electrochemical interaction due to release of
matched under light source A and does not match metal ions or some cases the release of insoluble
under light source B particles into the tissues.
BIOMATERIALS • Age of the person.

The biomaterial may be defined as material that • Products of corrosion of alloys or degrada
is used in the treatment of patients and which tion of materials.
at some stage interferes with the tissues for a • Context of placement of restorations.
significant length of time so that the interaction For example a crown and bridge alloy shows
between the tissue and the material is an different biological responses when used as
important factor in the treatment. an implant.
In broad sense, a biomaterial can be any • Surface characteristics: Rough surface
substance other than a drug that can be used causes accumulation of food debris – act
for any period of time, as a part of system that as a seat for µ-organisms to grow and pro
treats, augments or replaces any tissues, organs duce biohazardous materials and causing
or function of body. For example dental materials inflammations, etc.
are used in humans for a short or long period of
time they function in close contact with human
tissues.
REQUIREMENTS OF BIOCOMPATIBILITY
Should not
CONCEPT OF BIOCOMPATIBILITY 1. Produce allergic reactions.
The application of biomaterials in medical 2. Harmful to the tooth or soft tissues.
disciplines is varied ranging from its usage 3. Be containing toxic substances.
in orthopedics to urology and dentistry to 4. Be carcinogenic.
gynecology. Likewise the materials vary from 5. Undergo biodegradations.
hard Co-Cr alloy to soft hydrophilic polymers 6. Show estrogenicity.
and from inert alumina ceramics to degradable 7. Create immunotoxicity.
collagenous products. However, same type of
materials can be used differently in different TESTS FOR EVALUATION
situations. For example use of acrylic PMMA in OF BIOCOMPATIBILITY
dentistry, neurosurgery, and orthopedic surgery The purpose of biocompatibility tests is to
and also in ophthalmology all have different eliminate any potential product or component
functions and are used in different anatomical of products that can cause harm or damage to
locations. oral or maxillofacial tissues.
The concept here, therefore, is that problems Before conducting biocompatibility tests, the
of biocompatib ility are subtle and complex, following aspects must be carefully considered:
but not necessarily totally different from one 1. Location of the material.
application to another or from one material to 2. Nature of the tissues (soft/hard).
another. 3. Exposure of the material to the oral situations,
Thus, in general, biocompatibility is measured saliva, blood, tissue fluids, etc.
on the basis of the localized cytotoxicity, systemic 4. Types of contact (direct/indirect).
responses, allergenicity, hypersensitivity, 5. Duration of contact (few minutes – impression
estrogenicity and carcinogenicity. materials and several years – restorations).
6. Chemical nature: Compositions, degradations
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE and corrosion products of restoratives.
BIOCOMPATIBILITY ASPECTS/ 7. Physical conditions : Stresses, fatigue
RESPONSES resistance, wearing, etc.
• Oral health conditions 8. Surface modifications (coated, electroplated)
For example chronic medical problems, and surface characteristics.
requiring long-term treatments like radiation, Biocompatibility tests are classified on three
chemotherapies, etc. levels or at three stages of testing:
1. Group I: Primary-screening tests Disadvantages of Cytotoxicity Tests

2. Group II: Secondary–animal tests
3. Group III: Preclinical–usage tests. • Limitation of testing to only one cell type at
a time
Primary Screening Tests • Dissimilarity of test cells and host cells.
• Lack of inflammatory and other tissue
Cytotoxicity Tests protective mechanism in tissue culture.
Dental materials in a fresh or cured state are
placed directly on tissue culture cells or on Secondary Tests
membranes overlying tissues. Manufacturer can
modify them if they are cytotoxic. At this level, a series of long-term tests are
conducted to identify agents that cause inflam
Genotoxicity Tests matory response or immune reactions. They are
Mammalian or nonmammalian cells, bacteria, performed mainly on rodents, rabbits, or guinea
yeast or fungi are used to determine the gene pigs, i.e. at this level the products are evaluated
mutations, changes in chromosomal structure or for its potential to create systemic toxicity,
other de-oxyribonucleic acid or genetic changes inhalation toxicity, skin irritation, sensitization
caused by the dental material, devices or extracts and implantation tests.
from materials. Cytotoxic tests employed are:
• Cell plating and growth tests. Mucous Membrane Irritation Tests
• Cell membrane permeability tests.
• Agar overlay method. This test is important because many chemical
• Chemotaxis assay. substances from the dental products can come in
• Assay for immune reaction. contact with the mucous membrane. This test is
• Mutagenesis assay. conducted by placing the test material in contact
with mucous membrane in positive and negative
Mutagenesis Assay control animals either on cheek pouch tissue or
with oral tissues for several weeks.
Mutagenic assays detect changes in the morpho
logy or metabolic function of a particular cell
type that is caused by genotoxicity. Most widely Skin Sensitization Test
used short-term mutagenesis tests are as follows: The agents are intradermally or the test material
• The Anne’s test, and is held in contact with the skin for a longer period
• Style’s transformation tests. of time from one exposure to repeated exposures.
The degree of reaction and the percentage of
The Anne’s test is more specific, technically
animals showing the reactions are basis for
easier to conduct, often conducted in screening
scoring the allergenicity of the material.
program. These studies suggest that not all
carcinogens are genotoxic (mutagenic) and not
all mutagens are carcinogenic. Implantation Tests
Advantages of Cytotoxicity Tests In these tests, the test material is implanted

into the subcutaneous tissue or into the bone.
• Screening large number of samples quickly The location of implant site is determined for
and inexpensively. inflammation of other reactions.
• Quantifying results.
• Greater sensitivity to toxic material than
Advantage
usage tests.
• Testing for specific function of cell metabo • In vivo tests are quite reliable as the biological
lism. responses are investigated directly.
Disadvantages placed. Observe the formation of dentinal bridge

adjacent to the test material (capping material)
• Expensive and difficult to control the
The quality or structure of the covering dentinal
experiment in long duration.
bridge is determined.
• Reliability of the fact whether the animal
represents fully the human species.
• Ethical concern of animal sacrifice. Endodontic Usage Test
In this test the pulp is completely removed from
Preclinical Usage Tests
the pulp chamber and root canals are replaced
Once the test material successfully possesses the by the obturating test material and control
screening and secondary tests, these pre-clinical material. The teeth were removed together
usage tests can be conducted on subhuman with surrounding apical periodontal soft and
primates (dogs, pigs, etc). Usage tests are perfor hard tissues and subjected for microscopical
med to identify the effects of various types of examination.
dental materials on tissue environment in which For a biocompatible material one should
they will be used. The tissues generally used are observe minimal or no response and the shortest
the dentin, pulp, gingival, mucosal tissues and resolution time of response is detected.
periodontal tissues. Most usage test involves
presumably intact and noncarious teeth without
inflamed pulp. ALLERGIC RESPONSE TO
DENTAL MATERIALS
Dentin – Pulp Usage Tests
Allergic Contact Dermatitis
Materials to be tested are placed in class V
cavities prepared on intact, noncarious teeth of This is commonly seen first by primary physicians.
nonrodent mammals and the test compounds This forms one of the most occupational
were then evaluated with the control at 3 days, diseases. The interval between exposures of
5 weeks and 8-week interval. These teeth were causative agent is the reoccurrence of clinical
then removed and subjected for microscopic manifestations usually varies between 12-48
examination for inflammatory response, preva hours.
lence of reparative dentin formation in the pulp Dermatitis usually occurs where the body
and the microleakage. surface makes direct contact with allergen.
Personnel and patients involved in ortho
Mucosal and Gingival Usage Tests dontics and pediatric dentistry have the high
incidence of side effects. An allergic contact
Because various dental materials are placed into dermatitis associated with numerous monomers
cavity preparation with subgingival extensions, of bonding agents frequently involves the distal
the gingival responses to these materials were parts of the fingers and palmar aspects of the
also measured. The test cavities are prepared fingertips.
class V cavities; the material is mixed as per the
manufacturers recommendations and placed
in the cavities with subgingival extension. The Allergic Contact Stomatitis
material effect on gingival tissues was then This is the most common adverse reaction to
observed at an interval of few days to few weeks. dental materials. The reaction may be observed
The tissue was then proposed and subjected for as local or contact type of lesions, but reactions
microscopical examination. distant from material site (such as itching on
the palms of the hand, etc.). The long-term
Pulp Capping and Pulpotomy Usage Tests reaction is dependent on the composition of the
In this, the pulp is merely exposed for pulp materials, the toxic components, the degradation
capping evaluation and the test material is products, the concentration of absorbed and
accumulated components and other factors be mercury-free alternative to amalgam. Studies

associated with substances leached from the of gallium alloys have reported problems with
materials. corrosion, durability, tooth fracture, and tooth
Dental materials contain many components sensitivity.
known to be common allergens such as
chromium, cobalt, mercury, eugenol, resin-based Base Metal Alloys
materials and formaldehyde. Various studies It is especially important for patients with metal
demonstrated that free residual monomer from sensitivities to avoid the base alloys since these
autopolymerized acrylic dentures or appliances usually contain toxic metals such as nickel and
can cause allergic reactions. chromium. But even the high noble materials
Chemicals that may produce allergic contact can be incompatible for patients and even toxic;
stomatitis and short-term basis can also be palladium, for example, is toxic.
found with mouthwashes, dentifrices and topical
medications. They can cause burning sensation,
Nonprecious Alloy
swelling and ulceration of oral tissues.
Nonprecious alloys are used when maximum
Composite Fillings strength is desired, appearance is not a factor,
These materials consist of tiny glass particles but cost is most important. There are two basic
suspended in a resin (plastic) matrix. formulations, one that contains nickel and one
However, they are more natural looking, that is nickel-free. The controversial issue is
require less tooth reduction to place, and are that nickel, beryllium, cobalt, chromium, and
bonded in place for a better seal. Composites are palladium may cause immune problems and/
not totally compatible either. Most are made of the or toxicity.
petrochemical bisphenol, which some research
indicates leaches out estrogen-like substances. Electrogalvanism
Some composites are less biocompatible than
Dissimilar metals in the mouth, including
others because of the amount of iron oxide,
different formulat ions of the “same” metal,
aluminum oxide, barium, and other materials in
create micro amps of current which could cause
them.
oral pain, corrosion of the metal (black mercury
amalgam fillings), dry mouth, metallic taste,
Gold Alloys
erythema (red and swollen gums), and possible
Most “gold” crowns placed today contain from dysfunction of other organ systems, endocrine
1–40% gold and have nickel in them, which is glands, etc. on that meridian.
inappropriate for those with a compromised
immune system. Denture Materials
Amalgam Dentures are usually made from acrylic, stainless
steel, chromium-cobalt, nylon, a gold alloy, or
Amalgam is the most commonly used material
titanium. Most pink-colored acrylics and vinyl’s
for posterior teeth. It contains approximately 50%
contain cadmium, which is considered toxic
mercury and varying amounts of silver (30%),
and/or immune reactive. The alternative is to use
tin, zinc, and copper. The controversy is that it
cadmium-free pink or clear materials. Metals are
contains mercury, a known neurotoxin (poison
used to increase rigidity and increase retention
to the nervous system).
of the prosthesis in the mouth during function. If
metals are not used, the opposite is true, which
Galloy
is not desirable from a functional perspective.
Galloy is a brand new material containing silver, For more information, refer Denture Base Resins
tin, copper, indium, and gallium. It is meant to Chapter of this book.
Breakthroughs in the development of dental • Stain or discoloration arises from pigment

materials and techniques are occurring on a producing bacteria, drugs containing
regular basis. We have yet to find one single chemicals such as iron and mercury and
material that is compatible for everyone. Debate adsorbed food debris.
continues about how to best restore a patient’s
mouth to optimal health and no perfect solution CORROSION
has yet presented itself. The best we can do is
to keep an open mind and keep searching for Corrosion is a process in which deterioration of a
answers. Only by thorough testing can it be metal is caused by reaction with its environment.
determined which is most compatible for any
one person. Causes of Corrosion
• The corrosion of metal may take place due to
Tarnish and Corrosion the action of moisture, atmosphere, various
acidic (phosphoric acid, lactic acid and
Metals undergo chemical or electrochemical acetic acid) at proper concentrations and
reaction with the environment resulting in pH, alkaline solutions and certain chemicals
dissolution or formation of chemical compounds; (hydrogen sulfide, ammonium sulfide, etc).
corrosion products. • Tarnish always leads to corrosion.
These chemical compounds may accelerate, • Saliva contains water and ions like chlorine
retard or have no influence on the subsequent and oxygen also may contribute to corrosion.
deterioration of the metal surface. Corrosion Rusting of iron is one of the examples for
is undesirable and sometimes it is helpful like corrosion, in this iron combines oxygen and
in the case of dental amalgam, where there is water to form hydrated oxide.
limited amount of corrosion around amalgam as
corrosion products seal marginal gap and inhibit Fe + O2 (H2O) → Fe (OH)2 + FeO ‘or’ Fe2O3.H2O.
ingestion of oral fluids and bacteria.
Factors Affecting Corrosion
TARNISH Rate of corrosion increases over time, espe
cially with surfaces subjected to stress; with
Tarnish is surface discoloration on a metal or
intergranular impurities in the metal ion with
even as a slight loss or alteration of the surface
corrosion products that do not completely
finish or luster.
convey the metal surface.
It is a process by which metal surface is
dulled in brightness or discolored through the
formation of chemical film such as sulfide and Effects of Corrosion
an oxide. • Corrosion causes severe and catastrophic
disintegration of the metal body.
Causes for Tarnish • In addition, corrosion is extremely localized
and may cause rapid mechanical failure of a
• Occurs from the formation of hard and soft
structure, even though the actual volume loss
deposits on a surface of the restoration.
of material is quite small.
— Calculus—light yellow to brown hard
deposit.
— Plaque—soft deposit and films composed CLASSIFICATION OF CORROSION
of microorganisms and mucin.
• May also arise on metal from the formation Corrosion can be classified into chemical and
of thin films such as oxides, sulfides and electrochemical corrosion. The detailed classi
chlorides. fication is given in Flow chart 3.1.
Flow chart 3.1 Classification of corrosion
Chemical or Dry Corrosion

In chemical corrosion, there is a direct combi
nation of metallic and nonmetallic elements to
yield a chemical compound through processes
such as oxidation, halogenation or sulfurization
reactions. A good example is discoloration of
silver by sulfide; forms by chemical process of
corrosion can also be a corrosion product of
dental gold alloys.
2Ag + S → Ag2S
This mode of corrosion is also called as “dry
corrosion” as it occurs in the absence of water
or another fluid electrolyte. Fig. 3.23 Electrochemical corrosion in amalgam
Oxidation of alloy particles in dental amalgam
is another example.
Oxidation of eutectic alloy in dental amalgam
may reduce the reactivity of the silver and Procedure
copper alloys with mercury. Hence it may affect
the amalgamation. Therefore, alloy should not • Anode is the surface where positive ions
be placed in a cool, dry location to ensure an are formed. This is the metal surface that
adequate shelf life. corrodes, as at this electrode electrons are
lost.
• The reaction is sometimes referred to as
Electrochemical Corrosion or corrosion caused by oxidation.
Wet Corrosion
M° → M+ + e–
The metal with lower electrode potential value
undergoes oxidation and acts as anode and that • At the cathode a reaction must occur that
with higher electrode potential has a reduction will accept the free electrons produced at
reaction and acts as cathode. the anode.
• The following reduction reactions take place
Apparatus: Anode, cathode, electrolyte and at the cathode.
voltmeter.
From Figure 3.23 Anode: Dental amalgam M+ + e– → M°
restoration. Cathode: Gold alloy restoration. 2H+ + 2 e– → H2
Electrolyte: saliva. 2H2O + O2 + 4 e– → 4 (OH)–
• The cathode consumes the electrons, • If stressed and unstressed metals are in
which are lost by the anode, in presence of contact in an electrolyte, the stressed metal
electrolyte. This completes circuit. will become the anode of a galvanic cell and
• Anode gets corroded due to the loss of will corrode.
electrons. • If an orthodontic wire has been cold worked,
stress corrosion may occur and cause the
Electrode Potential wire to break.
The potential, which is exhibited by a metal

Heterogeneous Type of Corrosion
electrode when it is placed in a solution of its
own ions, is known as electrode potential. This type of corrosion is due to the heterogeneous
composition of the metal surface. Commercial
Types of Electrochemical Corrosion dental alloys contain more than three alloys,
which are more heterogeneous.
Galvanic Corrosion For example, solder joints may corrode due
It is also called as electrogalvanism. It occurs to the inhomogeneous composition of the alloy.
when electro-chemically two dissimilar metals Impurities in any alloy enhance corrosion.
are in contact. There is a sudden, sharp pain
called galvanic shock because of short circuit to Concentration Cell Corrosion
the two alloys resulting in patient experiencing
This is due to variations in the electrolytes or in
shock.
the composition of an electrolyte in a system.
Galvanism when two metals are brought into
This is of two types:
contact, Galvanism when two metals are not in
1. Electrolyte concentration cell: In a metallic
contact and Galvanism in single isolated metallic
restoration, which is partly covered by
restorations were discussed in the electrical
debris, the composition of electrolyte under
properties chapter of this book.
the debris will differ from that of saliva
Clinical significance of galvanic currents was
and this can contribute to the corrosion
discussed in the electrical properties chapter of
of the restoration. Here food–debris at the
this book.
interproximal areas produce electrolytes that
are anodic and saliva on occlusal surface.
Intergranular Corrosion
2. Oxygen concentration cell. A difference in
It is due to difference in grain structure. Even oxygen tension in between parts of same
homogenized solid solution is susceptible to restoration causes corrosion of restoration.
corrosion at the grain boundaries, which are Greater corrosion occurs in the part of the
anodic to cathodic interiors, became atomic restorations having lower concentration of
arrangement at grain boundaries are less regular oxygen.
and have high energies. Impurities in alloy
enhance corrosion, which is segregated at the Crevice Corrosion
grain boundaries.
Corrosion occurs in narrow spaces or crevices
such as in dental prosthesis. This occurs due to
Stress Corrosion changes in electrolyte and oxygen concentration
Occurs in fatigue, cyclic loading in oral environ by the presence of deposits as in case of the
ment. This increases internal energy of alloys, concentration cell corrosion.
which results in the displacement of atoms.
• A metal, which has been stressed by cold Pitting Corrosion
working, becomes more reactive at the site It can be seen in chromium passivated metals.
of maximum stress. Patients should be warned not to use household
bleaching materials to cleanse partial denture 7. Cattaneo PM, Dalstra M, Melsen B. The finite
frameworks. element method: a tool to study orthodontic
• Interior of pit becomes anode or pits on tooth movement. J Dent Res. 2005; 84(5):428-33.
8. Clark GCF, Williams DF. The effects of proteins
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on metallic corrosion. J Biomed Mater Res.
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1982;16:125.
• Corrosion is very rapid in pit areas since the 9. Cornell D, Winter R. Manipulating light with the
area availability is less. refractive index of an all-ceramic material. Prac
Proced Aesthet Dent. 1999;11(8): 913-7.
10. Dhoble A, Padole P, Dhoble M. Bone mechanical
Prevention of Corrosion properties: a brief review. Trends Biomater Artif
• Can be prevented by electroplating ex.: Organs. 2012;26(1):25-30.
With nickel and chromium for corrosion 11. Gardiner TH, Waechter JM Jr, Wiedow MA,
Solomon WT. Glycidyloxy compounds used in
protection and esthetic reasons.
epoxy resin systems: A toxicology review. Regul
• Passivation, e.g. stainless steel contains suffi Toxicol Pharmacol. 1992;15(Part 2):S1-S77.
cient amount of chromium added to iron. 12. German RM, Wright DC, Gallant RF. In vitro
• Use of nobel metals – since they resist tarnish tarnish measurements on fixed prosthodontics
and corrosion due to their high positive alloys. J Prosthet Dent. 1982;47: 399.
electropotential values. 13. Gladys S, Van Meerbeek B, Lambrechts P,
• Coating with varnish. Vanherle G. Evaluation of esthetic parameters
• Polishing of metal restorations. of resin modified glass-ionomer materials and
• Homogenization treatment for the alloy. a poly-acid modified resin composite in Class V
cervical lesions. Quint Inter. 1999;30(9):607-14.
• Restoration should adapt properly to cavity
14. Gupta A, Sinha N, Logani A, Shah N. An ex
walls otherwise cement becomes electric vivo study to evaluate the remineralizing and
conductor. antimicrobial efficacy of silver diamine fluoride
• Avoid using dissimilar metallic restorations. and glass ionomer cement type VII for their
• Unnecessary burnishing of margins is proposed use as indirect pulp capping materials
avoided which might induce localized stress. – Part I. J Con Dent. 2011; 14(2):113-6.
• Maintaining oral hygiene. 15. Hanks CT, Wataha, JC, Sun Z. In vitro models
• Use of metallic and nonmetallic coatings. of biocompatib ility; a review. Dent Mater.
1996;12:186-92.
16. Ho SP, Goodis HE, Balooch M, Nonomura G,
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structure and nanomechanical properties of
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Roig M. Optical integration and fluorescence: IN, Siqueira JF Jr, de Uzeda M. Antibacterial
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spectrophotometric analysis. Quintessence Int. Stomatol Croat. 2011;45(1):3-7.
2010;41:837-44. 33. Quinn JB, Quinn GD. Indentation brittleness
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2010;14:79-87. matching in dentistry. J Irish Dent Assoc. 1994;
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Prosthet Dent. 2003; 89:518-21. 36. Sakar-Deliormanli A, Guden M. Microhardness
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and the dynamic mechanical properties of Biomat. 2006;76(2):257-64.
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Chemistry of
Synthetic Resins 4
B. Polyamides
POLYMER O
A polymer is a large molecule built by repetition ll
of small, simple chemical units. For example, Molecules containing C –
Or NH groups.
Polymer is a large molecule made up of many C. Polyisoprenes
parts. For example, Vulcanite, rubber, gutta-
The term polymer derives from Greek mean percha
ing “many parts” (Poly = many, mer = Unit). D. Polynucleic acids
For example, DNA, RNA
2. Synthetic polymers: Polymers synthesized
MONOMER from low molecular weight compounds.
The individual small molecules from which the For example, Polyethylene, PVC, nylon, etc.
polymer is formed are known as monomers,
meaning “single unit” (mono = single, mer =
According to their Backbone Structure
unit). 1. Organic polymers: A polymer whose back
bone chain is essentially made of carbon
atoms is termed as organic polymers.
POLYMERIZATION However, the atoms attached to the side
The process by which the monomer molecules valancies of the backbone carbon atoms are
are linked to form a polymer molecule is called usually hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, etc.
polymerization. 2. Inorganic polymers: The molecules of
inorganic polymers generally contain no
CLASSIFICATION OF POLYMERS carbon atoms in their backbone.
For example, silicone rubber.
Polymers can have different chemical struc
tures, physical characteristics, mechanical According to their Thermal Response
behavior, thermal characteristics, and thermal
characteristics. Polymers can be classified in 1. Thermoplastic polymers: Some polymers
different ways. They are as follows: soften on heating and can be converted into
different shapes and retain their shapes on
cooling. The process of heating, reshaping
According to Origin
and retaining the same on cooling can be
1. Natural polymers: Polymers, which are isolated repeated several times. Such polymers that
from natural materials. undergo a physical change when heated or
A. Polysaccharides cooled are termed as thermoplastic.
For example: Starch, cellulose, etc. For example, Polyethylene, nylon, etc.
Chapter 4 Chemistry of Synthetic Resins 49
2. Thermoset polymers: They undergo chemical weight of simple molecules eliminated
change on heating to convert themselves into during the condensation process.
an infusible mass. For example, Polysulfides, condensation
Or polysilicones, nylon, etc.
Thermoset polymers are those that change
irreversibly under the influence of heat According to their Ultimate Form and Use
from a fusible and soluble material into
one that is infusible and insoluble through 1. Plastics: When a polymer is shaped into hard
the formation of covalently cross-linked, tough utility articles by the application of
thermally stable network. Such polymers that heat and pressure, it is used as a plastic.
become an infusible and insoluble mass on For example, Polystyrene, PVC, polymethyl
heating are called thermosetting polymers. methacrylate, etc.
For example, Polymethyl methacrylate. 2. Elastomers: When vulcanized into rubbery
products exhibiting good strength and
According to Method of Polymerization elongation, polymers are used as elastomers.
For example, Natural rubber, silicone rubber,
1. Addition polymers: Addition polymers are etc.
formed from monomer containing double 3. Fibers: If the polymers drawn into long
bonds (unsaturated molec ules) without filament like materials whose length is at
change in composition is called addition least 100 times its diameter such polymers
polymers. The process of formation of are said to have been converted into fibers.
addition polymers is called as addition For example, Nylon, Terylene, etc.
or chain polymerization. No byproduct is 4. Liquid resins: Polymers in a liquid form are
formed during the reaction. described as fluid resins. They are used as
The structure of monomer is repeated adhesives and sealants.
many times in a polymer. The molecular For example, Epoxy adhesives and polysulfide
weight of the polymer is roughly equal to sealants.
that of the molecules, which combine to form
polymer. Applications of Polymers in Dentistry
For example, Polymethyl methacrylate,
addition polysilicones, etc. 1. Dental cements: Glass ionomer cement
2. Condensation polymers and Zn polycarboxylate cement contains
• Condensation polymers are formed polyacrylic acid, which is responsible for
due to reaction between the functional chemical bonding with tooth structure.
groups of the monomers are called 2. Restorative or composite resins: For example,
condensation polymers and the process Bis phenol a Glycidyl dimethacrylate,
of formation of such a polymer is called polyurethanes.
as condensation polymerization or step 3. Bonding agents: Used to attach composite
growth polymerization. resin to tooth enamel and dentin.
• While forming the polymer, small Fo r e x a mp l e, Bi s G M A , N P G G M A ,
molecules get eliminated as byproducts. NTGGMA, etc.
• Condensation or step growth polymeri 4. Cavity varnish: It is used to minimize margi
zation is brought about by monomers nal leakage around amalgam restorations.
containing two or more reactive func These contain natural resins such as copal
tional groups such as hydroxyl, carboxyl resin and resin dissolved in a suitable
or amino groups. volatile solvent.
• In condensation polymers, the molecular 5. Impression materials: For example, Elasto
weight of the polymer is lesser by the mers and hydrocolloids.
6. Denture base resins: For example, Poly Polymers of low degree of polymerization
methyl methacrylate, nylon, bakelite, are called “resole” (low molecular weight).
vulcanite, epoxy resins, cellulose, vinyl At this stage it is thermoplastic and alcohol
polymers, etc. soluble. Similarly, polymers with high degree
7. Resilient lining materials: For example, heat of polymerization are called “resite” (high
cure, self-cure, hydrophilic acrylics, heat molecular weight), which is its final form. At
and self-cured silicones. this stage, it is both insoluble and infusible. They
8. Artificial teeth: For example, cross-linked have higher strength, hardness, and softening
polymethyl methacrylate. temperatures.
9. Maxillofacial materials: For example, Vinyl
plastics, polyurethanes, PMMA, etc. TYPES OF POLYMERIZATION
10. Special tray materials: For example, Self-
cure acrylic resins. There are two types of polymerizations they
11. Denture repair resins: For example, Heat or are condensation and addition polymerization
self-cure acrylic resins. (Flow chart 4.1).
12. Orthodontic appliances: For example, Heat
or self-cure acrylic resins. Condensation Polymerization
13. Die materials: For example, Epoxy resins, • Condensation polymerization is brought by
polyethers, self-cure acrylics, epimines, etc. monomers containing two or more reactive
14. Pattern material: For example, Dental functional groups (poly functional) such as
waxes. hydroxyl, carboxyl or amino groups.
15. Polymeric crown and bridge materials: For • In this type of polymerization, the polymers
example, Acrylic resins. build up proceeds through a reaction
16. Implant materials: For example, Compo between functional groups of monomers
sites, etc. accompanied by the elimination of small
17. Miscellaneous materials: For example, molecules. The reaction takes place in a
Toothbrushes, disposable syringes, etc. stepwise manner and the polymer build up
is therefore slow.
Degree of Polymerization • Condensation reaction between molecules
Degree of polymerization is defined as the total tends to stop before the molecules have
number of monomers in a polymer molecule. reached a truly giant size because as the
Degree of polymerization (DP) = number of chain grows, they become less mobile and
monomers. numerous.
Molecular weight of polymer = molecular
weight of monomer × DP
Therefore, Flow chart 4.1 Classification of polymerization
The growth of the polymer chain is a random

process. Some chains grow faster than others.
Therefore not all chains have same length, i.e.
they have a distribution of molecular weights.
In general, the molecular weight of a polymer
is reported as the average molecular weight.
Since the number of repeating units may vary
greatly from one molecule to another.
• Since reaction is slow, longer reaction times (as end groups) and hence is active and not
are required to get a high molecular weight dead.
polymer. • The molecular weight of the polymer formed
• The polymer formed still contains both the is lesser by the weight of the simple molecules
reactive functional groups at its chain ends eliminated during the condensation process,
for example, water and alcohols.
For example:
i. Polysulfides
Condensation polysilicones
ii.
Addition Polymerization the same empirical formulas. In other words,

the structure of the monomer is repeated many
Addition polymerization is characterized by times in the polymer.
a self-addition of the monomer molecules to Since majority of these monomers fall under
each other very rapidly through a chain reaction the vinyl category, chain polymerization is also
without simultaneous production of byproducts. termed as vinyl polymerization.
Chain polymerization reactions usually occur Chain polymerization consists of three
with unsaturated molecules containing double major steps namely initiation, propagation and
bonds. In this type, the polymers are formed from termination and the process can be brought
the monomer without change in composition about by a free radical, ionic or coordination
because the monomer and the polymer have mechanism.
Requisites for Addition Polymerization Table 4.1 Different types of initiators and activators
used in dentistry
Presence of Unsaturated Groups Material Initiator Activator
Molecules containing unsaturated groups can Heat cured PMMA Benzoyl Heat
undergo addition polymerization. peroxide
For example, Molecules containing double Self-cure/cold Benzoyl N,N – Dimethyl
bonds (H 2 C = CXY), such as polyethylene, cure/auto cure peroxide p-toluidine/ 3°
polyvinyl chloride, polystyrene, polyacrylic acid, PMMA amine
polymethacrylic acid, polymethyl methacrylate, UV light activated Benzoin UV Light
etc. composites methyl ether λ = 365 nm
Visible light Camphoro- Visible light
Presence of Initiators activated quinone λ = 450 nm
They can be free radicals, anions or cations.
Initiators
• Initiators are unstable compounds containing Various initiators systems are given in
a very weak bond, which can be broken by Table 4.1 for different resins.
supplying energy to produce products called
as free radicals.
• A free radical is an atom or a group of atoms
possessing odd electrons.
• When energy is supplied initiator decomposes
Benzoyl peroxide free radical
to form two reactive species, each carrying
an unpaired electron called free radicals. This
type of decomposition is called hemolytic
decomposition. Activators
For example, if R-R is an initiator its
• Activators decompose the initiators to form
decomposition can be represented as:
free radicals. Activation of initiators can
be brought about by the heat energy, light
energy or by using catalysts (Table 4.1)
• The free radicals formed have electron
withdrawal ability because it possesses an Free Radical Polymerization
unpaired electron. When this free radical In free radical polymerization, the initiation
attacks the monomer molecule, it forms a of polymer chain growth is brought about by
sigma bond by combining with one of its free radicals produced by the decomposition
“π” electrons and the other “π” electron is of initiators.
transferred to the other end of the molecule. Polymerization process occurs in four stages.
• Thus, the original free radical bonds to the They are:
monomer molecule one side, the remaining 1. Initiation
“π” electron at the other end, then acts as a 2. Propagation
new free radical site which can further attack 3. Termination
other monomer molecules to propagate the 4. Chain transfer.
reaction.
• Decomposition of initiators into free radicals Initiation
is called as “activation”.
For example, the most commonly used • Polymerization reaction is initiated when the
initiator in dentistry is Benzoyl peroxide, this free radicals formed on activation reacts with
decomposes to produce free radicals. a monomer molecule.
• The reaction can be illustrated for benzoyl storage and to prolong shelf-life of the
peroxide radical and the methyl methacrylate monomer.
monomer as follows: • After the consumption of an inhibitor, the
polymerization follows the normal course.
Propagation
Following initiation, the new free radical is
Initiation capable of reacting with a fresh monomer unit
resulting in the linking up of the second mono
• The time during which the molecules of the mer unit to the first and transfer the radical
initiator become energized or activated and site from the first monomer unit to the second
start to transfer their energy to the monomer by unpaired electron transfer process which
molecule is called induction or initiation is capable of reacting with further monomer
period. molecules.
The process involving a continuing attack
on fresh monomer molecules that in turn keep
successively adding to the growing chain one
after another is termed as propagation.
• The initiation energy required to activate
each monomer is 16,000-29,000 cal/mole in
the liquid phase.
• The induction period is greatly influenced by
the purity of the monomer. Any impurity in Propagation
the monomer that can react with free radicals
will inhibit the polymerization reaction. The process lasts till the chain growth is
• The impurity can react either with the activa stopped by the free radicals being killed by
ted growing chain to prevent further growth. some impurities or by a termination or there
For example: is no monomer available for the reaction.
i. Addition of a small amount of hydro When once activation starts, smaller acti
quinone to the methyl methacrylate vation energy of 4,000–5,000 cal/mole is sufficient
monomer will inhibit polymerization. for propagation. Propagation is exothermic and
ii. Presence of oxygen often causes retar heat liberated during reaction is 12,900 cal/mole.
dation of the polymerization,
Since oxygen can react with the free Termination
radicals. Any further addition of the monomer units to
• It is common practice to add a small the growing chain is stopped and growth of the
amount (approximately 0.0006% or less) polymer chain is arrested.
of hydroquinone or methyl ether of hydro It is of two types:
quinone to the monomer to avoid accidental a. Termination by direct coupling
polymerization during production and b. Termination by disproportionation.
Propagation
Termination by disproportionation
Termination by Direct Coupling In this termination process, the product

molecules do not contain any free radical site
In this, the two growing chains unite by the and hence cannot grow any further. The polymer
coupling of the lone pair electron present in formed can be referred to as dead polymer chain.
each chain to form an electron pair and thus
nullify their reactiveness. Since this process
involves the coupling of the two lone electrons,
Chain Transfer
this kind of termination is known as termination This is yet another method of chain termination
by coupling. which takes place by the transfer reaction. In
this, the growth of one polymer chain is stopped
forming a dead polymer with simultaneous
generation of new free radical capable of
Termination by direct coupling
initiating a fresh polymer chain growth.
Termination by Disproportionation
In this type, one hydrogen atom from one growing Types of Chain Transfer
chain is abstracted by the other growing chain a. Activation energy is transferred from the
and utilized by the lone pair electron for getting activated molecule to an inactive monomer
stabilized, while the chain which had donated molecule.
the hydrogen gets stabilized by the formation b. Activation energy is transferred from the
of double bond. This termination results in the activated molecule to an already terminated
formation of two polymers of shorter length. molecule.
Chain transfer
HOMOPOLYMERS AND COPOLYMERS 2. Random Copolymers

When two different monomer units in a polymer
• Polymers, which contain only one kind
are distributed in random throughout the chain
of monomer as repeating unit, are called
the polymer is called random copolymer.
as homopolymers. They can be linear or
branched. nA + nB → A – B – A – A – A – B –
• The polymer, which is composed of more A–A–A–B–B–B–
than one type of repeat units, is called as
copolymers and its process of formation is 3. Block Copolymer
known as copolymerization. The monomers
When a block of one repeat unit is followed by
from which the copolymer is made are called
a block of another repeat unit, which in turn is
comonomers.
followed by the first repeat unit and the polymer
nA + nB → - A – B – A – B – A – B - is called block polymer.
Homopolymers can exist in three different
nA + nB → A – A – A – B – B – B –
types:
A–A–A–B–B–B–
1. Linear
- A – A – A – A – A – A – A – A – A – A – A – A - 4. Graft Copolymer
2. Branched Graft copolymers are branched molecules where
the main chain is made entirely of one repeat
unit, while the branched chains are made of yet
another repeating end.
3. Cross-linked.

Advantages: Copolymerization may alter the

physical properties of resulting polymer such
as impact strength, hardness, flexibility, water
sorption and wettability.
Types of Copolymers 1. Copolymerization of polymethyl methacrylate
with butadiene – styrene rubber results in a
1. Alternating Copolymers copolymer is more resistant to fracture by
impact forces – high impact strength acrylic.
The two different types of monomers in a 2. Copolymerization of methyl methacrylate
polymer are distributed alternatively throughout with octyl methacrylate results in a polymer,
the chain. i.e. soft and flexible at mouth temperature
nA + nB → A – B – A – B – A – B – and has been used as soft liner.
3. Copolymerization of methyl methacrylate

with hydroxy ethyl methacrylate results in a
copolymer that increases the water sorption.
This material is called hydrophilic acrylic and
is used as a soft liner for dentures.
4. Vinyl and acrylic monomers are also
copolymerized by manufacturer resulting
in a powder, which is later mixed with
methyl methacrylate monomer to fabricate materials. Cross-linking agent may be in
dentures. small amounts of about 2–40% can be used.
5. In glass ionomer cements, the liquid contains
50% aqueous solution of acrylic acid in Advantages
the form of a copolymer with itaconic and
• The effect of cross-linking on physical
maleic acids. These acids tend to increase
prop ert ies varies with the composition,
the reactivity of the liquid, decrease viscosity
concentration of cross-linking agent and the
and reduce tendency for gelation.
polymer system.
CROSS-LINKING Increases Decreases

• Formation of chemical bonds between linear • Strength • Water sorption
polymer molecules commonly referred to as • Hardness • Permanent deformation
cross-linking, can lead to infinite network of
• Resistance to • Solubility
molecules.
solvents
• Cross-linking provides a sufficient number of
bridges between the linear macromolecules • Resistance to
crazing
to form a 3-dimensional network.
• The cross-linking between polymer molecules
can be either through regular covalent bonds PLASTICIZERS
or through secondary valence type such as
• Plasticizers have low molecular weight, high
hydrogen bonds. The former type is called
boiling point, and are water soluble, added
chemical cross-linking or irreversible cross-
to polymers to make them soft and more
linking and latter type is called physical or
resistant at workable temperatures.
reversible cross-linking.
• Cross-linking agent should have double Requirements
bonds at both ends of the molecule, e.g.
A plasticizer should have/should be
Ethylene glycol dimethacrylate is used as a
1. High boiling point, less volatility.
cross-linking agent in acrylic denture base
2. Compatible with the polymer to which it is
added.
3. Chemically inert, resistant to moisture,
nontoxic and non-fuming.
4. Impart flexibility and show permanent
retention.
5. Water insoluble.
Action of Plasticizer
• Plasticizers partially neutralize secondary
bonds or intermolecular forces that normally
prevent the resin molecule from slipping past
one another when the material is stressed.
• Plasticizers penetrate between the polymer
chains and increase the intermolecular
spacing.
• It reduces strength and hardness. Dibutyl phthalate
• It reduces glass transition temperature of a
polymer.
• It increases polymer flexibility and flow This type of plasticizer does not leach out and
characteristics. the material remains more flexible, e.g. butyl
methacrylate added as an internal plasticizer to
Types of Plasticizers methyl methacrylates.
External Plasticizers SUGGESTED READING

These plasticizers are physically blended with 1. Antonucci JM, Toth EE. Extent of polymerization
the polymer and do not enter the polymerization of dental resin by differential scanning
reaction but are distributed throughout the colorimetry. J Dent Res. 1983;62:121.
polymerized mass. In this way they interfere 2. C o o k W D. R h e o l o g i c a l s t u d i e s o f t h e
with the interaction between polymer molecules. polymerization of elastomeric impression
This makes plasticized polymer considerably materials. J Biomed Mater Res. 1982;16:331.
softer than the pure polymer. This type of 3. Chun J, Pae A, Kim S. Polymerization shrinkage
strain of interocclusal recording materials. Dent
plasticizer will slowly leach out of the polymer
Mater. 2009;25:115-20.
resulting in the hardening of the polymer, e.g. 4. Darr AN, Jacobsen PH. Conversion of dual cure
Dibutyl phthalate. luting cements. J Oral Rehabil. 1995;22:43.
5. Harashima I, Nomata T, Hirasawa T. Degree
Internal Plasticizers of Conversion of dual cured composite luting
agents. Dent Mater. 1991;10:8.
Plasticizers can be added to the polymer by co- 6. Williams JR, Craig RG. Physical Properties of
polymerization with a suitable comonomer. In addition silicones as a function of composition.
this case, the plasticizer is a part of the polymer. J Oral Rehabil. 1988;15:639.
Physical Metallurgy
5
In dentistry, metal represents one of the four 6. Metals possess a peculiar shine on their
major classes of materials used for the recons surface called “metallic luster” and take
truction of decayed, damaged or missing teeth. good polish.
Other three classes are ceramics, polymers, and 7. Metals have high density and are hard
composites. substances because the atoms are closely
A metal is an element that forms positive packed together in a crystalline lattice
ions in solution [tend to sacrifice their valence structure.
electrons to become positive ions in solution 8. Metals can withstand very high stresses.
(ionizes positively in solution)]. 9. Metals form solid solutions with each other
“The metal handbook (1992)” defines a metal easily. These solutions are called alloys also
as ‘an opaque lustrous chemical substance that possess metallic properties.
is a good conductor of heat and electricity and 10. Metals generally are resistant to chemical
when polished is a good reflector of light.’ attack, but some metals require alloying
elements to resist tarnish and corrosion
in the oral environment. Noble metals
CHARACTERISTIC PROPERTIES are highly resistant to chemical corrosion
OF METALS and oxidation and do not require alloying
1. Metals are generally electropositive elements for this purpose.
elements. 11. When a metal is struck a metallic ring is
2. Metals are good conductors of heat and usually generated.
electricity due to the nature of metallic
bonding. METALLOID
3. Metals are malleable and ductile; i.e. they
can hammer into sheets and can be drawn Metalloid is an element such as carbon, silicone
into wires. that does not ionize positively in solution to
4. Metals are opaque since the free electrons positive charges but is a good conductor of heat
absorb electromagnetic energy of light. and electricity similar to metals and combines
5. Metals have high melting and boiling with other metals to form useful alloys.
points.
Exceptions are Gallium: 38°C METALLIC BOND
Cerium: 28°C In addition to covalent bond and ionic bond,
Rubidium: 30°C matter can also be held together by a primary
Mercury: –39°C atomic interaction known as “metallic bond” that
These metals exist as liquid metals at room occurs between valence electrons (see Fig. 3.1). It
temperature. is nondirectional. The electrons are able to move
Chapter 5 Physical Metallurgy 59
Table 5.1 Periodic chart of the elements
about in the space lattice to form an electron Pure metals often give a cooling curve in
cloud. The electrostatic attraction between this which super cooling of the liquid below the
electron cloud and the positive ions in the space true freezing temperature may be experienced
lattice provides the force that bonds the metal before crystallization of the metal begins
atoms together as a solid. (Fig. 5.1B).
Mechanism of Crystallization
Solidification and In a metal, in the liquid state the atoms have
sufficient energy to move about freely. But as the
Microstructure of temperature falls the atomic movement becomes
Metals
more sluggish.
The horizontal straight-line portion of the
temperature curve (cd) in Figure 5.1B denotes
The process of conversion of liquid metal to a the fusion temperature (Tf ). All temperatures
solid metal is known as “solidification”. above Tf are associated with a molten metal and
If a metal is melted and then allowed to cool, all temperatures below Tf are associated with a
and if its temperature during cooling is plotted solid metal (Figs 5.1A and B).
as a function of the time, a cooling curve graph The initial drop in temperature below the
results (Figs 5.1A and B). fusion temperature is called “supercooling” (b)
A B
Figs 5.1A and B Cooling curve (A) Solidification cooling curve (B) Supercooling, solidification
at this stage crystallization begins (Fig. 5.1B). Tin equal probability of occurring at any point in
normally exhibits supercooling and other metals the metal.
commonly behave in the similar manner. Nuclei of crystallization can also be formed
Solidification of metals is considered to take when the molten metal contacts some surface
place in two stages, namely: or particle, which it can wet. Such a process
is also known as “heterogeneous nucleation”,
Nucleation: Formation of the smallest particle of
because a foreign body is seeded the nucleus.
a new phase that is stable in the existing phase.
For heterogeneous nucleation supercooling is
Grain growth: Increase in the size of the nuclei. not necessary.
Nucleation Grain Growth

As the temperature decreases down to b Growth of crystals from nuclei of crystallization
(supercooling), the internal energy of the metal occurs in three dimensions in the form of
atoms decreases and forms crystal nuclei. dendrites or branched structures (Fig. 5.2A).
These crystal nuclei are called as “embryos”. At The crystals begin to grow toward each
higher temperatures, the embryos are few in other and two or more adjacent growing crystals
number and small in size. Thus they are readily colloid; it stops growth in that direction. Thus a
dissolved back into the matrix of random atoms solid metal consists of large number of crystals
(i.e. solution). On approaching solidification and is therefore polycrystalline in nature (Fig.
temperature these embryos increase in density 5.2B). These crystals are referred to as ‘grains’. The
and get larger but they still are unstable and tend junction or union between the grains or crystals
to dissolve into the matrix (may be due to the is known as ‘grain boundary’.
transfer of thermal energy from metal atoms on As the nucleation and grain growth occurs
collision or due to reheating). the molten metal changes from liquid to solid
Once the supercooled region is reached state. During this transformation latent heat
there is a tendency for some of these embryos of solidification is evolved. Which raises the
to survive and thus form a ‘solidification nuc temperature where it remains constant until the
leus’ or ‘nucleus of crystallization’, which is crystallization is completed. It is equal to the
the first permanent solid phase. This general latent heat of fusion.
method of solidification is called “homogeneous Latent heat of solidification is defined as the
nucleation” since the formation of nuclei in number of calories of heat liberated from 1 g of a
the molten metal is a random process and has substance when it changes from liquid to solid.
Deformation of Metals
CRYSTAL GEOMETRY
Liquid metals nucleate crystals upon cooling. The
atoms joining the crystals form a unique packing
Figs 5.2A and B (A) Dendritic growth from nucleus
arrangement in space that is characteristic of
(tree-like appearance) (B) Dendrites in polycrystals
that metal or alloy at equilibrium. The smallest
division of the crystalline metal that defines the
Once the crystallization is completed, after unique packing is called the unit cell.
d, the temperature decreases steadily to room Six different crystal systems have been
temperature. recognized (cubic, tetragonal, orthorhombic,
monoclinic, triclinic, and hexagonal) in which
atoms can be arranged in 14 different arrays. They
GRAIN SIZE AND SHAPE are simple cubic, fcc, bcc, simple tetragonal, body
The size of the grain depends on the number centered tetragonal (bct), rhombohedric, simple
and location of the grains during crystallization. orthorhombic, base centered orthorhombic,
In general, smaller the grain sizes better the face centered orthorhombic, body centered
physical properties of a metal. Rapid cooling of orthorhombic, simple monoclinic, base centered
a metal from molten state to solid state gives rise monoclinic, triclinic and hexagonal. Three most
to larger number of nuclei of crystallization in a common arrays for the metals used in dentistry
given area and results in smaller grain size (Fig. are (see Fig. 3.2):
5.3A). 1. Body centered cubic (bcc)
In slow cooling, rate of crystallization is faster 2. Face centered cubic (fcc)
than the nucleus formation and results in larger 3. Hexagonal close packed.
grains (Fig. 5.3B). The grains may have dendritic, The atoms within each grain are arranged
lamellar needle type or acicular structures. The in a regular 3-dimensional lattice. Each crystal
grains those are equal in diameter in all dimens system can be defined in terms of distances
ions are known as ‘equiaxed grains’. between the atoms in all 3-dimensions as well
as the angles formed by the three axes.
Grain Boundary
The region of transition between the differently LATTICE IMPERFECTIONS
oriented crystal lattices of two neighboring
grains is known as ‘grain boundary’ (Fig. 5.3C). When a molten metal is solidified, crystallization
The structure is nearly noncrystalline and is from nucleus does not occur in a regular fashion,
of high energy. This region is more readily lattice plane by plane. Instead the growth is likely
attacked by chemicals and is more susceptible to be more random with lattice discontinuities
to corrosion. and imperfections.
Figs 5.3A to C (A) Rapid cooling results in small grains (B) Slow cooling results
in larger grains (C) Grain boundary
until finally the dislocation reaches the boundary

of the crystal and disappears, leaving one unit of
slip at the surface of the crystal. The plane along
which dislocation moves is known as dislocation
plane or slip plane (Figs 5.5B to D).
STRAIN HARDENING OR WORK

Figs 5.4A and B (A) Vacancy (One atom is missing) HARDENING (METHOD OF
(B) Interstitial (Extra atom) STRENGTHENING METALS)
Metals show an increase in strength and hardness
The imperfections in real crystals can be when plastically deformed at temperatures lower
classified according to their geometry into four than the recrystallization temperature. This
types: phenomenon is known as ‘strain hardening’
1. Point defects or ‘work hardening’. It is also called as ‘cold
2. Line defects or dislocations working’ since the process is carried out at a
3. Surface defects lower temperature.
4. Volume defects.
Mechanism
Point Defects
The mechanism of plastic deformation is
A point defect can be defined as a pin point called dislocation motion. When a shear force
defect, which has occurred due to missing or is applied dislocation moves in one plane. If
misplacement or substitution of one atom by this dislocation during translation meets some
another. These defects weaken the structure. other type of discontinuity such as point defect,
For example, vacancy, interstitial, (Figs 5.4A another type of dislocation, a foreign atom, or
and B) Schottky and Frenkel defects. grain boundaries, its gliding movement under
stress might be inhibited. In a polycrystalline
Line Defects or Dislocations metal, the dislocations tend to build up at the
grain boundaries. Once all the dislocations
Dislocations are of two types:
are piled up at grain boundaries a great stress
i. Edge dislocation
is required to produce further slip and metal
ii. Screw dislocation.
becomes harder and stronger. Further increase
Edge dislocation: An edge dislocation may be in cold working results in fracture of metal.
described as an edge of an extra plane of atoms
in a crystal structure. Effects of Cold Working
The crystal lattice is almost regular except
for the one plane of atoms that is discontinuous • Work hardening introduces internal stresses
forming a dislocation line at the edge of the half in a material. These stresses are undesirable
plane (Fig. 5.5A). and can be removed by suitable heat
treatment.
• Work hardening modifies the grain structure
Dislocation Motion
from equiaxed structure to fibrous structure.
If the shear force is applied to the crystal, the • The surface hardness, strength, and propor
atoms in the plane above the dislocation easily tional limit of the metal are increased.
break old bonds and establish new bonds with the • However modulus of elasticity is not changed
lower atoms. This results in shifting of dislocation appreciably.
by one lattice spacing. A continued application • Ductility, malleability and resistance to
of shear stress causes successive slipping corrosion are decreased.
Figs 5.5A to D A: Line dislocation (B to D) Dislocation motion
Applications ANNEALING (STRESS RELIEVING

• The formation of orthodontic wires, in which HEAT TREATMENT)
an alloy is forced through a series of circular
dies of decreasing diameter. The effects associated with cold working, e.g.
• The bending of wires or clasps during the strain hardening lowered ductility and distorted
construction and alteration of appliances. grains; can be eliminated by simply heating
• The swaging of stainless steel denture bases. the metal called annealing. It is a relatively
• Compaction of gold foil. low temperature heat treatment for removing
melting point of the metal. The temperature

at which recrystallization takes place is called
‘recrystallization temperature’.
During recrystallization, the increased
thermal vibration of atoms is sufficient to
allow them to move to less strained position.
The number of dislocations decreases and the
distorted or strained grains are replaced by new
smaller stress free ones.
After recrystallization, the metal possesses
a lower tensile strength and hardness than the
cold worked material but has improved ductility,
malleability and better resistance to corrosion.
Greater the amount of strain hardening, lower
Fig. 5.6 Annealing decreases strength increases the recrystallization temperature.
ductility and also modifies grain structure
Grain Growth
residual stresses. It allows the dislocations and If annealing is prolonged at a higher temperature,
atomic vacancies to move and realign to lower there is a diffusion of atoms across the grain
the internal residual stress fields. The more the boundaries and eventually one large grain
cold working, the more readily does annealing replaces several smaller ones. The resulting
occur. Annealing is usually carried out at one half coarse-grained structure will have inferior
of the absolute melting temperature (in Kelvin) mechanical properties to that of materials with
of the metal. a fine recrystallized structure. But the ductility
Annealing in general comprises three and malleability will be increased.
stages—recovery, recrystallization and grain
growth (Fig. 5.6). Practical Significance
Orthodontic appliances fabricated by bending
Recovery wires are often subjected to a stress relief anneal/
Stress relief annealing takes place at relatively recovery anneal prior to their placement. Such
low temper ature, when compared with a process stabilizes the configuration of the
recrystallization temperature. In stress relief appliance and allows accurate determination of
anneal sufficient heat energy is applied for the force the appliance will deliver in the mouth.
the dislocations to group into lower energy Since both the recrystallization and grain
configurations, i.e. dislocation density decreases. growth decreases mechanical properties of the
The stresses that are produced due to cold cold worked material, dental appliances should
working are relieved but there is no change in never be recrystallized. They should only be
the grain structure. During this period there is heat treated to recovery state. Recrystallization
slight decrease in the tensile strength and no of orthodontic wire should be avoided during
change in ductility. soldering operation because it may lead to the
production of a wire of high ductility with a low
Recrystallization proportional limit.
Recrystallization is the process of nucleation

and growth of new crystals, which replace all
CAST STRUCTURE
the deformed crystals of cold worked mate A typical cast structure in dentistry is an inlay,
rial. It occurs on heating to a temperature bridge restoration which is not given further
above the recovery range, usually half of the mechanical treatment except for polishing or
marginal adaptation by hand operations. This According to the miscibility of the atoms in
limited treatment does not modify significantly the solid state, alloys are classified into solid
the major internal structure of the casting. solutions, eutectic alloys, peritectic alloys, and
The internal structure is equiaxed structure. intermetallic compounds.
Mechanical properties are inferior, for example;
According to the nobility, alloys are classified
tensile strength and hardness of a cast gold inlay
as high noble (> 60 wt% of noble metals), Noble
is 517 MPa and 160 BHN respectively.
(> 25 wt% of noble metals), and predominantly
base metal alloys (< 25 wt% of noble metals).
WROUGHT STRUCTURE
According to their uses in dentistry, alloys
Many dental appliances such as orthodontic are classified as alloys used for all metal inlays,
wires and bands are formed by cold working crown and bridge, metal-ceramic restorations,
operations. The finished product is often descri removable partial dentures and implants.
bed as a wrought structure to denote that it has
been formed by severe cold working procedures.
SOLID SOLUTIONS
The internal structure is fibrous structure.
Mechanical properties are superior, for example, Metals, which are completely soluble in both
tensile strength and hardness of a wrought gold liquid and solid states, are called as solid
inlay is 690 MPa and 175 BHN respectively. solutions.
When two metals are completely miscible
in the liquid state and they remain completely
Constitution of Alloys mixed on solidification, the alloy formed is called
as a ‘solid solution’.
An alloy is a mixture of two or more metals in all- A solid solution in a single phase, as it is
possible combinations, or an alloy is a mixture chemically homogeneous and the component
of two or more metallic elements. Sometimes atoms cannot be distinguished physically or
an important constituent may be a metalloid separated mechanically by ordinary means, e.g.
or even a nonmetal provided the mixture of the copper and gold combination crystallizes
elements displays metallic properties. in such a manner that the atoms of copper
In making an alloy a parent or basic metal are scattered randomly throughout the crystal
is selected which possesses the most suitable structure (space lattice) of gold, resulting in a
properties and other metals (alloying elements) single phase system such a combination is called
are added because a pure metal, in general, is solid solution because it is a solid but has the
not sufficiently strong to withstand the forces properties of a solution.
applied to it in the mouth.
An alloy system is an aggregate of two or
Solute and Solvent
more metals in all-possible combinations, e.g.
The gold-silver system means that all of the When two metals are soluble in one another in
possible concentrations of gold with silver and solid state the solvent is that metal whose space
vice versa (100% Au and 100% Ag) are being lattice persists or the metal whose atoms occupy
considered. more than half the total number of positions in
the space lattice and the solute is the other metal.
Solid solutions are of two types:
CLASSIFICATION OF ALLOYS
1. Substitutional solid solutions
According to the number of alloying elements, a. Ordered substitutional solid solutions
alloys are classified as, Binary alloys (2 metals/ b. Disordered or random substitutional
elements), Ternary alloys (3 metals/elements), solid solutions.
and quaternary alloys (4 metals/elements). 2. Interstitial solid solutions.
Figs 5.7A and B (A) Ordered substitutional solid

solutions (B) Random substitutional solid solutions
Fig. 5.8 Interstitial solid solutions
Substitutional Solid Solutions
In these solid solutions, the atoms of the solute Valence
occupy the space lattice positions that normally
are occupied by the solvent atoms in the pure Metals of same valance and size are more likely
metal. to form extensive solid solutions than are the
Atoms of one kind segregate to one site of metals of different valencies.
atomic position and leaving the other atoms to
occupy the remaining sites (Fig. 5.7A), e.g. Au-Cu Chemical Affinity
at 50.2: 49.8 composition is said to be ordered.
It must be same or less for both metals otherwise
If the atoms of the added metal take up
they tend to form intermetallic compound rather
positions at random in the parent lattice, then the
than a solid solution.
solid solution is said to be disordered or random
(Fig. 5.7B), e.g. Au-Cu at higher temperatures.
Lattice Type
Interstitial Solid Solutions Only metals with same type of crystal lattice can
form a complete series of solid solutions.
In this type, the solute atoms are present in The size factor is possibly first consideration
positions between the solvent atoms (the and there are exceptions to these rules.
interstices between regular lattice positions).
This type of solid solution requires that the solute
Properties of Solid Solutions
atoms be much smaller in size than solvent
atoms and are limited to small concentrations of In a solid solution, the solute atoms either
solute atoms, e.g. an alloy of Fe and C (carbon substitute the solvent metal or occupy the
occupies interstitial positions) (Fig. 5.8). interstitial positions. This results in a localized
distortion or strained condition of the lattice
Conditions for Solid Solubility (either expansion or contraction depending
(Hume-Rothery Rules) on the size difference between the solute and
solvent atoms). This distortion interferes with
There are at least four factors, which determine
the movement of dislocations and thereby slip
the extent of solid solubility of two or more
becomes difficult. This results in increase in
metals. They are:
strength, proportional limit, and hardness but
decreases ductility. This type of strengthening of
Atomic Size an alloy is called as solution hardening or solid
If the sizes of two metallic atoms differ less than solution strengthening.
15%, they are said to possess a favorable factor An increase in number of alloying atoms
for solid solubility. causes greater distortion and gives greater
strength to the alloy. For example, pure gold in
the cast condition is too weak and ductile. But,
alloyed with 5% of copper can increase strength
and hardness.
Solid solutions possess a melting range rather
than a melting point and always melt below
the melting point of the high fusing metal and
sometimes below the melting points of both
metals.
Solid solutions have better corrosion resis
tance. For example, in Cr-Co alloys chromium
improves strength and hardness by solution
hardening and also improves corrosion resistance Fig. 5.9 Solidification cooling curve
by passivating effect (from chromic oxide layer).
and completion of solidification takes place at
Constitutional Phase different temperatures.
Cooling curve experiments like the one
Diagrams/Thermal Equi- discussed previously are now performed on a

series of alloys from the A to B system.
librium Phase Diagrams

Every phase diagram divides an alloy system
into at least three areas namely, the liquid phase,
the liquid + solid phase, and the solid phase
An alloy system is an aggregate of two more
(Fig. 5.9).
metals in all-possible combinations.
As shown in the graph (Fig. 5.10), the upper
A phase is a homogeneous portion of matter
line (liquids T L), is developed by drawing a
that is physically distinct and mechanically
continuous line through all points (TL) repre
separable.
senting the initiation of solidification process.
A phase diagram is a graphical method
This upper temperature for an alloy is called
of showing the phases present in an alloy
liquidus temperature because the alloys are
system of different temperatures and different
entirely liquid above this temperature or the
compositions. The X-axis describes the compo
temperature at which the first solid begins to
sition of elements in either weight percentage
form on cooling.
(wt %) or atomic percentage. The Y-axis describes
the temperature of the alloy system. Phase
diagram shows the composition and types of
phases present at a given temperature and at
equilibrium (Fig. 5.9).
COOLING CURVE METHOD OR

TIME-TEMPERATURE COOLING CURVE
In this method, a mixture of metals (A and B)
of different known compositions is prepared
(Fig. 5.10). The alloy is cooled slowly from the
liquid state and its temperature is recorded at
frequent regular intervals of time. With alloys,
solidification occurs over a temperature range
on contrast to a pure metal and hence starts Fig. 5.10 Phase diagram
The bottom line (solidus TS) is generated by a mixture of solid and liquid exists. At 800°C,
connecting the points representing completion of the composition of both solid and liquid can
the solidification process (TS), this temperature is be determined by drawing a parallel line to
called as solidification temperature because the intersect both the solidus and liquidus lines
alloys are entirely solid below this line or the called tie line (3,4,5).
temperature at which the last liquid solidifies on To know the composition of solid, the alloy
cooling or the first liquid is formed on heating. becomes completely solid at a temperature of
All the compositions above the liquidus 660°C. The composition of last liquid to solidify
temperature are in liquid state. All compositions or crystallize can be determined by intersecting
below the solidus temperature are in solid state. the liquidus line (6 and 7). The first portion of
Any compositions between the two lines are in alloy solidifies at 660°C has a composition of 18%
both liquid and solid state. A and 82% B (7).
Importance CORING OR NONEQUILIBRIUM

SOLIDIFICATION
Constitutional diagrams or phase diagrams can
be used for the following purposes: When two or more metals are heated to a liquid
• For determining the solidification and state they form alloys because of their miscibility
liquefaction temperature of all alloy phases. in each other.
• For identifying the presence of various From the Figure 5.11, the composition of
phases and their chemical compositions. solid
• For selecting various compositions for at 930°C = 60% A and 40% B
potential use as new alloys. at 800°C = 30% A and 70% B
• For determining solubility of one metal in at 660°C = 18% A and 82% B
the other. This confirms that for solid solution alloys a
• For selecting heat-hardenable compositions. cored structure exists in which the first material
to crystallize is rich in the metal with higher
SOLID SOLUTIONS PHASE DIAGRAMS melting point, while the last material to solidify
is rich in the other metal.
From the Figure 5.11 phase diagram, liquidus Coring is a condition related to the inhomo
line is “AQC”, and solidus line is “ARC”. geneity of component atoms in a last structure.
At 0% B, a single phase (of 100%) exists that If the cooling of alloy is rapid, there will be
has a single melting point,1000°C. At 100% B, insufficient time for the composition of the
a single phase exists that has a single melting separated solid to change by diffusion. Then the
point, 500°C. At any composition between these composition of dendrite or grain is not uniform.
extremes, the alloy will exist in two phases, i.e. This difference in composition between the first
liquid and solid, and the alloy will have a melting and last formed portions of a crystal grain is
range. called as coring.
Consider an alloy that is 60% A and 40% B, During coring, the higher melting metal being
this alloy at a temperature of 1100°C is all liquid, concentrated close to the nucleus and the lower
point P. When the temperature drops to 930°C, melting metal close to the grain boundaries.
the first portion of alloy solidifies. If a parallel The longer the temperature difference between
line (1,2) to the X-axis (solidus line) is projected solidus and liquidus, the greater is the tendency
at 930°C to the solidus line the composition of towards coring.
the solid can be determined by projecting down Coring reduces the corrosion resistance
to the X-axis (1,8). In this case, the solid will be since some portions of the alloy may have too
97% A and 3%B. little of the corrosion resisting component, and
As the alloy is cooled further, more crystalli dissimilar alloys present may form a galvanic
zation occurs and between 930°C–600°C (QYR) couple or galvanic cell.
Fig. 5.11 Solid solutions phase diagram
eutectic alloy; from the Greek word ‘Eutektos’

HOMOGENIZATION OR
means as ‘easily melted’.
HOMOGENIZING ANNEAL To be perfectly correct, the term eutectic
Coring that results from rapid cooling of an alloy alloy should be applied only to the one alloy of
can be relieved or eliminated by a heat-treating eutectic composition but it is applied loosely to
process. This heat treatment, which is used to describe alloys between metals, which combine
produce grains of same composition throughout to give an eutectiferous system.
the alloy is called as homogenization.
It is carried out by heating the cast alloy at a Characteristics of Eutectic Alloys
temperature just below the solidus temperature
for a period of time (6–8 hours) to allow diffusion For example, silver-copper system.
of atoms and the establishment of homogeneous • No solidification range – Identified as E in
structure. The alloy is then quenched in order the diagram (Fig. 5.12). The eutectic alloy
to prevent grain growth from occurring. It takes has a solidification or melting point. The
place more rapidly in a grain structure, which has composition on each side of the eutectic
been cold worked. A homogenized solid solution alloy possesses melting range.
alloy shows a microscopic structure identical • Eutectic horizontal: The solidus temperature
with that of a pure metal. is constant for a wide range of compositions.
• Eutectic point: The solidification of eutectic
composition occurs at a lower temperature
EUTECTIC ALLOYS than either metal ingredients and is the
Metals, which are completely soluble in liquid temperature at which any alloy composition
state and insoluble in the solid state (partially of silver and copper is entirely liquid.
may be soluble) are called as eutectic alloys. Eutectic composition – 28.1% Cu and
In a series of alloys of this type, the addition 71.9% Ag.
of increasing amount of one metal to other metal Eutectic temperature – 779.4°C.
markedly reduces the melting point, until at a • Solid solutions: The two regions of solid
certain composition at which the lowest melting solutions are located on each side of the
alloy is found. This particular alloy is called the phase diagram. The solution of copper in
Fig. 5.12 Eutectic system
silver (silver rich) is called α-solid solution INTERMETALLIC COMPOUNDS

(hypoeutectic alloy). The solution of silver
in copper (copper rich) is called β-solid Intermetallic compounds are metals in solution
solution (hypereutectic alloy). in the liquid state that have a tendency to unite
• During solidification of eutectic alloys, and form definite chemical compounds on
constituent metals segregate to form regions solidification. These compounds frequently
of nearly pure parent metals. This results in occur when the electrochemical characteristics
the formation of a layered structure com of the two metals are markedly different. They
posed of alternating layers of α and β-solid are hard, brittle and have high melting points,
solutions. e.g. Ag3Sn in dental amalgam alloys.
Eutectic Reaction PERITECTIC ALLOYS

Liquid → α-solid solution + β-solid solution
Metals, which are soluble in the liquid state,
It is referred as invariant transformation insoluble in the solid state and which form a
since it occurs at one temperature and one compound by a peritectic reaction.
composition only.
Liquid + α → β
Properties
1. Solders and low fusing materials, which are SOLID STATE REACTIONS
usually eutectic mixtures.
2. The silver and copper eutectic alloy (71.9% Metals can be strengthened by:
Ag and 28.1% Cu) is used in admixed high 1. Reducing the grain size or grain refining.
copper amalgam alloys. Here they act as 2. Strain hardening or work hardening or cold
strong fillers. working.
3. They are composed of two separate and dis 3. Solution hardening or solid solution
similar metals and their corrosion resistance strengthening.
is poor. 4. Order hardening.
4. Stronger and brittle. 5. Precipitation hardening or age hardening.
HEAT TREATMENT
Heat treatment is the controlled heating and
cooling process applied to the materials in
order to get certain desirable properties, or it is
the thermal processing of an alloy for a length
of time above room temperature but below the
solidus temperature.
All heat treatment processes consist of:
1. Heating the metal or alloy at a pre- Fig. 5.13 AU-CU phase diagram
determined temperature.
2. Soaking of the metal at that temperature.
3. Cooling the metal at a specified rate.
• Addition of copper to the gold lowers the
Heat treatment may harden a metal or soften liquidus temperature substantially.
a metal or change its grain size or corrosion • At temperatures below solidus and above
resistance. The effects of such a treatment 410°C, Gold-Copper exhibits completed solid
depend entirely on the temperature, the metal solubility.
and its previous history.
Below 410°C, there are two new solid phases
designated as 1 and 2. These are the regions in
QUENCHING which alloys are capable of undergoing a solid-
solid transition to form an ordered rather than
The term quenching means that a metal is
disordered lattice.
rapidly cooled from an elevated temperature or
The ordered lattice in which gold and copper
below. This is usually done for one of the two
take up specific lattice sites often referred to as a
reasons.
super lattice. Formation of super lattice requires
1. To preserve at room temperature a phase
an atomic rearrangement by diffusion of atoms
ordinarily stable only at elevated tempe
(thermal energy is required).
ratures.
If an alloy of 50% gold and 50% copper is
2. To rapidly terminate the process that only
cooled rapidly from 450°C, the lattice structure
occurs at elevated temperatures.
is random or disordered (fcc). But slow
The rapid cooling is often accomplished cooling permits the formation of an ordered
by immersing the hot metal in a liquid such as substitutional solid solution. Such an ordered
water. structure is termed as super lattice. The formation
of certain volume of a tetragonal lattice within a
ORDER HARDENING (ORDER- cubic structure involves contraction of one of the
DISORDER TRANSFORMATION) crystal axes. This sets up strains, which interfere
with the movement of dislocations (since the
An important mechanism responsible for major atomic size of gold and copper are different, the
changes in hardness is the order-disorder trans crystal lattice becomes distorted). Hence the
formation, which involves conversion from one yield stress, UTS and hardness are raised and
crystal structure to another. One of the common this is termed as order hardening heat treatment.
examples in dental alloys is the Gold-Copper
system in which fcc structure is converted to a
tetragonal structure. PRECIPITATION HARDENING
OR AGE HARDENING
According to the phase diagram (Fig. 5.13)
• The melting range is very narrow for all The precipitation hardening mechanism relies
compositions. on the ability of an alloy to be converted from
a solid solution to one that exhibits two phases. during cooling at temperature between 450°C
These two phases form individual crystal to 250°C (hardening process).
structures within the grain. The tensile strength, proportional limit and
To carry out precipitation hardening, the hardness are reduced by such a treatment but
alloy is heat treated at a temperature that the ductility is increased.
the phase diagram indicates will produce This is indicated for structures that are to
precipitation. be ground, shaped or cold worked either in or
For example, in case of gold alloys when out of the mouth. In this condition they are soft
heated at reduced temperature of 350°C, a enough to carry out mechanical work.
diffusion of atoms occurs. The dissimilar atoms
that previously were located randomly on the
Hardening Heat Treatment
lattice sites are now forced to segregate and
diffuse to specific positions. Localized areas In metallurgical terminology the hardening heat
of segregations within the crystal (precipitate) treatment referred to as age hardening.
result in a lattice that is highly strained or The hardening heat treatment of gold alloys
deformed or distorted. The strain produced can be accomplished by soaking or aging the
by the coherent precipitate within the lattice casting at a specific temperature for a definite
efficiently prevents slip and therefore hardens time usually 15–30 minutes before it is quenched
and strengthens the alloy. in water.
Further growth of the precipitate during heat By cooling from 450–250°C, an ordered phase
treatment results in the formation of a precipitate of gold copper alloy is formed. The rate at which
as a separate phase with a decrease in strength. the alloy is cooled is very important, longer the
time, within limits, the greater the amount of
transformation of gold copper ordered phases
HEAT TREATMENT OF GOLD ALLOYS
that will take place, and harder the alloy is.
Gold alloys can be significantly hardened if the
alloy contains a sufficient amount of copper.
Type-I and -II alloys do not harden or harden to SUGGESTED READING
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The heat treatment of dental gold alloys tarnish measurements on fixed prosthodontics
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consists primarily of either a softening (solution
3. Gülþen Can, Gül Akpýnar, Ahmet Aydýn. The
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hardening), depending on the temperature to into cell-culture medium and artificial saliva.
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12. Mezger PR, Stolls ALH, Vrijhoef MMA, et al. patients. J Dent. 2005;33:611-8.
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SECTION 2
Clinical Dental Materials
• Restorative Materials • Orthodontic Wires

• Impression Materials • Implant Materials
Restorative Materials
6
RESTORATION AND REQUIREMENTS AND
RESTORATIVE MATERIALS CLASSIFICATION
Restoration is defined as a material so placed Desirable Properties of
in the prepared cavity of a tooth so that the Restorative Materials
physiologic and mechanical functions, anatomic
focus, occlusion contact point and esthetic
Biological
appearance are properly restored or preserved • Should be biocompatible with the pulp and
and the tooth in the area of the restoration is other soft tissues.
protected as far as possible from recurrence of • Should be bacteriostatic that means resist
dental caries. the growth of bacteria.
Restorative materials are those which are • Should have obtundent and promote healing
used to replace or restore the damaged, decayed, effect.
missing or lost tooth structure. • Should have anticariogenic properties.
Loss of tooth structure arises due to:
• Caries Chemical
• Incisal edges break off
• Attrition and wear. • Should be chemically inert.
• Should not be acidic or alkaline.
• Should not dissolve or disintegrate in oral
Objectives fluids.
• Should be able to bond chemically with the
The main objectives to be attained in the tooth structure.
restoring operations are:
• Arrest of the loss of tooth structure or
substance from caries and other causes. Rheological
• Prevention of recurrence of caries. • Should have good flow property during
• Restoration or maintenance of normal manipulation.
interproximal spaces and contact points. • Should have adequate working and setting
• Establishment of proper occlusion. times.
• Esthetic overall effect. • Should have suitable film thickness (<25 for
• Resistance against the stresses of mastication. luting and about 40 for base consistency).
78 Section 2 Clinical Dental Materials
Mechanical oxide eugenol cements, zinc phosphate

cements, zinc polycarboxylate cement.
• Should have adequate strength to withstand c. Temporary: Life span is days to weeks.
large masticatory forces. Acrylic resins, zinc oxide eugenol cement.
• Should have high proportional limit, elastic 3. According to placement:
limit, and yield strength to resist permanent a. Anterior restorations: Glass ionomer
deformation. cement, silicate cement, composites and
• Should have high modulus of elasticity. ceramics.
• Should have high abrasion resistance. b. Posterior restorations: Dental amalgam,
• Should have high fatigue strength. posterior composites, metal modified
glass ionomer cement, base metal alloys,
Thermal and metal-ceramics.
4. According to the technique:
• Should be good insulator.
a. Direct restorations: Dental cements,
• Should have low thermal diffusivity.
dental amalgam, direct filling gold,
• COTE should be equal to that of the natural
composites.
tooth.
b. Indirect restorations: Ceramics, casting
gold and base metal alloys.
Esthetic 5. According to hardening:
• The color of the material should match with a. Acid-base reactions: Dental cements
the natural tooth structure. except resin cements.
• Should have same refractive index as tooth b. Polymerization: Composites, resin
material. cements, compomers.
• The color parameters should not change or c. Solidification: Casting gold and base
undergo discoloration. metal alloys, ceramics.
Dental amalgam, cements, composite resins
Minor Requirements and direct filling gold were discussed in this
section. Dental ceramics and casting alloys have
• Should be inexpensive. been discussed in section III of this book.
• Should have longer shelf-life.
• Should be easy to manipulate.
• Should be radiopaque. Dental Amalgam
Because of congenial properties dental amalgam
Classifications of Restorative Materials
is widely used as ‘direct posterior restorative
1. According to nature of materials: material’ and at places where esthetics are not
a. Metallic: Dental amalgam, direct filling required dental amalgam is a restorative material
gold, miracle mix, casting gold and base made by mixing a finely divided alloy of silver,
metal alloys. tin, and copper with mercury to form a paste.
b. Nonmetallic: Dental cements, com Since mercury is liquid at room temperature, it
posites, and ceramics. will combine with many metals to form alloys
2. According to life span: without the application of heat. The restoration
a. Permanent restorative materials: is formed by compacting the plastic mix directly
Dental amalgam, direct filling gold, into the prepared tooth and hand carving with
miracle mix, casting gold and base instruments to reproduce lost tooth anatomy.
metal alloys, composites, ceramics, and The paste sets by complex reactions among
modified glass ionomer cement. mercury, silver, tin, and copper to give a brittle
b. Semipermanent/intermediate: Life composite alloy. The microstructure of the set
span is weeks to months. Modified zinc material consists of the unreacted centers of
Chapter 6 Restorative Materials 79
the alloy particles bonded together by a matrix • In 1895—“GV Block”; ‘Father of Operative
composed of the intermetallic compounds Dentistry’; found a final formula which is
formed in the reaction. successful.
• In 1937—“Gayles et al.” Showed the chemical
reactions.
AMALGAM • In 1900—First commercial amalgam alloy
An alloy that contains mercury as one of its was marketed by “SS White” (Dent alloy).
constituents. Various alloying elements have been used
with silver since centuries. Different generations
of amalgam and their compositions are given in
Dental Amalgam Table 6.1.
An alloy of mercury, silver, tin, and copper that
may also contain zinc, palladium, and other CLASSIFICATIONS OF AMALGAM
elements to improve handling characteristics
and clinical performance. a. Based on copper content:
i. Low copper alloys (copper < 6%) –
Dental Amalgam Alloy traditional or conventional alloys (Fig.
6.1A).
An alloy of silver, copper, tin and other elements ii. High copper alloys (Copper > 6%)
that is formulated and processed in the form of • Admixed alloys
powder particles or as a compressed pellet. – Spherical eutectic high copper
alloy + lathe cut low copper alloy
HISTORY (Fig. 6.1C).
• Single composition or uni com
• 659 AD—by Chinese “Sukung”. position alloys (Fig. 6.1B)
• 1579—by “Lishihchan”. b. Based on zinc content
• 1601—by German doctor “Tobias Dorn”. i. Zinc containing alloys – Zinc is greater
• 17th century—Introduced by “D Arcets” as than or equal to 0.01%.
mineral cement. ii. Zinc-free alloys – Zinc is lesser than or
• 1810—by “Sir Regnart”, called as “Father of equal to 0.01%.
Amalgam”. c. Based on shape of particle
• 1826—by French scientist; “Taveall”. i. Lathe cut (Fig. 6.1A)
• But in 1845, American Society of Dental ii. Spherical (Fig. 6.1B)
Surgeons considered amalgam filling as iii. Spheroidal.
malpractice and accepted in 1850. d. Based on size of alloy powder
• 1845–1850—Amalgam War – the period of i. Microcut (small)
controversy over amalgam. ii. Macrocut (big).
Table 6.1 Generations of amalgam

Generation Composition
First generation alloy recommended by GV Block Silver-Tin: 3:1 ratio
Second generation alloy Copper – 4%, Zinc – 1%, Silver – 3%, Tin – 1%.
Third generation admixed alloy Ag-Eu eutectic alloy + Low copper lathe cut alloy
Fourth generation alloy Copper – 24%
Fifth generation alloy Indium is added
Sixth generation alloy Palladium – 10%, Silver – 62%, Copper – 28%
Figs 6.1A to C (A) Irregular or lathe cut alloy particle (B) Spherical alloy (C) High-Cu admixed alloy
e. Based on number of alloying elements

i. Binary: Two metals – Silver and tin.
ii. Ternary: Three metals – Silver, tin and
copper.
iii. Quarternary: Four metals – Silver, tin,
copper and indium.
f. Based on noble metal content Fig. 6.2A Amalgam capsules and pellets
i. Nonnoble metals
ii. Noble metal alloys.
DISPENSION
Amalgam alloy is dispensed in the form of finely
divided powder or disposable capsules or pellets
and mercury is available in the form of liquid
(Figs 6.2A and B).
Composition
Composition of low copper and high copper
amalgam alloys has been given in the Table
6.2 and functions of each ingredient have been
discussed in the Table 6.3.
MANUFACTURING OF ALLOY
POWDER
Fig. 6.2B Amalgam powder and liquid form
Manufacturing of alloy powder includes three
main stages.
cutting tool as bit, and finally the chip size can
For Lathe Cut Powder be reduced by ball milling.
Stage I: An annealed ingot of alloy is placed in Stage II—Homogenizing anneal: Because of
a milling machine or in a lathe and is fed into a rapid cooling of alloy, it has a cored structure
Table 6.2 Composition of different amalgam alloys Stage III—Particle treatment: This includes acid
treatment for surface components to dissolve so
Ingredients Low Admix Single
copper alloy composition that alloy becomes more reactive.
alloys (Wt%) alloy (Wt%) Particle treatment is followed by annealing;
(Wt%) this is done to relieve residual stresses carried
Silver 67–70 50–65 45–60 out for several hours at approximately 100° C.
Annealing increases shelf-life of alloy.
Tin 26–28 20–25 15–25
Copper 2–5 13–30 13–30 Atomized Powder for Spherical Particles
Zinc 1–2 0–2 0
The desired elements are melted together and
Indium and Traces Traces Traces
passed through a small crevice in an atomizer.
Palladium
If they solidify before hitting the base they retain
their spherical shape. This is followed by heat
treatment and acid wash.
Table 6.3 Functions of each metal in an
amalgam alloy
Chemistry
Components Functions
When the alloy powder and mercury are mixed
Silver • Major component.
• Whitens the alloy. together, which forms a plastic mass; this process
• Decreases the creep. is called as ‘trituration’ or ‘amalgamation’.
• Increases the strength. During this process the mercury comes in
• Increases resistance to tarnish. contact with alloy powder and dissolves silver-tin
Tin • C ontrols the reaction between in the outer portion of the particles and diffuses
silver and mercury. into alloy particles. But due to limited solubility
• Decreases setting expansion. of silver (0.035 wt%) and tin (0.6 wt%); in some
• Decreases strength and hardness. time; two binary metallic compounds precipitate
• Decreases resistance to tarnish. into the mercury.
Copper • I ncreases strength and hardness • Body centered cubic – Ag2Hg3 (γ1)
along with silver. • Hexagonal – Sn7-8Hg (γ2)
• Decreases brittleness of alloy. γ1 is being first to form as silver has high
• Increases setting expansion. solubility. γ1 and γ2 crystals grow as the remaining
Zinc • A cts as a scavenger and mercury dissolves into the alloy powder. With
prevents oxidation of silver. the disappearance of mercury the alloy hardens.
• Zinc less alloys are more brittle. The final phase consists of the unreacted centers
• Zinc leads to delayed expansion of the alloy particles bonded together by a matrix
if contaminated with moisture
composed of the intermetallic compounds
during manipulation.
formed in the reaction such as γ1 and γ2.
Platinum and • Increases the hardness and This basic reaction changes from alloy to
Palladium whitens the alloy.
alloy and forms various phases (Table 6.4).
CHEMICAL REACTIONS FOR

and contains nonhomogeneous grains of varying INDIVIDUAL ALLOY MIXTURES
size and composition.
The homogenizing heat treatment is
Low Copper Alloys
performed to reach homogeneity. For which It includes γ and β phases. After mixing γ1 phase
the ingot is placed in an oven and heated at a precipitates first followed by γ2 phase, which
temperature below the solidus temperature for grows and binds the unreacted (β + γ) core (Figs
sufficient time and cooled to room temperature. 6.3A to D).
Table 6.4 Different amalgam phases and

their functions
Phases Functions Formula

γ (Gamma) Basic constituent Ag3Sn
increases strength
γ1 (Gamma 1) • Binds the alloy
• Increases corrosion Ag2Hg3
resistance
γ2 (Gamma 2) • Weakest phase Sn7-8Hg
• Decreases
resistance to
tarnish and
corrosion.
Increases creep
ε (Epsilon) • I ncreases strength Cu3Sn
and hardness of Cu: 4-5%
the alloy Figs 6.3A to D (A) Microstructure during trituration
η (Eta) Cu6Sn5 (B and C) Condensable and carvable state (D)
Microstructure after setting that is not workable
Silver- • Acts as filler Ag – Cu
Copper
eutectic and reacts with the Cu to form the η phase
β (Beta) • F orms core and AgSn (Cu6Sn5) and eliminates the weakest γ2 phase
strengthens the to improve the strength.
alloy First,
Ag 3Sn + Ag-Cu + Hg → Ag 2Hg 3 + Sn 7-8Hg +
Unreacted (Ag3Sn + Ag-Cu)
β + γ + Hg → γ1 + γ2 + unreacted β + γ Later,
Ag – Sn + Ag3Sn + Hg → Ag2Hg3 + Sn7-8 Hg + γ 2 phase gets eliminated by Ag-Cu particles
Unreacted (Ag – Sn + Ag3Sn) forming η, γ and Cu core.
Sn7-8Hg + Ag-Cu → Cu6Sn5 + Ag2Hg3
Microstructure
Microstructure
A typical low-copper amalgam is a composite in
which the unconsumed particles are embedded γ1 and η phases formed separately act as binders,
in γ1 and γ2 phases (Fig. 6.3D). binding the unreacted hard core, which include
β + γ + Ag3Sn and traces of γ2 may also be found.
High Copper Amalgam Alloys
Single Composition High Copper Alloys
It includes γ1, η + (γ + ε).
It contains γ, ε, η and γ1.
In uni compositional alloys, the difference
Admix Alloy
in solubility of mercury in Sn, Cu, and Ag plays
Ag-Cu, eutectic spherical alloy are added to lathe an important role.
cut low copper alloy in ratio of 1:2. This Ag-Cu Solubility of Hg is 170 times greater than Sn
alloy increases the strength. followed by Cu and Ag due to which Sn reacts
On mixing, the Ag-Sn particles react first first forming γ2 phase followed by Cu due to its
to form γ1 and γ2 phase, but later Sn in solution limited reactivity. Due to which particles of uni
diffuses to the surface of Ag-Cu alloy particles compositional alloys in the very early stages
are covered by γ1 and γ2 phases and Ag-Cu at Surface hardness – 100 to 120 KHN.
periphery. But due to Ag-Cu phase the γ2 phase
is eliminated forming η and γ1. Factors Affecting Strength
The difference in the elimination of the γ2
in admixed and unicomposition alloy is that Constituent Phases
in the admixed type the γ2 forms around the The following order shows the decreasing order
Ag-Sn particles and is eliminated around the in strength.
Ag-Cu. γ > γ1 > η > γ2 and voids.
But in single composition alloy these • γ phase has high strength and whereas γ2
particles at first formation like Ag-Sn particles phase is least.
of admixed type and later the same particles
function like the Ag-Cu particles of admixed Time
type to eliminate γ2 type. Hence, there is only
one reaction. Strength increases with increase in time as the
matrix continues to form which binds unreacted
Ag3Sn + Ag-Cu + Hg → Cu6Sn5 + Ag2Hg3
mass.
(γ + ε + Hg → η + γ1) • After 20 minutes – 6% of maximum strength
(i.e. 25–30 Mpa).
Microstructure • After 7 days – 95% of maximum strength is
attained.
η phase prismatic crystals grow and intermesh
The compressive strength and tensile
with γ1 crystals, which lead to superior properties.
strength of amalgam alloys at the end of first hour
and after seven days respectively were given in
PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL Table 6.5.
PROPERTIES In practice, a minimum of 8 hrs time should
be allowed for amalgam to set during which
Strength taking solid food is contraindicated.
As it is a posterior restorative material com
pressive strength plays an important role (as it Composition
is subjected to masticatory forces) (Table 6.5). Depending on alloy type the strength changes,
as there is alteration in constituent phase.
Strength Measurement (as per ADA)
Type Strength Reason
A cylindrical sample of height 8 mm and (Mpa)
diameter 4 mm is prepared keeping variable
High copper 250–290 Mpa Due to interlocking
parameters constant and preserved at 37°C for
single com at 1 hr of γ1 with γ and due
7 days and tested by straining machines at 0.5
position alloy to lack of γ2 phase.
mm, 0.2, 0.05 mm/min.
Table 6.5 Strength and creep properties of amalgam
Types Compressive (Mpa) Tensile Creep

strength 7 days strength (Mpa) (%)
1 hr. 24 hrs
Low copper 145 343 60 1-2
Admixed 137 431 48 0.5-1
Single composition 262 516 64 0.05-0.1
Mercury Alloy Ratio Contraction

An increase in mercury leads to increase in Due to inadequate mercury, which required
γ 2 and γ 1 phases, hence strength decreases. for later reaction, i.e. growth of crystals and
Decrease in mercury content leads to improper condensation.
wetting of particles, which becomes more brittle
and results in decrease in compressive strength Factors Increasing Setting Expansion
and poor bonding.
Amount of mercury required is determined • Increase mercury – alloy ratio.
by surface area. Smaller the surface area, lesser • Larger surface area of alloy particle.
is the mercury required and higher the strength. • Spherical particles.
For example, Spherical alloys. • Slow mixing speed.
• Prolonged trituration.
• Low condensation pressures.
Effect of Particle Size
• Moisture contamination.
As mentioned earlier, decrease in particle size
increase in strength. Measurement
A sample cylinder of 4 × 8 mm is placed at
Effect of Trituration
37° C and change is measured by dial gauge as
Prolonged trituration decreases strength due to interferometer.
increase in γ1 and γ2 phases and hence decreases According to ADA specification number 1 the
strength. dimensional change should be less than 0.2% at
Undertrituration does not form adequate 37°C under normal pressures.
matrix to bind core and hence the mix becomes
brittle leading to porosities and voids. Delayed Expansion
Delayed expansion is a 4% as more expansion
Condensation Pressure
as taking place in zinc containing alloys after a
Larger condensation force causes better period of 3–7 days due to moisture contamination
adaptation, cohesion and increases strength. during manipulation.
Larger condensation forces also lead to exclude
excess mercury that in turn increases strength. Zn + H2O → ZnO + H2
The produced H 2 gas gets accumulated and

Dimensional Changes leads to:
Dimensional changes include either expansion • Protrusion of restoration.
or contraction. Expansion leads to amalgam • Increases creep.
fracture or dislodgement from cavity, hyper • Microleakage.
occlusion, and pulpal pain. Contraction leads to • Pitted surface and corrosion.
marginal leakage and secondary caries. • Dental pain.
• Recurrence of caries.
Expansion • Fracture of restoration.
After amalgamation, initially the γ 1 crystals Prevention

formed will start to grow in due time which
push each other and cause expansion and this Creating dry conditions by using gloves, rubber
continues until the mass becomes rigid. dams, and using nonzinc containing alloys.
Creep • Homogeneous condensation.

• Proper cavity design.
Creep is a time dependent plastic deformation • Good finishing.
taking place in viscoelastic materials by static or
dynamic forces.
Tarnish and Corrosion
Mechanism Tarnish is surface discoloration and corrosion
is loss of surface caused by chemical and
As the amalgam restoration is constantly subjec electrochemical attack (see Fig. 3.23).
ted to masticatory forces it undergoes creep
which leads to elevated thin margins (Fig. 6.4)
and fracture of these elevated thin margins
Influences of Tarnish and
leading to microleakage and caries. Corrosion on Amalgam
According to ADA specification number • Unesthetic restoration.
1 the creep should be less than 3%. But low • Pitting and breakdown.
copper alloys have a creep value of 0.8–8%, and • Marginal leakage.
high copper alloys have a creep value between • Decrease in tensile strength by 3%.
0.1–0.4%. • Surface particles leading to plaque accum
ulation.
Determination of Creep
A cylindrical sample of 4 mm diameter and 8 Mechanism of Corrosion
mm height is prepared, preserved for 7 days at It is mainly due to γ2 phase, which acts as anode
37°C and then subjected to a static load of 36 due to more active electrochemical nature
N. The percentage decrease in the height in 3 and other phases act as cathode and saliva
hrs, in between the ends of 1 hour and 4 hours acts as a medium. Corrosion products will be
is taken as creep. released into the interfacial space between
restoration and tooth structure that prevents
Factors Minimizing Creep the microleakage, called as self-sealing ability
of amalgam (Fig. 6.5).
• Composition.
For example, single composition high copper
alloys. Factors Leading to Tarnish and Corrosion
• Minimum mercury-alloy ratio. • Improper polishing.
• Optimum trituration. • Improper condensation.
• Large condensation pressure. • Two opposite different metallic restorations.
Fig. 6.4 Creep in amalgam restoration Fig. 6.5 Corrosion products preventing microleakage
For example, gold and amalgam restorations > 2 mg/kg Joint pains
in opposing teeth. > 4 mg/kg Death.
THERMAL PROPERTIES Other Symptoms

Thermal Diffusivity Other symptoms with mercury toxicity include
fatigue, weakness, headache, dizziness, pares
Amalgam is good conductor of heat. Care should thesia, and renal disorder.
be taken in case of large amalgam restorations
by lining cement to protect pulp. Recommendations in Mercury Hygiene
Thermal Expansion 1. Store Hg in unbreakable, tightly sealed
containers.
Coefficient of thermal expansion (α = 25 ppm) 2. Confine and facilitate the recovery of spilled
is double that of tooth, may lead to marginal Hg or amalgam.
leakage. But this leakage decreases with time due 3. Clean up any spilled Hg immediately.
to accumulation of corrosion products. 4. Use tightly closed capsules during amal
gamation.
MERCURY TOXICITY 5. Use a no-touch technique for handling the
amalgam.
Mercury toxicity is the reason which led to 6. Salvage all amalgam scrap and store it under
amalgam war and was responsible for its ban in water that contains sodium thiosulfate.
many countries. The main property leading to 7. Work in well-ventilated spaces.
its toxicity is vapor pressure (20 mg/m3 at 25°C) 8. Avoid carpeting dental office.
and melting point (-39°C). 9. Eliminate the use of Hg-containing
solutions.
Mechanism of Intoxication as Contact 10. Avoid heating Hg or amalgam.
11. Use water spray and suction when grinding
It mainly occurs by the inhalation of mercury
dental amalgam.
vapor during manipulation, such as:
12. Use conventional dental amalgam con
• Trituration
densing procedures.
• Condensation
13. Perform yearly Hg checks.
• Polishing and burnishing
14. Check Hg vapor levels periodically.
• During removal of old restorative material
15. Alert all personnel who handle Hg of
• By accidental spillage.
the potential hazard of Hg vapor and
Other routes, which are minor, include skin,
the necessity for observing good Hg and
and methyl mercury though is considered as
amalgam hygiene practice.
fatal. The elemental vapors inhaled reach blood
via lungs and distributed rapidly throughout the
body. Crossing even the blood-brain barrier and TECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN
placental barrier. MANIPULATION OF AMALGAM
During restoration, amalgam needs a thorough
Symptoms on Dose Dependent Manner step-by-step procedure to attain the superior
restoration. The main advantage of amalgam is
The maximum level of occupational exposure
it can be placed in cavity in a plastic form, which
considered safe is 50 µg/m3 of air per day as per
later hardens and allows ease for placement. The
ADA and OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health
manipulation of amalgam involves the following
Administration).
steps:
> 1 mg/kg Ataxia
Selection of Materials 3. Condensation technique or increasing

dryness technique: The mix is condensed
This plays an important role and it varies to remove excess mercury, which comes to
depending on the condition of the patient and surface.
the desired properties, e.g.
• In case of sialorrhea patient – Indium Other methods for proper proportioning and
containing and zinc free alloys. dispensing are as follows:
• When hardness is desired–Cu containing i. Weigh the mercury and alloy using a
alloys. balance.
• When fast setting is required–Spherical alloy ii. By using volume dispensers: A dispenser is
powders. a glass bottle with a plastic screw top cap.
Apart from the above, the alloy should meet The cap has a spring-loaded plunger, which
ADA Specification No. 1 standards for releases a known volume of either mercury
• Creep: Less than or equal to 3% or alloy when dispensed. But for powder
• Compressive strength: 0.25 mm/min, i.e. 80 as the amount of alloy to be delivered
MPa. depends on density of powder and hence
• Dimensional change: ± 20 µm/cm. not indicated, but it is suitable for mercury.
iii. Preproportioned alloy and powder:
Mercury-Alloy Ratio (Proportioning) Powder pre- weighted in a small sachet
or tablet form and mercury in preweighed
It is the ratio of the amount (by weight) of alloy sachets.
to mercury used for a particular technique. iv. Disposable capsules: The capsules contain
Mercury-alloy ratio plays an important role on both mercury and powder preweighed
determining the properties of mix. being separated by a membrane, which
breaks before mixing, allowing both to mix.
Ideal Proportioning
• Lathe cut – 1:1 (50:50)
Effect of Mercury-Alloy Ratio on Properties
• Spherical alloy – 40:60 • Low mercury-alloy ratio
In general, older alloys contain large amount — The mix is dry, difficult to condense.
of mercury because of large particle size and — Subjected to marginal fracture.
hand mixing techniques to obtain a plastic — Subjected to tarnish and corrosion.
mix (8:5 or 8:10). But due to introduction of • High mercury-alloy ratio
mechanical trituration and other modifications — Mix is wet.
on particle size it made possible to decrease the — Prolongs setting.
mercury content in mix. — Physical properties are inferior.
As per ADA specification the final set — More toxic due to vapor release.
amalgam should contain less than or equal to
50% of mercury and it should not decrease less
than or equal to 40%. So to get the mercury
Trituration
content low, the final mix is either subjected any Objective
one of the followings.
1. Squeeze dried technique: In this technique a The objective is to remove the oxide layer formed
gauge cloth is taken and the mix is placed on on the particles so that mercury can react with
it and squeezed to remove excess mercury. powder.
2. Eame’s technique or minimum mercury Trituration is done in an amalgamator or
technique: In this technique the actual triturator, it is a process in which both mercury
volume of mercury taken is regulated, i.e. in and alloy powders are mixed to get a plastic
the ratio of 1:1. mix.
Mixing Time
Mixing time is 25–30 seconds but varies
depending on alloy and amalgamator or
recommended by manufacturer.
• Under triturated mix
— Rough, grainy and may crumble.
Figs 6.6A and B (A) Mortar and pestle — Strength decreases.
(B) Amalgamator — Rough surface leads to tarnish and
corrosion.
Hand Trituration — Mix hardens too rapidly and excess
mercury will remain.
Hand trituration is done with mortar and
• Normal mix
pestle (Fig. 6.6A). The inner surface of mortar
— Has shiny surface with smooth and soft
is roughened to increase friction and can be
consistency.
done by intentional grinding with Carborundum
— High resistance to tarnish and corrosion.
paste. A pestle is a glass rod with a round end.
— Make luster after polishing.
The factors to obtain a good mix are as
— Mix is warm when removed from capsule.
follows:
• Over triturated mix
• Number of rotations (for 25–45 seconds).
— Soupy, too plastic hence difficult to
• The speed of rotations.
remove from capsule.
• The magnitude of pressure placed on the
— Weight is reduced.
pestle.
— Results in high concentration of mercury.
— Lathe cut alloys increases strength and
Mechanical Trituration high copper alloys decreases strength.
Mechanical amalgamators (Fig. 6.6B) are used — Creep is increased.
into which a capsule is fitted. The amalgamators
are devices with two arms covered by a hood and Mulling
include an automatic controlled timer and speed Mulling is done to improve homogeneity of mix
control device and work by either vibratory or to get a single consistency. Mulling is done in
oscillatory movements. two ways.
The capsules are either disposable or 1. The mix is enveloped in a dry piece of a
nondisposable. The capsule serves as a mortar rubber dam and vigorously rubbed between
to hold alloy, a cylindrical metal or plastic piston first finger and thumb or thumb of one hand
is placed in the capsule that serves as a pestle. and palm of other hand for 2–5 seconds.
Reusable capsules are provided with cups that 2. The piston or rod of capsule is removed and
are either friction fit as screw. triturated for 2–5 seconds.
Precautions Condensation
• Lid should be fitted tightly to prevent Condensation is a process of inserting a plastic
mercury mist to escape. mass of amalgam into a prepared cavity by force
• Place hood to amalgamator. under pressure.
• Follow proper mixing time and procedure.
Aims
Advantages of Mechanical Trituration
• Good marginal adaptability.
• Shortens mixing time. • Good bonding between incremental layers
• Most standardized and accurate procedure. of amalgam.
• Removal of excess mercury. alloy is lathe cut; small increments with small
• To increase the density of mix hence condenser tips of 1–2 mm high forces. If alloy
optimum mechanical properties and also is spherical the condenser punches through
decrease porosities and voids. the alloy. So larger condensers with less force
are used.
Condensers The placed alloy should be condensed in
a stepwise manner from center to periphery
These are devices by which condensation is without leaving adjacent areas. If left, it may lead
carried out. These are steel hand instruments to voids, which decrease strength. So care should
with their ends with flat or serrated tips of be taken then all areas are condensed. Before
different shapes and sizes. The shapes can be adding next increment additional mercury is
oval, round, parallelogram, diamond, trapezoidal removed and is left which facilitates bonding
and straight. with next increment and procedure is carried out
These are selected as per the area and shape until cavity is over filled. Condensing pressures
of the cavity. Smaller is the condenser greater are 66.7 N or 15 lb (range from 13.3 N to 17.8 N
is the pressure exerted per unit area. Other in reality).
condensers used are ultrasonic condensers, etc.
Mechanical Condensation
Procedure
Condensation is done by an automatic device
It must always be accomplished within four either by impact type of force or by using rapid
walls and a floor. If one or two walls are missing vibration.
they can be replaced by a thin strip of stainless Advantages
steel sheet called matrix band (Fig. 6.7A). • More accurate.
Condensation is of two types: • Time saving.
a. Hand condensation. • Easy method.
b. Mechanical condensation.
Effect of Delay on Condensation
Hand Condensation
Condensation should occur immediately after
The plastic mix is carried in increments to the trituration, usually within 3–3½ minutes. If
cavity using an amalgam carrier (Fig. 6.8) (mix delayed, it leads to cracks in formed matrix lead
should never be touched with bare hands) ing to fracture, corrosion and microleakage. So,
and condensed with suitable condensers. The if delay has occurred, the operator must discard
selection depends on the type of alloy used. If old mix and prepare new mix.
Figs 6.7A and B (A) Condensation of plastic mass-

tooth is isolated by using matrix band (B) Condensed Fig. 6.8 Amalgam carriers used for carrying plastic
restoration mix to the tooth cavity
Burnishing
Burnishing is the rubbing of surface to make it
smooth, since amalgam restoration has slightly
uneven surface after condensation as shown in
Figure 6.7B.
Aim
• To remove excess material.
• Better marginal adaptability.
• Increase resistance to tarnish and corrosion.
Burnishing is of two types:
a. Precarve burnishing.
b. Postcarve burnishing. Fig. 6.9 Finished restoration
Precarve Burnishing
Finishing and Polishing
Precarve burnishing is a form of condensation.
Over packed amalgam is burnished with a large Finishing and polishing is done after 24 hours
ball burnisher. This procedure is used to remove by using wet abrasives such as pumice. Care
excess material and better marginal adaptation. should be taken to avoid high temperatures. As
shown in Figure 6.9, the finished restorations
have smoother surfaces.
Procedure
Using heavy strokes on all four sides of margin. Indications of Amalgam
• Class I, class II restorations.
Postcarve Burnishing
• Nonesthetic class V restorations.
This is done after carving to make surface • Core-build up.
smooth. • Root canal filling.
• Amalgam pins.
Precautions • Crowns build up.
• Proper pressure without generating heat.

Heat generated greater than 60°C may lead
Contraindications
to elevation of mercury vapor, which alter • In esthetic areas.
properties. • Where isolation is difficult (no moisture
• Time of burnishing: Before carving, i.e. after contamination as in sialorrhea).
hearing amalgam cry. • In allergic patients.
Carving Advantages
Carving is done to reproduce tooth anatomy for • Easy to use.
occlusal benefits. Carving is done after hearing • High tensile strength
amalgam cry, i.e. scrapping or ringing sound • Excellent wear resistance.
which indicates initial set. Over- carving and • Long-term results.
under-carving should be avoided. • Inexpensive.
Disadvantages
Dental Cements
• Poor insulator.
• Nonesthetic. Dental cements used as restorative materials
• Less conservative (more removal of tooth have low strengths compared with those of resin-
structure) based composites and amalgams, but they can
• Weakens tooth structure. be used for low stress areas.
• Initial marginal leakage. Cements are widely used in dentistry for a
• Discolors of tooth. variety of applications. In general, cements are
• Postoperative sensitivity. employed for two primary purposes:
1. To serve as a restorative filling material either
alone or with other materials.
MODIFIED AMALGAMS 2. To retain restorations or appliances in a fixed
Galloy position within the mouth.
However, cements are used for specialized
Galloy is mercury-free amalgam alloy. It contains purposes in the restorative, endodontic,
silver, tin, copper, indium and gallium. Studies orthodontic, periodontic and surgical fields of
of gallium alloys have reported problems with the dentistry.
corrosion, durability, tooth fracture and tooth General applications of dental cements
sensitivity. include, temporary and permanent cementation
of indirect restorations and orthodontics bands,
Bonded Amalgams temporary, intermediate and permanent
restorations, surgical dressing materials, root
In bonded amalgams the bonding is achieved canal sealers, pit and fissure sealants, core build-
with the help of “4-methacryloxyethyl trimellitic up material, cavity liners, low strength and high
acid.” Amalgam bond (Fig. 6.10) is one of the strength bases.
commercial products available for bonded Some dental cements exhibit anticariogenic
amalgams. propert ies, anodyne and obtundent effect,
bacteriostatic properties, and can directly bond
Advantages to the tooth structure and some are highly acidic
• Less microleakage. and irritant to the pulp cavity if used in deep
• Less interfacial staining. cavities.
• Increase strength of remaining tooth
structure. CLASSIFICATION
• Minimal postoperative sensitivity.
• Some retention benefits. 1. Based on their chemical name
• Esthetic benefit by sealing. Zinc oxide eugenol cement, zinc phosphate
cement, silicate cement, glass ionomer
Fig. 6.10 Amalgam bonding agents

cement, zinc polycarboxylate cement, and

Special applications
resin cements.
2. Based on adhesion to tooth structure Zinc oxide eugenol, and Root canal sealer
zinc polycarboxylate
a. Direct bonding or chemical bonding to
cements
the tooth
For example, zinc polycarboxylate Zinc oxide eugenol Gingival tissue pack
cement and glass ionomer cement. Zinc oxide eugenol and Cementation of
b. Cements having mechanical retention zinc oxide preparations orthodontic bands
For example, zinc oxide eugenol cement, Zinc oxide eugenol and Surgical dressing
zinc phosphate cement, silicate cement, zinc phosphate cements
etc. Resin cements Orthodontic direct
3. Based on composition of powder bonding
a. Cements possessing zinc oxide in
powders:
For example, zinc oxide eugenol, zinc
phosphate, zinc silico phosphate, 5. Based on chemistry/setting reaction (EC
ethoxy benzoic acid cement, and zinc Coomb’s classification)
polycarboxylate. The materials may be classified as follows:
b. Cements possess ion leachable glasses a. Acid-base reactions
in powder: For example, zinc oxide eugenol,
For example, silicate, glass ionomer, and cement, zinc phosphate cement, zinc
copper phosphate. polycarboxylate cement, glass ionomer
4. Based on functions (Craig’s classification) cement.
b. Polymerizing materials
Craig’s classification For example, cyanoacrylates, dime
Cements Functions thacrylate polymers, and polymerceramic
Zinc phosphate, zinc Final cementation of composites.
silico-phosphate, completed restorations c. Other materials
reinforced ZOE, zinc For example, calcium hydroxide, gutta-
polycarboxylate, and percha, and varnishes.
glass ionomer cements
Zinc oxide eugenol, and Temporary cement
noneugenol zinc oxide ation of completed
IDEAL REQUIREMENTS OF
restorations RESTORATIVE CEMENT
Zinc phosphate, High strength bases 1. Should be nonirritant to the pulp and
reinforced ZOE, zinc gingiva.
polycarboxylate, and 2. Should not cause any systemic reactions.
glass ionomer cements
3. Should be cariostatic thus preventing
Zinc oxide eugenol, Temporary filling secondary caries formation.
reinforced ZOE, zinc 4. Should possess enough abrasion resistance
polycarboxylate cements
to dentifrices and food.
Zinc oxide eugenol, Low strength bases and 5. Solubility of the cement in oral fluids
calcium hydroxide liners should be negligible. Maximum allowable
cements
solubility of cements in oral conditions is
Resin in solvent Varnish 0.2%.
6. Ideal cement should bond to the enamel Commercial Names
and dentin to avoid marginal leakage.
7. Should possess a COTE to that of enamel 1. Unmodified
and dentin. Tempac—Type III
8. Cement should have adequate working Cavitic—Type IV
time. Temp bond—Type I
9. Should exhibit minimum dimensional 2. EBA alumina modified
changes on setting. Opotow
10. Restoration should take and retain a Alumina EBA—Type II
smooth surface finish. 3. Polymer modified
11. Should have adequate radiopacity to Fynal—Type II
enable— IRM—Type III
a. Detection of secondary caries. 4. Noneugenol
b. Detection of incompletely filled cavities Nogenol—Type I
due to trapped air. Freegenol—Type I
ADA specification number: 30
ZINC OXIDE EUGENOL CEMENT Classification

Zinc oxide eugenol (ZOE) cement was introduced According to ADA Specification Number 30
into dentistry in 1890’s. They have been widely
Type I ZOE: Temporary luting cement
employed for various purposes in dentistry
Type II ZOE: Long-term luting cement
especially as temporary and intermediate
Type III ZOE: Temporary restoration and
restorative material, cavity liners, thermal
thermal insulating base.
insulating bases, root canal sealant, periodontal
Type IV ZOE: Intermediate restoration, cavity
dressings, luting cement for restorations and
liner and chemical insulator.
possess a sedative effect on exposed dentin.
Their pH is approximately 7 at the time they
are inserted into the tooth. ZOE cement is one Dispension
of the least irritating materials among all dental This cement is dispensed in two forms:
materials and provides an excellent seal against a. Powder and liquid (Fig. 6.11A).
leakage. b. Two paste system.
Figs 6.11A and B (A) Zinc oxide eugenol cement (B) Intermediate restorative material
Composition
Powder
Ingredient Wt (%) Functions
Zinc oxide 69% Primary reactive ingredient, takes part in the setting reaction.
White rosin 29.3% 1. To reduce brittleness of set cement.2. Improves consistency and
provides smoother mixing.
Zinc stearate 1% Acts as a plasticizer.
Zinc acetate 0.7% 1. Acts as an accelerator.2. Improves strength of the cement.
Magnesium oxide It is added in some powders. It acts with eugenol in similar manner as
zinc oxide.
Liquid
Ingredient Wt (%) Functions
Eugenol 85% Primary reactive ingredient. Reacts with zinc oxide
Olive oil 15% Acts as a plasticizer – controls the viscosity.
Glacial acetic acid Acts as an accelerator
Chemistry of Setting
The chemistry of setting of the ZOE cements is
similar to the ZOE impression materials. The
reaction is measurably exothermic and the
presence of moisture is essential for setting to
occur. The setting reaction is a typical acid-base
reaction.
The relative proportions of powder and liquid Acid base reaction ZOE cement
are not normally measured accurately, although
some manufacturers provide a scoop, which Structure of Set Cement
gives a known volume of powder to which a
given number of drops of liquid are added. Then Thus the set cement consists of particles of zinc
mix the powder with liquid. The setting reaction oxide embedded in a matrix of particles of zinc
involves in two steps. eugenolate.
a. Hydrolysis
Zinc oxide reacts with water to form zinc Properties
hydroxide. Water is an essential for the
reaction to proceed (dehydrated zinc oxide Biological Properties
will not react with dehydrated eugenol). • Effect on pulp: Least irritating. Pulpal
response is mild.
• Bacteriostatic and obtundent properties:
They inhibit the growth of bacteria and have
b. Acid-base reaction
an anodyne or soothing effect on the pulp in
Zinc hydroxide reacts with eugenolic acid
deep cavities, reduce pain when it is present.
and forms zinc eugenolate.
Chemical Properties (pH is around 6.6-8) Film thickness: The film thickness of zinc oxide
eugenol is higher than other cements, i.e. 25
Their pH is approximately 7 at the time they are
µm for luting consistency. The film thickness
inserted into the tooth. ZOE cement is one of
is an important factor in the complete sealing
the least irritating materials in dental materials
of restorations at the time of cementation.
and provides an excellent seal against leakage.
Some of the early ZOE cements had a greater
film thickness than desirable. But the products
Solubility dispensed currently to the dentist have the film
Eugenol is released from the set cement by thickness is not more than 25 µm, as determined
the hydrolytic decomposition of the zinc by the specification test. This requirement is not
eugenolate. The cement disintegrates rapidly applied to cement used for purposes other than
when exposed to oral conditions. According cementation.
to ADA specification number 30 the maximum The particle size of the ZnO and viscosity of
allowable solubility is 2.5% for type I and II the mix govern the film thickness. Using a fluid
cements and 1.5% for type III and IV cements. mix gives values of about 40 µm.
But the actual solubility of ZOE cement is 0.04%.
The test used is the amount of solubility Mechanical Properties
and disintegration, measured by weight loss
• Compressive strength, tensile strength and
that occurs in a disk of the cement immersed in
modulus of elasticity (MOE) of ZOE cement
distilled water for 24 hours.
were given in Table 6.6. These cements are
weakest among luting agents.
Rheological Properties • Adhesion: These cements do not adhere
chemically to enamel or dentin.
Setting Time
The setting time is the time elapsed between Thermal Properties
the end of mixing and the time of setting as
measured by resistance to a standard indenter. • Thermal conductivity: Thermal insulating
Setting time is around 4–10 minutes. properties of ZOE cements are excellent and
are approximately same as for human dentin.
• Coefficient of thermal expansion: 35 × 10–6/°C.
Control of Setting Time • Very high compared to the natural tooth.
• Particle size: Cements prepared from smaller
particles of zinc oxide powder set more Optical Properties
rapidly than those prepared with larger
particles. The set cement is opaque.
• Accelerators: Alcohol, glacial acetic acid,
and small amounts of water accelerate the Table 6.6 Mechanical properties of ZOE cement
reaction.
Property Values
• Temperature: If the temperature is below
the dew point the setting reaction will Compressive strength They are relatively weak
cements. It ranges from a
increase. Below the dew point, condensate
low value of 3–4 Mpa up
that is incorporated into the mix and setting to 50–55 Mpa.
reaction is accelerated.
Tensile strength Ranges from 0.32–5.8 Mpa.
• Powder/liquid ratio: The higher the P/L ratio,
the faster the set. Cooling the mixing slab Modulus of elasticity Ranges from 0.22–5.4 GPa
slows the setting reaction. or 0.03–0.79 Psi.
Manipulation Modifications
Selection of Materials 1. Ethyl benzoic acid – Alumina modified
cement.
Dry and cool glass slab, stainless steel spatula, 2. Polymer reinforced ZOE.
required amount of powder and liquid. 3. Cements containing vanillate esters.
Powder-Liquid ratio: 4:1–6:1 by weight. 4. Special ZOE product.
Mixing EBA-Alumina Modified Cements

Measured quantity of powder and liquid is In order to further improve on the basic ZOE
dispensed onto a cool slab. The bulk of the system many researchers have investigated
powder is incorporated into the liquid and mixtures of zinc and other oxides with various
spatulated thoroughly in a circular motion with liquid chelating agents. The only system that has
a stiff bladed stainless steel spatula. Smaller received extensive commercial exploration for
increments are then added and mixed using luting and lining is that containing orthoethoxy
folding technique or in sweeping and stopping benzoic acid (EBA).
motion until a smooth and creamy mix is Recently, cements for luting and intermediate
obtained. restorations based on vanillic acid (4-hydroxy-3
Oil of orange can be used to clean eugenol methoxy benzoic acid) have studied extensively.
cements from instruments. These cements have no odor, higher strength,
Two paste system: Equal lengths of each paste and lower solubility.
are dispensed and mixed until a uniform color is In these cements, alumina is added to the
observed. powder and EBA is added to the liquid. These
cements improve the mechanical properties
Applications compared to ZOE.
• Bases
• Temporary restorations
Dispension
• Intermediate restorations Powder and liquid system.
• Temporary and permanent cementation
• Endodontic sealers. Composition
Advantages Powder
Ingredient Wt % Functions
• Obtundent effect on pulp
• Good sealing ability Zinc oxide 64–73% Principle ingredient
• Postoperative sensitivity is virtually eli Alumina 25–32% Increases strength
minated Hydrogenated 0–6% Increases strength,
• Prevents penetration of acid into the pulp. resin reduces brittleness
and improves mixing
Disadvantages qualities.
• Difficult to manipulate Copolymers 0–2%
• Low strength Liquid
• Low abrasion resistance Orthoethoxy 62.5– Main reactive
• Solubility and disintegration in oral fluids benzoic acid 87.5% ingredient
• Poorer retention than zinc phosphate cement
Eugenol 0–37.5% Reacts with ZnO.
• Reparative dentin formation is variable
• Burning sensation. n-hexyl vanillate 0–12.5%
Setting Reaction Advantages

The setting mechanism has not been fully • Easy to manipulate.
understood. It appears to involve chelate salt • Long working time.
formation between the EBA, eugenol and zinc • Good flow characteristics.
oxide. • Low irritation to the pulp.
• Strength and film thickness can be com
Manipulation parable to that of zinc phosphate cement.
Desired amount of the powder and liquid (3.5 g/

Disadvantages
ml for cementation and 5-6 g/ml for lining and
base) are dispensed onto the glass slab. Powder • The critical proportioning.
is incorporated onto the liquid in bulk and • Hydrolytic breakdown in oral fluids.
kneaded for 30 seconds followed by strapping • Liability to plastic deformation.
for another 60 seconds with broad strokes of the • Poorer retention.
spatula to obtain creamy consistency.
Polymer Reinforced ZOE or Intermediate
Setting Time Restorative Material (IRM)
These possess greater setting time compared to This cement possesses improved mechanical
unmodified ZOE cement, i.e. 9.5 minutes. properties than unmodified ZOE.
Properties Dispension
As given in Table 6.7, the compressive strength, Dispensed in the powder and liquid form (Fig.
tensile strength of EBA-Alumina cements 6.11B).
were improved signif icantly. Solubility and
disintegration has been reduced compared to Composition
conventional ZOE cement.
Powder
Uses Ingredient Wt% Functions
• For the cementation of inlays, crowns and Zinc oxide 10-80% Main reactive
bridges. ingredient.
• For temporary fillings. Finely divided 20% These resins may
• As a base or lining material. natural or synthetic react with the
resins, e.g. ZnO and improve
Colophony (pine the strength of
Table 6.7 Properties of EBA-Alumina cements resin), PMMA, the matrix.
polystyrene or
Property Values polycarbonate.
Compressive strength 55–70 Mpa Acetic acid or Zn Acts as an
Tensile strength 4.1 Mpa acetate. accelerator.
Modulus of elasticity 2.5 GPa (0.36 Psi × 106) Liquid
Film thickness 25 µm Eugenol 85% Main reactive
ingredient, which
Solubility and 0.05% wt
disintegration in water reacts with
ZnO to form Zn
Setting time 9.5 minutes
eugenolate.
Dissolved resins, e.g. Gives more Advantages

Pine resin, PMMA, strength. • The minimum biologic effects.
polystyrene, and • Good initial sealing properties.
polycarbonate. • Adequate strength for final cementation of
Acetic acid Acts as an restorations, compared with unmodified
accelerator. ZOE.
Thymol or Plasticizer.
8-hydroxyl-quinone
Disadvantages
Olive oil 15% • Lower strength compared to zinc phosphate
cement.
• Higher solubility and disintegration.
Setting Reaction
• Hydrolytic instability.
The setting reaction is similar to the setting • High film thickness.
mechanism of conventional zinc oxide eugenol • May cause softening and discoloration of
cement. Acidic resins such as colophony some resin restorative materials when they
(abietic acid) may react with zinc oxide and are used with resin restorative materials.
strengthening the mix.
Cements Containing Vanillate Esters
Properties
Recently, cements have been developed with
These cements do not exhibit better compressive hexyl vanillate and orthoethoxy benzoic acid
strength and modulus of elasticity (MOE) as a substitute for eugenol. This liquid is mixed
compared to conventional ZOE cement (Table with ZnO powder. This shows high strength and
6.8) low solubility.
Manipulation Special ZOE Products

Desired quantity of powder and liquid is ZOE materials contain antibiotics such as
dispensed onto the glass slab. The powder is tetracycline and steroids as anti-inflammatory
mixed into the liquid in small portion with agents. Their principal use is in Pulpal capping,
vigorous spatulation. and root canal therapy. Another product also
Both powder and liquid containers should contains BaSO4, which is radiopaque.
be kept closed and stored under dry conditions.
Endodontic Sealers
Table 6.8 Properties of polymer reinforced zinc Endodontic ZOE preparations have been used as
oxide eugenol cement
a root canal sealer alone and with gutta-percha
Property Values and silver points. There are two major groups of
Compressive strength 35–55 Mpa
products based on ZOE cements–Conventional
and therapeutic sealers.
Tensile strength 5–8 Mpa • ADA specification number: 57
Modulus of elasticity 2.5 GPa
Film thickness 35–75 µm Types
Solubility and 0.03% Wt
disintegration Type I: Core and auxiliary points.
Type II: Sealer cements used with cores.
Pulpal response Moderate pulpal response
Type III: Filling materials used without cores
Setting time 6–10 minutes (therapeutic).
Composition Table 6.9 Properties of endodontic sealers
The conventional sealers generally are based on Property Values

the formulas of Grossman’s and Rickets’. Solubility 0.10%-3.5%
Viscosity 8-680 × 103 Cp
Rickets formula
Setting time 15 minutes–12 hours at
mouth temperatures
Powder
Film thickness 80-500 µm (depending
Ingredient Wt%
on the testing load).
Zinc oxide 41%
Compressive strength 8-50 Mpa.
Silver 30%
Radiopacity
White rosin 17% Silver points 0.34
Thymol iodide 12% Gutta-percha points 0.78
Liquid Dimensional change 0.7%-5.0% (volume
loss after 90 days in a
Oil of cloves 78% capillary tube)
Canada balsam 22%
Grossman’s formula
certain basic oxides and phosphoric acid to
Powder form phosphate salts of low solubility. The three
Ingredient Wt% products considered in this selection are the
zinc phosphate, silicophosphate and copper
Zinc oxide 42%
phosphate cements.
Staybilite resin 27% Zinc phosphate is the oldest (1878) of the
Bismuth subcarbonate 15% cementation agents and thus is the one that has
Barium sulfate 15% the longest track record. It serves as a standard
by which newer systems can be compared. The
Sodium borate anhydrate 1%
terms “crown and bridge”, “zincoxy phosphate”
Liquid have also been used for this cement.
Eugenol 100%
Commercial Names
Therapeutic Formula
1. Confit
Powder Liquid 2. Harvard
3. Zinc cement improved
Zinc oxide Eugenol
4. Modern tenascin.
Bismuth subnitrate Creosote • ADA specification number: 8
Iodoform Thymol
Rosin Classification
Properties: Table 6.9 ADA specification number 8 designates them
as—
Type I: Fine grained for luting (Film thickness
ZINC PHOSPHATE CEMENT - 25 µm or less).
A group of widely used cements is based on Type II: Medium grain for luting and filling
the vigorous reaction, which occurs between (Film thickness not more than 40 µm).
Dispension Manufacture
It is available as:
Powder
• Powder and liquid system.
• Capsules of preproportioned powder and The powder is manufactured by a process called
liquid. sintering. The ingredients of the powder are
A variety of shades are available like yellow, mixed and heated at temperatures between
gray, golden brown, pink and white. 1000°C and 1400°C for 4–8 hours. The cake
formed is then grounded into a fine powder.
Composition
Liquid
Powder
The liquid is produced by adding aluminum
Ingredient Wt% Functions
and sometimes zinc or their compounds into
Zinc oxide 90.2% Main reactive orthophosphoric acid solution.
ingredient. It provides
Zn ions for the reaction
Setting Reaction
Magnesium 8.2% It is added to the
oxide ZnO to reduce the When the powder is mixed with the liquid,
temperature of the the phosphoric acid attacks the surface of the
calcination process particles, dissolving the ZnO forming acid zinc
Other oxides 0.2% Improves smoothness phosphate.
(Bismuth of mix. In large The aluminum of the liquid is essential for
trioxide, Calcium amounts it may also cement formation. The aluminum complexes
oxide, and lengthen the setting with the phosphoric acid to form zinc
Barium oxide) time aluminophosphate gel (without aluminum,
a noncohesive, crystalline structure matrix of
Silica 1.4% It is an inactive
hopeite, i.e. Zn3(PO4)2. 4H2O would be formed).
filler and during
The reaction is exothermic.
manufacture aids in the
calcination process
Liquid Structure of Set Cement
Ingredient Wt% Functions The set cement is a cored structure consisting
Aqueous 38.2% Main reactive ingredient. primarily of unreacted zinc oxide particles
solution of It reacts with ZnO to embedded in a cohesive amorphous matrix of
phosphoric acid form zinc phosphate salt zinc aluminophosphate (Fig. 6.12).
Water 36% Controls the rate of
setting reaction Properties
Aluminum 16.2% Acts as a buffer. Partial
phosphate or neutralization of the Biological Properties
zinc phosphate phosphoric acid by
Zinc phosphate cement causes prolonged
aluminum
pulpal irritation, especially in deep cavities that
Aluminum 2.5% Provides additional necessitate some form of pulpal protection,
aluminum ions which may be associated with the extended
Improves cohesiveness duration of low pH of the set material. This is
Zinc 7.1% Provides additional zinc minimized by high P/L ratio, rapid setting, lining
ions for the reaction the cavity with Ca(OH)2 and cavity varnishes.
Fig. 6.12 Zinc phosphate cement
Table 6.10 pH of zinc phosphate cement at The working time of a luting consistency
different time intervals at room temperature for most of the brands
Time in 3 1 24 48 7 is around 3–6 minutes.
minutes/ minutes hour hours hours days • Setting time: It is the time elapsed between
hours the end of the mixing and the time of setting
pH 3.5 5.9 6.6 6.8 6.9 as measured by a resistance to a standard
indenter.
• Test: Setting time can be measured with
a 4.5 N (1 pound) Gillmore needle at a
Chemical Properties temperature of 37°C and relative humidity
of 100%. It is defined as the time elapsed
The freshly mixed zinc phosphate is highly acidic
from the start of mixing until the point of
with a pH between 1 and 2 after mixing. After
the needle no longer penetrates the cement
24 hours the pH is usually 6–7. The pH of zinc
as the needle is lowered onto the surface.
phosphate cement at different time intervals was
Practically, it is the time at which the zinc
given in Table 6.10.
phosphate cement flash (excess cement)
Pain on cementing is not only due to free
should be removed from the margins of the
acidity of the mix but also to osmotic pressure
restoration.
movement of fluid through the dentinal tubules.
A reasonable setting time for zinc
The damage to the pulp from acid attack
phosphate cement is between 5–9 minutes.
by zinc phosphate cement probably occurs
during the first few hours after insertion. So, the
Control of Setting Time
underlying dentin should be protected against
the infiltration of acid via the dentinal tubules, • Factors under control of manufacturer
otherwise pulpal injury may occur. a. Sintering temperature: The higher the
temperature, more slowly the cement
Rheological Properties sets.
b. Particle size: Finer particles react more
• Mixing time: 60–90 seconds. quickly as a greater surface area is
• Working time: It is the time measured exposed to the liquid.
from the start of the mixing during which c. Water content of liquid: Presence of
the viscosity (consistency) of the mix is low excess water accelerates the reaction,
enough to flow readily under pressure to whereas insufficient water retards the
form a thin film. reaction.
d. Buffering agents: The added buffering

agents slow down the reaction.
• Factors under control of operator
a. Mixing temperature: The most effective
method of controlling the working
and setting times is to regulate the
temperature of the mixing slab. Cooling
the glass slab markedly retards the
chemical reaction between the powder
and liquid so that matrix formation is
retarded. This permits incorporation of Fig. 6.13 Luting consistency and base consistencies
the optimum amount of powder into of zinc phosphate cement
the liquid without the mix developing an
unduly high viscosity. High temperature
accelerates the reaction.
• Tensile strength: This cement is weaker in
b. Powder/Liquid ratio: More liquid
tension, thus making it brittle.
employed, slower the reaction.
Tensile strength: 5.5 Mpa.
c. Rate of addition of powder to liquid:
• Modulus of elasticity: It is comparatively
The reaction is slower if the powder is
high. This makes it stiff and resistant to
incorporated into the liquid slowly.
elastic deformation even when it is employed
d. Mixing time: The longer the mixing time,
as a luting agent for restorations that are
the slower is the rate of setting reaction.
subjected to high masticatory stress.
MOE: 13.5 GPa (1.96 × 106 Psi)
Film Thickness • Adhesion: These cements do not form a
According to ADA Specification number 8, for chemical bond with enamel or dentin.
Type I: Fine grained for luting (Film thickness However, there is undoubtedly a mechanical
- 25 µm or less). interlocking, which provides a certain
Type II: Medium grain for luting and filling amount of retention of restoration. Whenever
(Film thickness not more than 40 µm). a cast is seated in the prepared cavity, the
surfaces of both the casting and the tooth
Consistency structure have slightly roughness and
irregularities into which the plastic cement
• Luting consistency: Forms a string of 1 inch is forced. After the cement hardens such
height and springs back into the mix, when extensions, many of which are undercut,
lifted with a spatula (Fig. 6.13). assist in providing retention for the inlay.
• Base consistency: When lifted, the string For this reason highly polished surfaces do
breaks up to form a hook-like structure (Fig. not exhibit as great retention when they are
6.13). united with dental cement as do slightly
roughened surfaces.
Mechanical Properties
• Compressive strength: Zinc phosphate Thermal Properties
cements are stronger than zinc oxide eugenol These cements are good insulators and may be
cements but not as strong as silicophosphate effective in reducing galvanic effects.
cements. Seventy-five percent of maximum
strength is obtained in the first one hour.
Optical Properties
Maximum strength is attained in the first day.
Compressive strength: 103.5 Mpa. The set cement is opaque.
Manipulation • Susceptible for acid attacks (solubility in oral

fluids).
Selection of Materials • Lack of antibacterial action.
Cool and dry glass slab, cement spatula, required
amount of powder and liquid. MODIFICATIONS OF ZINC
PHOSPHATE CEMENT
Proportioning
Modifications
1.4 g of powder to 0.5 ml of liquid.
1. Cu and Ag cements
2. Fluoride cements
Mixing 3. Water settable zinc phosphate cements.
On a cool dry glass slab, the required amount
of powder is taken first and liquid should be Copper and Silver Cements
dispensed just before mixing. Spatulation is
Silver salts or Cu oxides are sometimes added
carried out in a circular motion followed by
to the powder of the zinc phosphate cement
folding technique with stainless steel spatula. A
supposedly to increase their antibacterial
large area is covered during mixing in order to
properties.
dissipate the exothermic heat. It is advised to add
Black Cu cements contain – CuO (cupric
little amount of powder to the liquid initially in
oxide).
order to delay the rate of setting reaction.
Red Cu cements contain – Cu2O (cuprous
oxide).
Cementation or Restoration Others may contain cuprous iodide or
As soon as the mix is reached to the required silicate.
consistency it should be used for suitable Since a much lower P/L ratio is necessary to
purpose such as either for cementation of base obtain satisfactory manipulative characteristics
application or as a temporary restoration. with these cements, the mix is highly acidic,
resulting in much greater pulpal irritation.
Their solubility is higher and their strength is
Uses
lower than the zinc phosphate cements. Their
• Luting of indirect restoration. bacteriostatic or anticariogenic properties seem
• Luting of orthodontic bands and brackets. to be slight. Ag cements generally contain a few
• Temporary restorations. percent of a salt such as Ag phosphate.
• Cavity liners or high strength bases to Their advantages over zinc phosphate cement
protect the pulp from mechanical, thermal have not been substantiated. The disadvantage
or electrical stimuli. of the Ag phosphate is discoloration with respect
to light.
Advantages
Fluoride Cements
• Easy to mix.
• Sharp and well-defined set. These modified cements contain 1–3% of
• Good compressive strength. So it can be used stannous fluoride in addition to the regular
as a strong base under amalgam restorations. components of zinc phosphate cement.
The use of adding fluoride content is for
Disadvantages anticariogenic property. Particularly, used for
orthodontic cementation.
• Potential for pulp irritation. These cements have a higher solubility, 0.7%
• Very brittle. due to the fluoride leaching, lower strength than
• Do not adhere chemically to the tooth. the zinc phosphate cements. Fluoride uptake by
enamel from such cements results in reduced inferior to those of conventional zinc phosphate
enamel solubility. cement. Neither do they appear to afford
biological advantage. Since they contain acid
Water-Settable Zinc Phosphate Cement phosphate salts, both the pH level and the
or Hydrous Phosphate Cement pattern of pH change is same as with the
conventional type of zinc phosphate cement.
Zinc phosphate cement has been developed that These cements are mainly used for luting and
uses water as the liquid rather than a buffered base purposes.
phosphoric acid solution. The composition
varies from one brand to another. SILICATE CEMENTS
General Composition Silicates were the earliest of the direct tooth
colored filling materials. They have been
a. ZnO available since the beginning of the 20th century
b. Monozine or mono Mn phosphate (1903). The durability of a silicate restoration
c. 3° zinc phosphates depends critically on the care taken in handling
d. Some contain monocalcium phosphate. the material and on the oral hygiene of the
Cements may result in improved properties. patient. Thus, silicate restorations may have a
Physical properties of the currently available life time of only a few months or less or on the
water-settable cements are generally somewhat other hand, may last 20 years or more.
Composition of Silicate Cements

Powder
Silica (SiO2) (acid soluble glass)40% 1. It reacts with alumina to form alumino silicate network of
the fused glass.
2. Acts as filler.
3. It provides more translucency to the set product.
Alumina (Al2O3) 30% 1. It reacts with silica to form aluminosilicate network.
2. When attacked by H+ ions of the liquid it releases Al3+ ions
into the medium to form the hydrated Al phosphate of the
set matrix.
3. Acts as filler.
4. More amount of alumina will lengthen the setting time.
Sodium fluoride or calcium fluoride 4% 1. Acts as flux.
2. Gives the opacity to the glass.
3. Fluorides act as anticariogenic agents.
4. Can also alter the physical properties.
Hydrated Ca biphosphate 7%
[CaH2 (PO4)2. H2O or Na
Phosphate or CaO (Lime)]
Al Phosphate
Liquid
Phosphoric acid 42% Main reactive ingredient, which releases H+ ions on dissociation
that attacks the fused glass powder, which in turn, releases its
cations to form their respective phosphates.
Al phosphate 10% Acts as a buffering agent, which neutralizes the phosphoric acid
partially.
Zn and Mg phosphate 8% Also acts as a buffering agent.
Water 40% It serves as a reaction medium initially. It facilitates the release
of protons from the phosphoric acid.
The silicates may be considered as precursors a. Formation of protons
of more modern products such as composite
resin and glass ionomer cements.
ADA specification number: 9. b. Protons enter the outer layers of glass
Australian standard specification number: particles, displacing cations.
T8.
British standard specification number: 3365.
FDI standard specification number: 1961.
Dispension
Silicate cement is available as powder and liquid. c. Cations react with phosphate ions to
The powder is finely ground ceramic that is form a matrix of metallic phosphates.
essentially an acid-soluble glass.
Composition
(see Table on previous page).
Hydrated protons (H3O+) from the liquid
disrupt the aluminosilicate network by attacking
Manufacture the Al sites. Other cations (Na3+ and Ca2+) are
The powder ingredients are fused at approxi displaced by hydrated protons; as a result there
mately 1400°C to form an acid-soluble glass and is degradation of the glass network to form a
cooled quickly. This causes the glass to crack “hydrated siliceous gel”.
which helps in grinding of the material to a fine The powder is “amphoteric”, i.e. it can react
powder. This process is known as fritting. chemically as an acid in the presence of strong
bases, and as a base towards strong acids.
Setting Reaction
Structure of the Set Cement
The reaction, which occurs when powder and
liquid are mixed together is fairly complex. In A core of unreacted glass particles is present.
simplified terms it may be regarded as a series Hydrated aluminosilicate gel, which covers
of acid base reactions in which metal ions in the the surface of the glass particles, is present.
glass react with phosphoric acid to form a series An amorphous matrix of hydrated aluminum
of phosphate salts. phosphate gel, which contains some crystals of
Al2(OH)3 PO4 is seen.
Properties
Biological Properties
Related to pulpal response, it is classified as a
The H+ ions of the H3PO4 attack the glass severe irritant and often serves as the reference
displacing Al3+, Na3+, Ca2+ ions. The silicon is not material to judge the potential of other materials
removed, nor do the phosphates transfer to the to elicit a relatively severe reaction. Thus, a
glass. The displaced ions collect in the semiliquid silicate cement restoration requires a greater
phase together with phosphate and other metal need for pulp protection than other cements.
ions contained in the cement liquid. • Acidity: The pH value of freshly mixed
The mechanism of the reaction is depicted cement is around 2.8. The pulp must be
as follows: protected from the possible harmful effects
of such an acidic material by using a cavity Rheological Properties

base, normally calcium hydroxide product.
The pH of the cement rises to a value of about • Setting time: Setting time is the time elapsed
5 after 24 hours and it remains below 7 after between end of the mixing and the time
one month. of setting as measured by resistance to a
• Anticariogenic property: Most commercial standard indenter.
silicate cement powders contain fluoride The setting time is about 3–8 minutes.
salts up to 15%. The clinical significance • Factors affecting setting time
of the fluoride is extremely important. a. Manufacture: Controls the composition
Thus, although silicate cement has many and particle size of material. Finer the
weaknesses, its anticariogenic potential has particles the more rapid is setting.
been impressive. b. Slower setting time is by:
The release of fluoride is small, but — Longer mixing time.
significant amounts for an indefinite period — Lower temperature.
from the silicate cements contribute to — Loss of water from liquid.
caries inhibition in the oral environment by — Lower powder/liquid ratio.
means of both physicochemical and biologic • Drying out: After setting, the surface of the
mechanisms. material must not be allowed to dry out
since it desiccates, becomes opaque and
Physicochemical concept of caries inhibition: cracks. This may be a problem in anterior
Fluoride ions released from the restorative restorations of mouth breathing patients
material during setting reaction and become for whom the silicate materials cannot be
incorporated in hydroxyapatite crystals of recommended.
adjacent tooth, to form an acid resistant struc Silicate restorations should be coated
ture called “fluorapatite“; which is slightly more with varnish before carrying out such
resistant to acid mediated decalcification this procedures.
prevents caries.
F + Hydroxyapatite of Ca3(PO4)2 → Mechanical Properties
Fluorapatite
• Compressive strength: Silicate is the strongest
Biological mechanism: The fluoride ions released
of all the dental cements. The powder/liquid
from the silicate restoration can enter bacterial
ratio and the water content of the liquid
cells present in the plaque and inhibit the
affect the strength. The compressive strength
carbohydrate metabolism thus preventing the
of silicate cements is about 180 Mpa or 27000
production of acids. This prevents the caries
PSI.
formation.
• Tensile strength: Silicate cements are weak
under tension. The tensile strength of these
Chemical Properties cements is 3.5 Mpa or 500 PSI.
• Solubility and Disintegration: The silicate • Hardness: The hardness of silicate cements
restorations have high solubility and is similar to that of the dentin (70 KHN).
disintegrate in oral fluids. Some of the • Adhesion: There is no adhesive bond between
constituents of matrix dissolve. Particles of silicate and enamel. Adhesion is mechanical
unreacted silicate powder are washed away. adhesion.
Solubility of silicate cement is affected by— • Erosion: A major drawback of silicates is their
— Lower the powder/liquid ratio, higher the potential to undergo erosion. They erode very
solubility. slowly at neutral pH but are less stable if the
— Water content of liquid. pH drops much below a value of 5. Plaque
pH values are commonly around 4 and under Selection of Materials
these conditions silicates may erode quite
rapidly. Restorations produced with a high Dry cool glass slab and agate or plastic or
cobalt-chromium spatula, a cellulose acetate
P/L ratio are less susceptible to erosion than
strip, varnish.
those with a low P/L ratio. This indicates that
the matrix phase of the set material is most
vulnerable to erosion. Proportioning
Another mechanism of erosion involves Powder/liquid ratio is about 16 g/4 ml.
the formation of soluble complexes of cement
cations with certain anions, particularly Mixing (Folding and Tapping Technique)
citrates. Silicate fillings erode quite rapidly
in patients who consume large quantities of The powder is dispensed on a thick, cool, dry
fruit juices. glass slab and divided into two or three large
increments. The increments are then rapidly
folded into the liquid over a small area with
Thermal Properties an agate spatula, in order to preserve the gel
Thermal properties of silicate cements match structure. A thick mix produces crumbly mass.
those of tooth substance more closely than those Too much of liquid increases the setting time,
of most other materials. reduces pH and strength, increases solubility
Thus silicate cements are good thermal and makes it more prone to staining.
insulators, expand and contract at about the
same rate as tooth substance. Thermal properties Cementation/Restoration
of silicate cements and natural tooth are
compared in Table 6.11. • Luting consistency is placed in the indirect
restoration and fixed on the prepared tooth.
• Restorative consistency is directly placed in
Esthetic Properties the prepared tooth cavity.
The initial esthetics are excellent. The refractive A cellulose strip is held against the setting
index is similar to that of enamel and dentin. The material in the cavity. The strip is removed after
surface is difficult to polish satisfactorily. the material sets.
The restoration is painted by water insoluble
varnish to protect it from contact with oral fluids.
Manipulation
Dry field is required during manipulation. The Precautions
liquid is dispensed just prior to the mixing in • Liquid bottle should be kept closed when not
order to preserve the acid water balance. in use.
• Cloudy liquid should be discarded.
• Last portion of the liquid should be discarded
Table 6.11 Comparison of thermal properties of because it will be contaminated due to
silicate cement with tooth repeated use.
• Steel spatula should not be used for mixing.
Material COTE Thermal diffusivity
Silicate 10 × 10–6 /°C 3.4 × 10–3 cms–1 Uses
materials
Enamel 11.4 × 10–6 /°C 4.7 × 10–3 cms–1
• Anterior esthetic material.
• Sometimes as intermediate restorative
Dentin 8.0 × 10–6 /°C 2.0 ×10–3 cms–1 material in high carious risk patients.
Advantages Composition
• Translucent material so good esthetics. Powder
• Adequate strength.
• Anticariogenic property because of fluoride
release. Zinc oxide It is the main reac
• Good thermal insulator. tive ingredient.
Silicate glass 10–20% Provides Al+3 ions
Disadvantages SiO2 into the reactive
Al2O3 medium. Which
• Highly acidic – so severe irritant to the pulp. Ca3(PO4)2, Na3 PO4 later forms “Zn
• Highly soluble. aluminophosphate
• Contraindicated in mouth breathers. gel” as the set
• Cannot be used in patients consuming highly product.
acidic food because erosion may take place.
Fluorides like CaF2 12–25% Acts as flux.
• Low tensile strength and highly brittle in
or NaF This also
nature.
decreases fusion
• Low impact strength.
temperature.
• Highly susceptible to moisture contamination.
• No proper adhesion to the tooth structure. Al PO4 Also acts as a flux.
Provides additional
Al+3 ions to the
ZINC SILICOPHOSPHATE CEMENT glass powder.
Zinc silicophosphate cement is resulted from Ag or Hg Trace Acts as germicidal
the combination of zinc phosphate cement compounds agent.
and silicate powders. It is sometimes called
MgO It is added to
as zinc silicate, silicate zinc cement or simply
ZnO to reduce
silicophosphate cement. These cements are also
the sintering
called as synthetic porcelain.
temperature of
The presence of the silicate glass provides a
calcination process
degree of translucency, improved strength and
of ZnO.
fluoride release. Esthetically, it is superior to the
opaque zinc phosphate cement for cementation Liquid
of ceramic restorations. H3PO4 42% Main reactive
• ADA specification number: 21 ingredient,
releases H+ ions
into the reaction
Classification
medium, which
Type I – Cementation of fixed restorations and attacks the cations
Orthodontic bands. to form respective
Type II – Temporary posterior filling material. phosphates.
Type III – Used as a dual purpose cement (as Al PO4, 18% Buffering agent.
both a cementing medium and a temporary Zinc phosphate
posterior filling material).
Water 40% Serves as reaction
medium. Plays an
Dispension important role in
strength properties
These cements are available in the form of
of the set cement.
powder and liquid.
Setting Reaction Uses

The setting reaction has not been fully • Luting agent for porcelain restorations.
investigated but may be represented as follows: • Intermediate restorations.
ZnO/aluminosilicate glass + H3PO4 → Zinc • Luting agent for orthodontic appliances.
aluminosilicate phosphate gel. • As a die material.
The set cement consists of unreacted core • Temporary posterior restorations.
of ZnO glass particles bonded together by the • Restoration in deciduous teeth.
“aluminosilicophosphate gel matrix gel”.
Advantages
Properties
• Better strength, toughness, and abrasion
Biological Properties resistance than zinc phosphate cement.
a. Toxicity: Nontoxic to the oral tissues. • Good anticariogenic property.
b. Acidity: High initial acidity and prolonged • Lower solubility and better bonding
low pH (4–5) after setting. properties.
c. Anticariogenic action: Exhibits anticariogenic • These are translucent unlike zinc phosphate.
property due to leaching of fluoride ions and
other ions from set cement. Disadvantages
d. Germicidal effect: Presence of silver and
• High initial pH and total acidity greater than
mercury compounds provides a germicidal
zinc phosphate cement.
action.
• Pulpal sensitivity may be of longer duration
e. Solubility and disintegration: 0.9% by weight.
than zinc phosphate cements.
• Manipulation is more critical than with the
Rheological Properties zinc phosphate cement.
a. Working time: 4 minutes for type I. • Stainless steel spatula should not be used for
b. Setting time: Type I: 5–9 minutes. mixing.
Type II: 3–8 minutes.
c. Consistency: Type I: 25 ± 1 mm.
Type II: 25 ± 1 mm.
ZINC POLYCARBOXYLATE CEMENTS
d. Film thickness: 25 µm. Smith discovered zinc polycarboxylate cements.
It was the first cement system developed with a
Mechanical Properties potential for adhesion to tooth structure. It is
primarily used for cementation of restoration
a. Compressive strength and thermal insulating base. It is also used as
Type I: > 140 Mpa. an intermediate restoration and luting agent for
Type II: 170 Mpa. orthodontic purposes. These cements are also
b. Tensile strength: 7 Mpa. called as “Polyacrylate cements”.
c. Diametral tensile strength: 7.6 Mpa. • ADA specification number: 61
d. Surface hardness: Type I: 70 KHN.
Manipulation Dispension
The powder and liquid are dispensed on a cool These cements are available as powder and
glass slab. The powder is incorporated into liquid liquid (Fig. 6.14).
in 2–3 large increments. Mix it in a circular • Powder, which is mixed with water (water
motion (mixing time—1 minute) to obtain settable cements).
required consistency. • Precapsulated powder, liquid system.
Fig. 6.15A Cross-linking of polyacid

chains with Zn+2 ions
Fig. 6.14 Zinc polycarboxylate cement
Composition
Manufacturing of Powder
Powder
The ingredients of the powder are sintered at
temperature between 1000°C and 1400°C into a
Zinc oxide 90% Main reactive ingredient. cake. The ingredients melt due to the presence of
Magnesium 1–5% • Acts as modifier and the fluoride, which acts as a fusing agent to form
oxide aids in sintering. an ion leachable glass mass. The fused mass is
• Reduces the reactivity then pulverized to form a powder and sieved to
of ZnO. obtain the desired particle size.
Stannous oxide Decreases the reactivity
(part of MgO is of ZnO and adjusts the Setting Reaction
replaced) working time.
Stannous • Helps in sintering by The setting reaction of zinc polycarboxylate
fluoride acting as a flux. cement involves powder particles dissolution
• Increases the strength. by the polyacrylic acid of liquid that releases
• Anticariogenic effect. Zn, Mg, Sn ions. These ions bind to the polymer
Alumina, Silica, 2–4% Reinforcing fillers chain via the carboxyl groups. These ions react
Bismuth, Stainless with carboxyl group of adjacent polyacid chains.
steel fibers So that a cross-linked salt is formed as cement
sets as shown the Figure 6.15A.
Liquid
Polyacrylic acid • M ain reactive
ingredient.
Structure of Set Cement
• Helps in bonding the The set cement composes of an amorphous
material to tooth. zinc polycarboxylate ionic gel matrix in which
Water Provides the reaction unreacted zinc oxide particles are dispersed.
medium.
Tartaric acid Decreases the setting Properties
time and increases the
working time. Biological Properties
Copolymers like Decreases the viscosity. Biocompatibility A major factor in the po
itaconic acid, pularity of this cement system is its excellent
maleic acid, and biocompatibility to the pulp. The chief reasons
acrylic acid for this property are:
1. The rapid rise of the cement pH towards 3. Tartaric acid: Increases the working time and
neutrality. decreases the setting time.
2. Localization of the polyacrylic acid and 4. Setting time increases by using cool glass
limitation of diffusion by its molecular size slab.
and ion bonding to dentinal fluids and 5. Presence of additives: Additives such as
proteins. stannous fluoride act as fusing agents.
3. The minimal movement of fluid in the Increasing the concentration of fluorides will
dentinal tubules in response to the cement. prolong the working and setting time.
4. Contains fluoride releasing agents and 6. Molecular weight and concentration of
releases fluoride ions, which are taken up by polyacrylic acid: Increase the molecular
neighboring enamel and which presumably weight and concentration of polyacrylic acid
will exert anticariogenic effect. longer the setting time because polyacrylic
acid is a weak acid and hence undergoes
Toxicity This cement is nonirritant and nontoxic
feeble dissociation, further the molecular
to the dental tissues. The effect of these cements
weight inhibits the mobility of its ions and
on the pulp is less than that of ZOE cement.
reacts with the constituents of the powder,
Polyacrylate cements induce the formation of
thereby lengthening the setting time.
reparative dentin in exposed pulp. It has good
7. P/L ratio: Increases the P/L ratio decreases
compatibility with the pulp.
the setting time and vice-versa.
Acidity The pH of the liquid cement is 8. Reactivity of ZnO: Greater the reactivity of
approximately 1.7 when the cement is first ZnO, faster is the rate of setting reaction and
mixed. However, the liquid is rapidly neutralized shorter is the setting time.
by the powder. Thus, the pH of the mix rises
rapidly as the setting proceeds. Mechanical Properties
Compressive strength: Compressive strength of
Rheological Properties luting cement is 55 to 85 MPa and for the base
Viscosity Initial viscosity is higher than zinc cement it is around 70–90 MPa. The cement
phosphate cement and a delay of 2 minutes in gains strength rapidly after the initial setting
cementation increases the viscosity considerably. period, the strength at 1 hour is about 80% of
the 24 hours value.
Film thickness Film thickness (25–48 µm) of this
cement is higher than that of zinc phosphate Tensile strength: It is 40% higher than strength
cement. It acts as pseudoplastic material and of zinc phosphate cement. The tensile strength
undergoes thinning at an increased shear rate. is 8–12 MPa for luting and for base is around
9-14 MPa.
Working and setting time Working time is
shorter than zinc phosphate cement, lowering Modulus of elasticity: It is about 1/3rd of that
the temperature of the reaction can increase of zinc phosphate cement, mixed to a luting
the working time. consistency. The MOE is 5–6 GPa for luting and
Mixing time – 30-45 seconds. for base is 4–5 GPa.
Working time – 1-1½ minutes.
Adhesion and bond strength: Bond strength is
Setting time – 7 to 9 minutes.
highest of the cements as it chemically bonds to
Factors affecting setting time the enamel and dentin of the tooth. Polyacrylic
1. Sintering temperature: Increase in the acid reacts with Ca+2 ions via carboxyl groups
temperature decreases the rate of setting on the surface of enamel or dentin as shown
reaction. in the Figure 6.15B. The bonding mechanism
2. Particle size: Finer particles react quickly. with dentin collagen can be explained by two
Proportioning
Luting consistency: 1.5 g/1 ml.
Base consistency: 2–3 g/1 ml.
Mixing
Glass slab or plastic coated paper pad is
Fig. 6.15B Polyacid ions reacting with Ca+2 recommended for mixing in order to avoid
ions of tooth absorption of liquid.
Liquid is dispensed just before mixing onto
methods, such as hydrogen bonding and ion the slab. Half of the powder is incorporated
diffusion. Hydrogen bond is formed between the into the liquid and mixed for the prescribed
carboxylic group (COO–) of poly acrylic acid and time; next increment of the powder is incorpo
NH2 groups of dentin collagen. In case of latter rated into the liquid and mixed until a creamy
method, Mg+2 ions are diffused and form cation consistency is reached. The mix should have a
bridges between the carboxylic groups (COO–) of shiny glossy appearance.
polyacrylic acid and collagen. The bond strength Mixed cement is thixotropic; viscosity
to enamel is greater than dentin. It is about decreases as the shear rate increases. The correct
3.45–13.1 MNm-2 to enamel and 2.07 MNm-2 to consistency of the cement is indicated by a
that of dentin. viscous mix that will flow back under its own
Dimensional stability This cement shows a weight, when lifted with spatula.
linear contraction when setting takes place at Mixing time: 45 seconds.
37°C. The amount of contraction varies from Setting time: 7–9 minutes.
1% for wet specimen in one day to 6% for a dry
specimen in 14 days. Cementation
Surface hardness Surface hardness for these The mix is applied to the seating surfaces of
cements is 60 KHN. indirect restoration as well as on the prepared
tooth structure. The cost restoration is then
Optical Properties placed on the prepared tooth and is firmly held
under pressure until the cement sets.
They are very opaque due to large quantities of
unreacted zinc oxide.
Precautions
Thermal Properties • A meticulously clean surface is necessary in
order to provide intimate contact between
They are good thermal insulators. the cement and the tooth.
• The cavity should be isolated after cleansing
Manipulation to prevent further contamination from the
oral fluids.
Surface Preparation • Polyacrylic acid liquid should not be stored
Clean surfaces are essential for promoting in refrigerator, because the viscosity of the
adhesion. Commonly used method is etching liquid increases with decrease in temperature
with polyacrylic acid for 10–20 seconds, followed (the intramolecular bonding will form to
by washed with water for 20 seconds. make it gel).
• Liquid should not be dispensed until just
before the mixing is to be started.
Selection of Materials • Cementation should be done before the
Cool and thick glass slab or nonabsorbing paper cement loses its glossy appearance or before
pad, stainless steel spatula. cob-webbing occurs.
• Instruments should be cleaned before working time can be substantially increased by
cement sets on them. mixing the material on a cool glass slab and by
refrigerating the powder. The liquid should not
Advantages be chilled as this encourages gelation due to
hydrogen bonding.
1. Excellent biocompatibility to the pulp.
2. Anticariogenic property.
3. Adhesion to the tooth substance and some GLASS IONOMER CEMENTS
alloys. Wilson and Kent developed Glass Ionomer
4. Freshly mixed cement exhibits pseudoplastic Cements in 1969. Glass ionomer is the generic
property. name of a group of materials that use silicate
5. Adequate tensile strength, film thickness and glass powder and an aqueous solution of
solubility. polyacrylic acid. This material acquires its name
6. Easy to manipulate. from its formulation of glass powder and an
ionomeric acid. That contains COOH groups.
Disadvantages Glass ionomer cements are also referred
to as poly- alkanoate cements or ASPA
1. Accurate proportioning is required for
(Aluminosilicate polyacrylic acid) cement.
optimum properties.
Glass ionomer cements were developed in an
2. Need for clean surfaces to utilize adhesion
attempt to capitalize on the favorable properties
property.
of both silicate and polycarboxylate cements.
3. Shorter mixing and working time.
These cements contain an ion leachable
4. Lower compressive strength than zinc
glass, which is mainly composed of fluoro
phosphate cement.
aluminosilicate glass and a polye lectrolyte
5. Anticariogenic property is not as good as
(polyacrylic acid) as liquid. The ion leachable
silicate cement.
glass can react with water-soluble polymer
6. Poor bonding to the metallic restoration
acid to yield cement. A polyelectrolyte is an
unless a rough surface is created at the
electrolyte where either the cation or the anion
metal-cement interface.
is a polymer bearing a multiplicity of electrical
7. Removal of excess material is difficult after
charges. Polyacrylic acid is an example for
set.
anionic polyelectrolyte.
Originally, the cement was designated for
Uses the esthetic restoration of anterior teeth and
• Used for luting of indirect restorations. it was recommended for use in restoring teeth
• For cementation of orthodontic bands. with class III and V cavity preparations. Also,
• As bases and liners. because the cement produces a truly adhesive
• Rarely for temporary restorations. bond to tooth structure, it is particularly useful
for the conservative restoration of eroded areas.
Water Settable Cement The need for mechanical retention via a cavity
preparation is eliminated or reduced. Thus, it
The powder composition is same as the has one advantage over composite resins when
conventional zinc polycarboxylate cement with used for this purpose.
slight changes. Polyacrylic acid is freezed, dried
and added to powder. The cement powder, i.e. Development
mixed with water contains 15–18% polyacrylic
acid coated on the oxide particles. 1969 First developed by AD Wilson and BE
The water-mix materials tend to give slightly Kent.
longer setting times as with other cements, 1973 First material marketed (ASPA IV)
1975 First luting material. Fuji VII Caries stabilization and protection
1978 Cermet ionomer cements Fuji VIII Atraumatic restorative treatment
1982 Water activated cements Fuji IX Geriatric patients
1986 Resin modified cements
1988-89 First commercial product from 3M Modes of Supply/Dispension
(Vitrebond)
1990-93 Resin-ionomer hybrid, liners and • Powder and liquid form (Figs 6.16A and B).
restoratives were introduced • Preproportioned powder/liquid in capsules
1994 Resin-glass ionomer hybrids officially (Fig. 6.16C).
named – Resin modified glass ionomer • Light cure system.
cements at the International Sym • Powder and distilled water or water-settable
posium on Glass Ionomer cements. cement.
1995 Present: Introduction of compomers
and packable glass ionomers. Manufacture of Powder
The components of powder are fused together
Commercial Names at a temperature of 1100°C–1500°C. The fused
glass is then grounded to particle size of 20–50 µ.
Aquacem Type I
Fuji I Type I
Chem Film Type II Setting Reaction
Logo Film Type II The setting reaction is an acid-base reaction
Ketac Bond Type III between the acidic polyelectrolyte and the
Vitra Bond Light cure glass ionomer aluminosilicate glass.
• ADA specification number: 66 When the powder and liquid are mixed
together, the acid liquid attacks the surface of the
Classifications glass particles. Thus calcium, aluminum, sodium
and fluoride ions are leached into the aqueous
Type I Luting medium, probably in the form of complexes as
Type II Restorative shown in Figure 6.17.
Type III Liners and bases The salts hydrate to form a gel matrix and the
Fuji IV Pit and fissure sealants unreacted glass particles are sheathed by silica
Fuji V Orthodontic purpose gel, which arises from removal of cations from
Fuji VI Core build up the surface of the particles .
Figs 6.16A to C Glass ionomer cement (A) Type I; (B) Type II; (C) Glass ionomer cement capsule
Composition
Powder
SiO2 29% Reacts with Al2O3 to form the aluminosilicate network of the Ca
aluminofluorosilicate glass powder.
Al2O3 16.6% • Acts as filler.
• Regulates the setting reaction of the cement.
CaF2 34.3% • Acts as a flux.
• Reduces fusion temperature of the glass powder.
• Produces opacity to the mix.
Na3AlF6 5.0% • Acts as flux.
• F– acts as anticariogenic agent.
• Provides opacity to the mix.
AlF3 5.3% Acts as flux.
AlPO4 9.8% Also acts as flux and also furnishes additional Al ions to the set matrix.
Liquid
Polyacrylic acid in the 50% Increases the reactivity of liquid. Decreases viscosity and gelation tendency.
form of copolymers
Tartaric acid 5% Improves the handling characteristics.
Water 45% Serves as a reaction medium initially and then slowly hydrates the cross-
linked matrix.
Fig. 6.17 Setting mechanism of glass ionomer cement

Structure of Set Cement poly acid. So the working time of the cement
is prolonged. The initial onset of setting is
The structure of set cement comprises unreacted further inhibited by the tartaric acid preventing
glass particles surrounded by silica gel in a unwinding and ionization of the poly acid
matrix of polyanions cross-linked by ionic chains.
bridges.
Water-Settable Cements
Role of Water
The polyacrylic acid copolymer may be freezed,
Water present in the liquid is an important dried and then mixed with glass ionomer
ingredient. powder. In this case, the liquid is water or water
• Acts as a reaction medium during the initial with tartaric acid. These cements are known as
reaction phase. During this phase water can water-settable cements and they set faster than
be readily removed by desiccation and is those with polyacrylic acid.
called as loosely bound water.
• As the reaction continues the same water
hydrates the matrix and cannot be removed
Properties
by desiccation and is then called as tightly Biological Properties
bound water.
• Hydrates the cross-linked matrix, increasing Biocompatibility: Many histological studies
the strength of the cement and results in a indicate that type-II glass ionomers are relatively
stable gel structure. biocompatible. They elicit a greater pulpal
If freshly mixed cements are kept isolated reaction than ZOE but generally less than that
from ambient air, the loosely held water will from zinc phosphate cements. Poly acids are
slowly become tightly bound water over time. relatively weak acids.
This phenomenon results in cement, i.e. stronger However, the P/L ratio influences the
and less susceptible to moisture. degree of acidity and the duration of a low pH
If the same matrix is exposed to ambient environment. Type-I luting cement poses a
air without any covering the surface will craze greater hazard in this regard because of a lower
and crack as a result of desiccation. Any P/L ratio and slower setting reaction than type-II.
contamination by water that occurs at this Effect on pulp: Glass ionomer cement has been
stage can cause dissolution of the matrix forming reported to cause some inflammatory response
cations and anions to the surrounding areas. that resolves within a month.
This process results in weak and more soluble The glass ionomer cements bond chemically
cement. to the tooth structure and they inhibit infiltration
Hence glass ionomer cements must be of oral fluids at the cement-tooth interface.
protected against water changes in the structure
Postoperative sensitivity: Post-cementation
during placement and for a few weeks after
sensitivity frequently associated with water-
placement if possible.
settable cements and various luting cements.
Precautions: Care should be taken to protect the
Role of Tartaric Acid
pulp when cementing restorations with glass
The presence of tartaric acid plays a significant ionomer cement. The biologic considerations
part in controlling the setting characteristics of take a more important role over other matters
the materials. It helps to breakdown the surface such as potential for adhesion that ensures
layers of the glass particles, rapidly liberating strong bond to tooth structure.
aluminum ions with which undergo complex All deep areas of the preparation should be
formation. Hence the aluminum ions are not protected by a thin layer of hard setting calcium
immediately available for reaction with the hydroxide cement.
Table 6.12 pH of poly acid liquid and water settable cements at different time
Type of cement 2 min. 5 min. 10 min 15 min 20 min 30 min 60 min 24 hrs
Polyacid liquid 2.33 3.26 3.78 3.91 3.98 4.18 4.55 5.67
Water-settable 1.76 1.98 3.36 3.88 4.19 4.46 4.84 5.98
Acidity: One of the factors for pulp irritation is Table 6.13 Comparison of mechanical properties
the pH and the length of the time that this acidity of type II glass ionomer cement with small hybrid
persists. The pH values of water settable and composite
traditional powder poly acid cement over time
Property Type II Typical small
were mentioned in the Table 6.12. glass ionomer hybrid composite
Although, the pH values of the two
Compressive Up to 200 MPa 350–500 MPa
formulations are virtually same at 10 minutes,
strength
the pH water-settable cement is considerably
lower than that of poly acid powder mix at 2 and Tensile 15 MPa 34–62 MPa
5 minutes. This low initial pH contributes to the strength
moderate pulpal sensitivity. MOE 20,000 MPa 13,500–18,000 Mpa
COTE 10.2–11.4 × 25–38 ×10–6/°C
10–6/°C
Anticariogenic Property
Thermal 0.198 mm2/ sec. 0.675 mm2/ sec.
Glass ionomer cements possess the same diffusivity
anticariogenic properties as does silicate cement.
Type-II glass ionomers release fluoride in
considerable amounts for an extended period. Mechanical Properties
Anticariogenic property is discussed in detail in Compressive strength: Compressive strength is
silicate cements of this book. less than that of silicate cement. The compressive
strength of glass ionomer cements is 150 MPa.
Chemical Properties Tensile strength: Higher tensile strength when
Solubility and disintegration: Like silicates, compared to silicates. The tensile strength of
the initial solubility is high due to leaching of glass ionomer cements is 6.6 MPa or 960 PSI.
intermediate products or those not involved in
Hardness: Wear resistance of glass ionomer
matrix formation.
cement is also less when compared to com
posites. The hardness of glass ionomer cements
Rheological Properties is 48 KHN.
Working time: Working time is the time elapsed Adhesion: Glass ionomer cement has good
from the start of the mixing during which the adhesion to enamel and dentin. The bond
consistency of the mix is low enough to flow strength is around 225 MN/m2 after 7 days.
readily under pressure to form a thin film. Glass ionomer bonds chemically to tooth
structure. The bonding is due to the reaction
Setting time
between the carboxyl groups of the poly acids
Type I – 4 to 5 minutes.
and the calcium in the apatite of the enamel and
Type II – 7 minutes.
dentin. Comparison of mechanical properties of
Film thickness: Film thickness should not exceed Type II glass ionomer cement with small hybrid
20 µm for luting agents. composites were given in Table 6.13.
Other Mechanical Properties Proportioning

• COTE is similar to dentin Powder/liquid ratio is generally 3:1 by weight.
• Low flexural strength (type I – 12 MPa) However, the manufacturer’s recommendation
• Low shear strength should be followed.
• Dimensional change (slightly expands). Also
undergoes shrinkage on setting, expands Mixing
with water sorption
• Brittle in nature Mixing can be done either of two mixing
• Lacks translucency techniques depends on the kind of material
• Rough surface texture. being used.
a. Hand mixing
• The powder and liquid is dispensed onto
Optical Properties
a paper pad or glass slab, just prior to
Glass ionomers are inferior to silicates and mixing. A cool dry glass slab is used (Fig.
composites in this respect. They lack translucency 6.18A).
and have a rough surface texture. • The powder is divided into two equal
increments (Fig. 6.18A).
Manipulation • Mixing is done with an agate spatula.
Mixing time is 45 sec (Fig. 6.18B).
For a successful restoration of glass ionomer • As soon as the mix reached to the
cement, the rules to be followed are: required consistency as shown in Figure
• Conditioning of the tooth surface. 6.18C, the mix is immediately used for
• Proper manipulation. cementation or packed into the cavity
• Protection of cement during setting. with a plastic instrument.
• Finishing. b. Mechanical mixing: This method is used for
cements supplied in capsule form, which
Preparation of Tooth Surface contains preproportioned powder and liquid
and is mixed in an amalgamator.
The smear layer present after the cavity pre
paration tends to block off the tooth surface. This Advantages
can be eliminated by— • Better properties due to controlled P/L ratio.
a. Pumice wash. • Less mixing time involved.
b. Polyacrylic acid solution. • Convenient delivery system.
Figs 6.18A to C Stages in GIC mixing. (A) Dispension of powder and liquid on paper mixing pad;
(B) Mixing; (C) Consistency for cementation
Disadvantages • Core buildups when at least 3 walls of tooth
• Amount of cement needed is limited by the are remaining (after crown preparation).
manufacturer.
• Number of shades provided is limited. Contraindications
i. High stress applications.
Protection of Cement during Setting
ii. Class IV and II restorations.
A preshaped matrix is applied. iii. Cusp replacement.
• Protect the cement from the environment iv. Core buildups with less than 3 sound walls
during initial set. remaining.
• Provide maximum contour.
Advantages
Finishing
• Biocompatible with tooth substance and
Excess material should be trimmed from the surrounding tissues.
margins. Failure to protect the cement surface • Significant anticariogenic property.
results in a chalky or crazed surface. • Bonds chemically with enamel and dentin.
• Due to lack of protection with matrix. • No marginal leakage.
• Low P/L ratio. • COTE is similar tooth structure.
• Improper manipulation. • Low thermal conductivity.
• Good esthetics.
Precautions
• Ten years of clinical studies (conventional
• Tooth should be clean for effective adhesion.
glass ionomers).
• The surface should be kept free from saliva
or moisture, which interferes with bonding.
• Dispense the liquid just before mixing. Disadvantages
• Spatula used is either agate or plastic.
• Susceptible to acid attack.
• Liquid should not be stored in refrigerator.
• High initial solubility.
• Last portions of the liquid should be
• Susceptible to attack by water during setting.
discarded.
• Brittle and low tensile strength.
• Cannot be used to restore fractured incisal
Uses edges because of its brittleness.
• Poor abrasion resistance.
• Cementation of cast and porcelain restor
• Insufficient translucency and opacity is
ations and orthodontic bands.
higher than resin.
• As cavity liners and base materials.
• Less polishability than resin.
• As a restorative material.
• Should not be used in high stress bearing
areas.
Indication for use of Type II Glass • Poor longevity in xerostomic patients.
Ionomer Cements
• Nonstress bearing areas. MODIFICATIONS
• Class-I and II restorations in primary
dentition. Metal Modified Glass Ionomer or
• Class-III and V restorations in adults. Glass Cermet or Ketac Silver
• Temporary or caries control restorations. Glass ionomer cements have been modified
• Crown margin repairs. by the inclusion of metal filler particles in
• Cement base under amalgam, resin, an attempt to improve the strength, fracture
ceramics, and direct and indirect gold. toughness and resistance to wear.
Two methods of modification have been Applications

employed.
1. The first approach is that of mixing spherical • Core buildup material.
silver amalgam alloy powder with the type • Posterior restorative material.
II glass ionomer powder. This cement is
referred to as a “silver alloy admix”. Advantages
2. The second system involves fusing glass • Have greater value of compressive strength
powder to silver particles through high and fatigue limit than conventional glass
temperature sintering of a mixture of the two ionomer cement.
powders. This cement is commonly referred • The rapid setting, which occurs with these
to as a “Cermet”. materials is probably responsible for their
marked improvement in erosion resistant
Manufacturing of Cermets when compared with most other glass
The cermet powder is manufactured by mixing ionomer cements.
and palletizing under pressure a mixture of metal • Wear resistance increased slightly than
or glass powder. The pellets are fused at around conventional cements.
800°C, and then grounded to fine powder. The
powder particles consist of regions of metal Disadvantages
firmly bonded to the glass. • Flexural strength and resistance to abrasive
wear appear to be no better than values
Biological Properties recorded for conventional glass ionomers.
Biocompatibility: These properties are similar • Poor esthetics.
to that of the conventional glass ionomers. pH
is around 6–7. Resin Modified Glass Ionomer Cement
Anticariogenic property: The admixed cement To overcome the two inherent drawbacks such
release more fluoride ions than type-II glass as moisture sensitivity and low early strength due
ionomer cement. Less fluoride ions are released to slow acid-base reaction, these resin modified
from cermet than type-II glass ionomer cement. glass ionomers were developed. Products are
available as chemical curing and light curing.
Mechanical Properties These materials are known as:
• Light cure glass ionomer cements
• Strength and fracture toughness is same as • Dual cure
conventional cement. • Tricure
• Wear resistance increased slightly than • Resin ionomers
conventional cements. • Hybrid ionomers.
• Chemically bonds to the enamel and dentin.
Composition
Esthetics
Powder
Gray in color. So cannot be used as anterior
restorative material. Powder Liquid
Ion leachable glasses Polyacrylic acid
Fissure Sealing Light or chemical cure Water
The use of glass ionomer in sealant therapy will initiators or both
increase, as formulations are developed that Polymerizable resin Methacrylates monomer
are less viscous and have good wear resistance. HEMA monomers
Properties Properties
Mixing time: 30 seconds. • Increased compressive and flexural strengths.
Working time: 2.5 minutes. • Low solubility.
pH: 3–5 initially. • Improved wear resistance.
There is reduction in translucency due to • Increased surface hardness.
the difference in refractive index between the • More “Packable” than conventional glass
powder and set matrix. ionomers.
Strength: Tensile strength is higher than con • Radiopaque.
ventional glass ionomer cement due to greater
plastic deformation. Compressive strength is Atraumatic Restorative Technique
105 MPa. ART is an acronym for “Atraumatic Restorative
Adhesion to tooth structure: They have less shear Technique.” This procedure was designed
bond strength than conventional glass ionomer to combat rampant caries in second and
cements. third world regions around the globe where
Adhesion to restorative materials: They are used immediate dental care was not available.
primarily as liners and bases. Resin modified Patients with rampant caries were treated by
glass ionomer cements have higher bond nondental personnel or themselves by scooping
strength to composite. out caries, mixing P/L components between their
thumb and forefinger into a ball, and plugging
Marginal adaptation: They exhibit greater the hole to create a temporary restoration. These
shrinkage on setting due to polymerization. materials release some fluoride but succeed
More P:L ratio exhibits greater microleakage. mostly because they are capable of producing
Water sensitivity: Liner versions of these glass a good seal to tooth structure, are sufficiently
ionomer cements are susceptible for dehydration tough to resist fracture, and can be easily
and also absorb water. repaired. They are simply a holding procedure to
buy time (perhaps 12–18 months) until a patient
Clinical Considerations can get to a normal dental clinic and receive
professional care. The remarkable offshoot is that
• Used as liners and bases these materials perform better than expected
• As fissure sealants. and often provide 3–4 years of service. For that
• As core buildup material. reason, pediatric dentists now consider ART
• As luting medium for orthodontic brackets. materials as substitutes for both amalgam and
• Repair for damaged amalgam core and cusps composites. They can be easily placed and do
and retrograde root canal fillings. not require special isolation techniques.
Packable or High Viscosity Low Viscosity Glass Ionomer Cements

Glass Ionomers
These materials are also called as flowable glass
These are also called as “high strength glass ionomer cements. They require low P:L ratio to
ionomer cements”. These are developed for the increase flow.
atraumatic restorative technique (ART) for use
in third world countries. Clinical Applications
These are the strong caries control
restorations they require no curing light. • Lining.
The setting reaction is similar to that of the • Pit and fisure sealer.
conventional cement. These cements require • Endodontic sealer.
high P:L ratios. • Sealing hypersensitive cervical area.
Compomers aimed at children. Recently, a multicolored dual-

cure compomer known as MagicFil produced
Compomers are also called as polyacid-modified by Zenith Dental of Englewood, New Jersey
composite resins. They were introduced to the that is available in four bright colors with glitter
profession in the early 1990s. These are a group inclusions.
of esthetic materials for the restoration of teeth
damaged by dental caries. The trivial name was
devised from the names of these two “parent”
Amino Acid Modified Glass
materials, the “comp” coming from composite, Ionomer Cements
and “omer” from Ionomer. They were designed Fracture toughness of glass ionomer cement
to combine the esthetics of traditional composite can be improved by modifying acrylic acid
resins with the fluoride release and adhesion of copolymers with N-acryloyl- or N-methacryloyl-
glass-ionomer cements. amino acids, e.g. N-methacryloyl glutamic acid.
Composition Nanoionomers
• Macro-monomers/Prepolymerized poly These are hybrids of a resin modified GIC
mers: Main ingredient, e.g. Bis-GMA, and/ and nano filled dental composites. These are
or UEDMA. designed to be quickly and easily mixed, e.g.
• Diluents: Added to reduce the viscosity Ketac nano light curing GIC.
of polymers, e.g. Triethylene glycol dime
thacrylate (TEGDMA).
• Fillers: Improves strength, e.g. Quartz or a Advantages
silicate glass. • Greater wear resistance.
• Coupling agents: Added to provide bonding • Esthetics and polish compared to con
between resin matrix and filler particles. ventional and RMGIC.
• Photo initiator: Initiates polymerization, e.g.
camphorquinone Ceramic Reinforced Posterior Glass
• Photo accelerator: Accelerates the poly
Ionomer Cements
merization reaction, e.g. Amine accelerator.
• Reactive glass powder, which is similar to These are designed to match strength and
the powder of conventional glass ionomer durability of amalgam. It is available in white
cements. and a universal tooth shade. Dispensed in
• In addition, compomers also contain powder-liquid form and water settable form is
additional monomers that differ from those also available, e.g. Amalgomer.
in conventional composites, e.g. Acidic
functional groups such as TCB, which is a di- Advantages
ester of 2-HEMA with butane tetracarboxylic
acid. • Excellent wear resistance.
• Superior radio opacity.
Clinical Applications • High level of fluoride release.
• Good compatibility.
Compomers are designed for the same sort of • Natural adhesion.
clinical applications as conventional composites. • Excellent for core build ups and posterior
These include Class II and Class V cavities, as restorations.
fissure sealants, and as bonding agents for the
retention of orthodontic bands. Pit and Fissure Sealant
Their fluoride release, however, is seen as a
useful feature for use in pedodontics, and certain A cariostatic effect is a desirable property of any
brands have been produced that are specifically material used for patients who are highly likely
to develop caries. Thus, glass ionomer cements Composition
are viable materials as fissure sealants. However,
the traditional ionomer cement is somewhat Powder
viscous, which prevents penetration of depth • Finely divided PMMA (low molecular weight
of the fissure. polymer) or copolymer.
The use of glass ionomers in sealant therapy • Benzoyl peroxide – Initiator.
should increase as less viscous formulations • Mineral filler.
are developed especially if they are marketed • Color pigments – Gives characteristic color.
especially as sealant, e.g. light cured products. Liquid
The retention rate of glass ionomer sealant • MMA monomer
may be poor after one year, but no sign of caries • Accelerator – Amine (3° amine) – Dimethyl
can be observed. P-toluidine.
Benzoyl peroxide reacts with the 3° amine
under certain conditions to yield free
RESIN CEMENTS radicals, which propagate the polymerization
A variety of resin-based cements have now reaction.
become available because of the development of
the direct filling resins with improved properties, Setting
the acid-etch technique for attaching resins to
enamel and molecules with a potential bond to The monomer dissolves and softens the polymer
dentin conditioned with organic or inorganic particles and concurrently polymerizes through
acid. Some are designed for general use and the action of free-radicals from the peroxide-
others for specific uses such as attachment of amine interaction (or by light activation also
orthodontic brackets or resin-bonded bridges. [Camphoroquinone-amine system]). Several
The majority of the materials in this group systems use both mechanisms and are referred
are polymethacrylates of two types: to as “dual-cure” systems.
Type I: Materials based on methyl metha
crylate. Properties
Type II: Materials based on aromatic Biological properties: These cements cause
dimethacrylate of BIS-GMA type. irritation to the pulp. Thus, pulp should be
The closely related cyanoacrylate monomers, protected either with a Ca(OH)2 or glass ionomer
notably ethyl and isobutyl, have found some liners.
limited use for the attachment of facings and for Obviously, if the bonding area involves only
cementation. However, the hydrolytic stability enamel, or if the dentin thickness is sufficient,
and biologic effects in this situation is suspect the irritating properties of the monomers are not
and little use is made of them. significant.
Acrylic Resin Cements Other properties: The properties of those

materials are comparable to those of cold curing
These cements are based on chemically activated acrylic resin filling materials. They are stronger
methyl methacrylate (MMA). and less soluble than other types of cements but
display low rigidity and viscoelastic properties
Dispension (Table 6.14). These have effective bond to tooth
structure in the presence of moisture, and they
These cements are dispensed in the form of may show better bonding than other cements to
powder and liquid. resin facings and polycarbonate crowns.
Table 6.14 Properties of acrylic resin cements

Setting time Film thickness Compressive MOE (GPa) Solubility and Pulpal
(Min.) (µm) strength 24 hrs Disintegration in response
(Mpa) water (%)
2-4 < 25 70-172 2.1-3.1 0.0-0.01 Moderate
Manipulation Dispension
The two components are combined by mixing Dispensed as powder and liquid system.
on a treated paper pad for 20–30 seconds. The Type I: Methacryloxy ethyl phenyl phos
liquid is added to the powder with minimum phonate (Organophosphonate system).
spatulation to avoid air incorporation. The mix Type II: 4-META system.
must be used immediately because working time Type III: HEMA (Hydroxy ethyl methacrylate)
is short. Excess material must be removed at the system.
final set hard stage and not when the material is
in rubbery state, otherwise the cement may be Composition
pulled from beneath the margin of restoration These cements are self-cured, P–L systems
leaving a void that increases the risk of plaque formulated as shown below:
build up and secondary caries. Removal of the
excess cement is difficult if it is delayed until the System I: This phosphonate cement recently
cement has polymerized. It is best to remove the reformulated as a 2-paste system, contains Bis-
excess cement immediately after the restoration GMA resin and silanized quartz filler.
is seated. The phosphonate is very sensitive to O2,
so a gel is provided to coat the margins of a
Uses restoration until setting occurs.
The phosphate end of the phosphonate
• Used for cementation of temporary crowns reacts with Ca of the tooth or with a metal oxide.
and conventional bridges. System II: The 4-META cement is formulated
• Also can be used for cementation of resin with MMA monomer and acrylic resin filler
bridges and facings. and is catalyzed by tributyl boron, which is an
additional initiator.
Advantages The double bonded ends of both phosphonate
• Relatively high strength and toughness. and 4-META cement react with other double
• Low solubility. bonds when available.
System III: HEMA is added to the monomer
Disadvantages liquid.
• Short working time. These three systems are added to the
• Deleterious effects on the pulp. monomer liquid, i.e. MMA. The powder is as
• Difficult in removal of excess cement from usual, PMMA with silane-treated inorganic
margins. fillers. The fillers are those used in composites
• Polymerization shrinkage. and colloidal silica.
Properties
Modified Acrylic Resin Cements
Biological properties: Biological properties are
Uses almost similar that of the conventional acrylic
• Used primarily for the direct bonding of resin cements.
orthodontic brackets. Bond strength: The adhesive resin cements
• Also used for crown and bridge cementation. generally develop good bond strengths to dentin.
Table 6.15 Mechanical properties of modified 13 µm in diameter. In slightly filled cement the
acrylic resin cements concentration of colloidal silica is 28%.
Compressive Tensile MOE Bond
The liquid is mixture of bis-GMA or similar
strength strength (GPa) strength aromatic dimethacrylate, which is divided
(MPa) (MPa) to dentin with low viscosity, low molecular weight alkyl
(MPa) dimethacrylate monomer. An amine accelerator
52–224 37–41 1.2–10.7 11–24 with is also present.
bonding The paste systems contain a mixture of bis-
agent GMA and monomers with variable amounts of
fillers according to brand and chemical or light
curing initiator systems similar to composite
The adhesive resin cements have superior resin restorative materials.
bonding to sand blasted Ni-Cr-Be and type IV Two paste-dual cure system: The dual cure
gold alloys. cements come in a base-catalyst form and must
Mechanical properties were given in Table be mixed before use. They are radiopaque for use
6.15. in posterior portion of the mouth.
Manipulation Light cured system: The light cured systems

are single component systems, photo initiated
Manipulation is similar to that of the conventional by camphoroquinone and visible light. These
acrylic cement. are not usually radiopaque but provide a wide
selection of shades, tints and opaquers.
Dimethacrylate Cements
These materials are of more recent development
Applications
usually based on the bis–GMA system. They are 1. These cements are used for the cementation
combinations of an aromatic dimethacrylate of etched cast restorations and orthodontic
with other monomers. bands.
These dimethacrylates are discussed in detail 2. Duel-cure composite resin cements are ideal
in composite resins. for bonding of cast or CAD/CAM ceramic
restorations or composite inlays prepared
Dispension by an indirect technique.
3. Light-cure composite resin cements are
• As P/L system and paste system: Self-cure- useful for bonding of thin porcelain veneers
chemically activated. where achieving adequate depth of cure is
• Two paste-dual cure system. not a problem.
• One paste (step) conventional composite
resin cement.
• Single component: Single paste light cure
Advantages
system. • High strength.
• Low solubility.
Composition
P/L system: The powder is finely divided
Disadvantages
borosilicate or silicate glass or colloidal silica • Critical manipulative procedures.
particles. In highly filled composite resin • Low film thickness.
cements the silanated inorganic filler particles • High pulpal irritation and sensitivity.
are more than 60% by weight and about • Difficulty in removing excess cement.
CAVITY LINING AGENTS AND reparative dentin and is employed as a pulp-

CEMENT BASES capping agent. Thus, in the situation where there
is the slightest possibility of microscopic pulp
Dentin is a vital cellular tissue whenever it is exposure, a layer of Ca(OH)2 is applied to the
injured by caries, cavity preparation, chemical pulpal wall regardless of the type of restorative
irritation from restorative materials or bacterial material that is to be employed.
contamination, a response will be manifested in Technically, both varnishes and liners are
the pulp. Significant pulp protection and other classified as cavity lining agents because both
benefits can be obtained by the proper selection are used as protective coatings. On the other
and use of cavity varnishes and liners. hand, bases also serve as thermal insulations
The metallic restorations, being excellent for metallic restorations. Varnishes and liners
thermal conductors can cause thermal sensitivity usually form a coating by evaporation of solvent,
during the intake of hot and cold foods, or whereas bases and some newly introduced liners
beverages. The phosphoric acid cont aining set by chemical process.
cements (i.e. ZnPO 4, silicate and Zn silico-
phosphate) and direct filling resins, and some Requirements
instances GIC can produce chemical irritation.
Also, microleakage or interfacial leakage as a 1. Should be nontoxic and nonirritant to the
result of setting contraction of amalgam and pulp and other tissues.
resin composite restorations may also cause 2. Should be able to protect the pulp from
pulpal irritation. effects of other restorative materials.
As shown in Figure 6.19 cavity varnishes, a. Thermal insulation: Cement is used under
liners, and bases are designed as adjuncts to the a large metallic restoration (amalgam)
restorative materials, to protect the pulp against to protect the pulp from temperature
chemical and thermal trauma. In addition to changes.
serving as barriers against thermal change, b. Chemical protection: Cement should be
irritants within the material, and interfacial able to prevent penetration of harmful
leakage with associated bacterial invasion, some chemicals from the restorative materials
of these agents may have beneficial effects on into the pulp.
the pulp. For example: ZOE compounds have c. Electrical insulation under a metallic
a palliative effect upon the pulp and can aid restoration to minimize galvanic effects.
in reducing sensitivity. Ca(OH)2 is particularly 3. Should have an antibacterial effect.
beneficial, since it accelerates the formation of 4. Ideally there should be adhesion between
the cement and tooth tissue and between
the cement and the tooth filling materials.
5. Should be insoluble in saliva and in liquids
taken into the mouth.
6. Must develop mechanical properties such as
strength rapidly to permit packing of a filling
material.
7. Should have low thermal diffusivity and low
COTE.
8. Should have good flow characteristics and
adequate working time.
Cavity Varnishes
Fig. 6.19 Relative positions of cavity lining agents A cavity varnish is used to provide a barrier
and cement bases in the prepared tooth cavity against the passage of irritants from cements
cements and metallic irritants from amalgam
or other metallic restorations.
• Prevents the discoloration of natural tooth by
preventing the penetration of metallic ions
from amalgam restoration into adjoining
enamel and dentin.
• Reduces marginal leakage around amalgam
restorations.
• Surface coating or protective agent for silicate
cements to prevent desiccation.
• Surface coating agent over metallic restor
ations to prevent galvanic shocks by
Fig. 6.20 Cavity varnish preventing the possible pathway of current
generated.
Contraindications
or other restorative materials and to reduce the • Acrylic or composite resins restoratives: The
penetration of fluids at the tooth-restoration solvent of the varnish may react with resins
interface into the underlying dentin and pulp. and soften them.
They also reduce postoperative sensitivity. • Glass ionomer cement: Varnish eliminates
As the thickness of the cavity varnish is very the potential for adhesion if applied between
less they cannot be used as effective thermal glass ionomer and the cavity walls.
insulators under metallic restorations. • When therapeutic action is required from the
overlying cement. For example: ZOE cement
Composition and calcium hydroxide cement.
Cavity varnishes are supplied as liquid in dark
colored bottles (Fig. 6.20). Cavity varnish is a Manipulation
solution of one or more resins from natural Selection of varnish: Based on the characteristics
gums (copal), synthetic resin or rosin (nitrated of handling, flow and ability to be sealed when
cellulose) which are dissolved in solvents like applied on the surface of the prepared cavity.
chloroform, acetone, benzene toluene, ethyl
acetate and amyl acetate and also contains Painting (application) of varnish: The usual
medicinal agents like chlorobutanol, thymol, technique involves dipping a small cotton
and eugenol. pledget (ball) held in pliers, into the varnish and
then thoroughly painting all cavity walls. Brush
Properties and Indications or a wire loop may also be used for this purpose.
The cotton pledget should not be dripping with
• Varnishes are insoluble and have a low excess varnish; the excess is removed by pressing
resistance to abrasion. the pledget against a bracket table cover.
• No antibacterial effects. 1. Uniform and continuous coating should be
• Cavity varnishes neither possess mechanical made on all surfaces of prepared cavity.
strength nor provide thermal insulation 2. Uneven coating or voids may produce erratic
because of the thin film thickness (2–40 µm). results.
• Protects the pulp from chemical and metallic 3. Several thin layers should be applied.
irritants from the overlying restorations. For 4. When the first layer dries, small pinholes
example, phosphoric acid is released into may develop which are filled up by second or
the underlying dentin and pulp from zinc third applications of the varnish and ensure
phosphate, silicate and zinc silicophosphate a more continuous coating.
5. Approximately, 15–20 seconds should elapse • One paste with a solvent that evaporates
between applications to allow the varnish to and leaving a film of calcium hydroxide. The
dry. paste is an aqueous suspension of calcium
6. Varnish is applied in thin consistency. Thick hydroxide in methyl cellulose.
varnishes will not wet the cavity wall and do • Single paste system of calcium hydroxide
not effectively inhibit marginal leakage. and fillers of barium sulfate dispersed in
7. The thick varnish is thinned with an a urethane dimethacrylate resin is also
appropriate solvent. available. This contains initiators and accele
rators, activated by visible light. The material
Precautions polymerizes upon exposure to visible light.
1. Varnish solution should be tightly capped

Applications of Calcium Hydroxide Liners
immediately after use to prevent loss of
solvent by evaporation. • Accelerates the formation of reparative
2. It should be applied in a thin consistency. dentin.
Viscous varnish does not wet the cavity • Which can neutralize or react with acid
walls properly. It should be thinned with an release from adjacent phosphoric acid
appropriate solvent. containing cement since the pH of this is 11.
3. Excess varnish should not be left on the • As direct pulp-capping agent.
margins of the restorations as it prevents • As indirect pulp-capping agent.
proper finishing of the margins of the • Some calcium hydroxide cements are too
restorations. flexible and soluble to be used as sole bases
4. The cavity varnish must not be peeled from or liners under amalgam restorations.
the cavity walls. When a calcium hydroxide liner contacts the
pulp tissue a calcified bridge is formed that seals
Cavity Liners the vital tissue.
A cavity liner is used like a cavity varnish to Zinc Oxide Eugenol Liners
provide barrier against the passage of irritants
from cements or other restorative materials and Type-IV low viscosity zinc oxide eugenol
to reduce the sensitivity of freshly cut dentin. cements are used as cavity liners.
Unlike a varnish, a liner may provide some • These liners are noted for their palliative
therapeutic benefits to the tooth. effect upon pulp.
• These are considered as least irritating
Ca(OH)2 Liners materials to the pulp of all materials used
in cavity preparations.
Composition • These materials are contraindicated under
composite restorations because the eugenol
• One type of liner consists of a liquid in which
interferes with polymerization and a defective
calcium hydroxide or zinc oxide eugenol
restoration would result.
is suspended in a solution of natural or
synthetic resin, methyl ethyl ketone or ethyl
Glass-ionomer Liners
alcohol or in an aqueous solution of methyl
cellulose. The methyl cellulose functions as Two types of glass-ionomer liners are available.
a thickening agent. On evaporation of the The first is a conventional P/L system. These
volatile solvent, the liner forms a thin film materials tend to set little faster initially than
on the prepared tooth surface. do the restorative cements and are more free
• Two-paste systems (base and catalyst) form flowing.
a fluid that flows readily over the cavity floor The second type is light cured glass-ionomer
and hardens quickly into a solid mass. cement. The liquid of at least one product
contains hydroxy ethyl methacrylates (HEMA) Classification of Cement Bases
and additional light activated accelerators. The
material is placed in the prepared tooth and then According to its chemical nature
exposed a resin curing light. With the light cure Acidic: Zinc phosphate, zinc polycarboxylate,
ionomer liners, conditioning of dentin surface glass ionomer cements
is not required. Neutral: ZOE cements
These liners are indicated in routine cases of
composite resin restorations where there is no Alkaline: Calcium hydroxide cement.
danger of pulp exposure. According to the strength
In deep cavities the glass ionomer liner a. Low strength bases
should be preceded by a calcium hydroxide liner For example, Ca(OH)2 cements, ZOE cements.
covering the possible exposure site. b. High strength bases
For example, zinc phosphate, zinc poly
Sandwich Technique carboxylate, glass ionomer cements.
In this technique, glass ionomer cement is According to the dispension
sandwiched between the tooth and the composite Two-paste system: Ca(OH) 2 cements, ZOE
resin restorative material as shown in Figure cements
6.21. Glass ionomer cement acts as bonding
agent. This technique is recommended for the Powder-liquid system: Zinc phosphate, zinc
class-II composite restorations in particular. polycarboxylate, Ca(OH) 2 cements, ZOE
cements.
Advantages of GIC Liners Single-paste system: Light activated Ca(OH)2
cements.
• Anticariogenic property.
• Minimizes marginal leakage.
• Chemical bonding to the tooth structure.
Calcium Hydroxide Cements (Dycal)
Dispension
Cement Bases
These materials are supplied in the form of
Cement bases are applied on the exposed dentin powder-liquid, two-paste system (Fig. 6.22) and
to protect the underlying pulp from external single-paste system.
chemical, thermal, electrical and mechanical
insults. The thickness of the base is usually
0.75–2 mm.
Fig. 6.21 Glass ionomer liner is sandwiched between

the tooth and composite restoration Fig. 6.22 Calcium hydroxide cement
Composition
Composite Resins (Tooth
Two-paste system
Base paste Colored Restorative
Ingredients
Glycol salicylate
Wt % Functions
40 Main reactive ingredient
Materials)
Calcium tungstate 16 Radiopacifiers EVOLUTION
Calcium sulfate 30 Gives strength During 1st half of twentieth century – Silicates
TiO2 14 Fillers were widely used but because of severe erosion
Reactor paste and lack of strength they were discontinued.
During late 1940 and 1950 – Resin was added
Ingredients Wt % Functions
to prevent this erosion led to the evolution of
Ca(OH)2 50 Main reactive ingredient polymethyl methacrylate but due to curing
ZnO 10 Reactive ingredient shrinkage, lack of wear resistance, and thermal
Zn stearate 0.5 Provides strength expansion led to the failure of these resins.
To overcome these drawbacks, inert filler
called quartz was added which reduced curing
Properties
shrinkage and thermal expansion, but due to the
• These cements are alkaline in nature (pH is inability of the filler to bond to resin led to the
around 12). failure, as it caused microleakage, staining and
• Setting time is 2.5–5.5 minutes. poor wear resistance.
• Compressive strength: 10–27 MPa. But in 1962, Dr Ray L Bowen achieved
• Tensile strength: <1.5 MPa. bonding between filler particles and resin
• Good thermal insulator. and designed a perfect composite. Bowen’s
composite included resin, filler and coupling
Uses agents.
• Can be used as pulp capping agent (both

direct and indirect). DEFINITIONS
• Can be used as a liner in deep cavities.
Composite
• Can be used as thermal insulating base.
Composite is a mixture of two or more
Advantages macromolecules, which are essentially insoluble
with each other and produce properties superior
• Reparative dentin formation. or intermediate to those of the individual
• Can neutralize strong acids. constituents.
• Easy to manipulate.
• Good sealing abilities.
Matrix
• Rapid hardening in thin layers.
A plastic resin material that forms the continuous
Disadvantages phase and binds the filler particles (Fig. 6.23A).
• Strength is very less.

Fillers
• Thermal insulation is not up to the mark.
• Dissolves in acidic conditions. The inorganic or organic particles that are
• Very weak when exposed to moisture. designed to strengthen a composite, decrease
Figs 6.23A and B (A) Microstructure of composite (B) Light curing composite resin
thermal expansion, minimize polymerization d. Based on their applications

shrinkage and decrease water sorption of the • Posterior composites, e.g. Hybrid and
resin (Fig. 6.23A). traditional composites.
• Pit and fissure sealants, e.g. Bis-GMA
Coupling Agents resin.
• Luting of orthodontic appliances.
A bonding agent applied to filler particles to • Restoration of eroded areas.
ensure chemical bonding to resin matrix.
Dispension
CLASSIFICATIONS
• Chemical cure composites: Two-paste
a. According to filler particles system, single paste and catalyst liquid.
• Macrofilled: 8–12 µm • Light cure composites single paste system
• Small particle: 1–5 µm (Fig. 6.23B).
• Microfilled: 0.04–0.4 µm
• Hybrid: 0.6–1 µm.
• Nanofilled: 1–100 nm COMPOSITION AND
b. According to method of activation MICROSTRUCTURE
• Chemically activated composites
• Light activated composites Dental composites mainly contain:
i. UV light activated composites • Resin matrix
ii. Visible light activated composites • Filler
c. According to method of dispension • Coupling agents
• Two-paste system: It includes base + • Activators and initiators
reactor. • Inhibitors
For example, chemically activated • Optical modifiers.
composites.
• Single paste and liquid Resin Matrix
For example, chemically activated
composites. Most common resins used are:
• Single paste system: Supplied in syringes • Bis GMA (Bis phenol A glycedyl dime
For example, light activated composites. thacrylate)
• Disposable capsules • Triethylene glycol dimethacrylate (TEGDMA)
For example, compomers. • Urethane dimethacrylate (UDMA).
As the monomer (MMA) combines to form Macrofillers: The average particle size is 8–12
polymer the potential energy of monomer to µm. These include colloidal silica in the form of
polymer is less than 20% which led to volume silicic acid, barium, zinc, and yttrium.
contraction to resin and causes microleakage, Microfillers: The particle size is 0.04–0.4 µm.
staining and secondary caries. But in the case of These include quartz, cristobalite, tridymite,
Bis-GMA and UDMA the molecular weight is five fused silica, silicate glass, barium aluminum
times the methyl methacrylate, hence double borosilicate.
bond strength is greater and more effective
polymerization takes place. But it increases the Nanofillers: The average particle size of
viscosity, which makes it difficult to manipulate, nanofillers is 1–100 nm.
hence to reduce viscosity diluent resins were
added such as TEGDMA. Desirable Properties of Fillers
• It should be chemically inert.
Fillers • Refractive index should match with that of
Fillers are mainly aimed to substitute resin and matrix.
decrease its content. • It should be hard enough to resist abrasion.
• It should be radiopaque.
Classification of Fillers
Advantages of Fillers
a. Based on their nature:
i. Organic fillers • Reduces the volume of resin matrix and hence
ii. Inorganic fillers. decreases the polymerization shrinkage.
b. Based on particle size: • Improves the mechanical properties such as
i. Microfillers compressive strength, tensile strength, MOE,
ii. Macrofillers abrasive resistance, hardness, etc.
iii. Nanofillers. • Reduce the COTE.
• It gives radiopacity to the mix.
Inorganic fillers: It includes inorganic • Decreases the water sorption and softening
components like ground quartz, pyrolytic silica, of the resin.
aluminum silicate, and barium glasses. These are
present in 30–70 volume % or 50–58 wt%. Coupling Agents
Pyrolytic/precipitated/colloidal silica: The
term pyrolytic is derived from “pyrogen”, which Coupling agent bonds the resin to filler in order
means, “born in fire”. These are obtained by to improve the strength and durability of the
precipitation of silicone present in low molecular composite. These act as stress absorbers at filler-
weight compounds such as SiCl4. The SiCl4 is resin interface. It provides hydrolytic stability
burned in oxygen and hydrogen atmosphere to by preventing water from penetrating along the
form macromolecules. These macromolecules filler-resin interface. The coupling agents are
are of colloidal size and constitute the inorganic γ-methacryloxy propyl trimethoxy silane. In the
filler particles. presence of water the methoxy groups (-OCH3)
are hydrolyzed to silanol (Si-OH) groups that
Organic fillers: Silane coated colloidal silica is
can bond with resin.
mixed with resin monomer with chloroform at a
slightly elevated temperature. Filler is thoroughly
mixed with resin and the composite paste is heat Initiators and activators
cured using a conventional benzoyl peroxide In the Table 6.16 different activator and initiator
initiator. The cured composite is then grounded systems were given for various composites.
into powder.
Table 6.16 Initiator and activator systems for various composite resins
Type of materials Initiator Activator

Chemically activated composites Benzoyl peroxide N,N–Dimethyl para toluidine 3° amine
UV light activated composites Benzoin methyl ether UV light (365 nm)
Visible light activated composite Camphoroquinone (0.2 wt%) + Visible light (460–480 nm)
tertiary amine (0.15 wt%)
Table 6.17 Properties of composite restorative materials
Characteristic/property Unfilled Traditional Small-particle Hybrid Microfilled

acrylic
Size (µm) — 8–12 0.5–3 0.4–1.0 0.04–0.4
Inorganic filler (vol%) 0 60–70 65–77 60–65 20–59
Inorganic filler (wt%) 0 70–80 80–90 75–80 35–67
Compressure strength (Mpa) 70 250–300 350–400 300–350 25–350
Tensile strength (Mpa) 24 50–65 75–90 40–50 30–50
MOE (GPa) 2.4 8–15 15–20 11–15 3–6
COTE (ppm/°C) 92.8 25–35 19–26 30–40 50–60
Water sorption (mg/cm2) 1.7 0.5–0.7 0.5–0.6 0.5–0.7 1.4–1.7
Hardness (KHN) 15 55 50–60 50–60 25–35
Curing shrinkage (vol%) 8–10 — 2–3 2–3 2–3
Polymerization Inhibitors GENERAL PROPERTIES OF

These are added to prevent autopolymerization COMPOSITES
on storage. General properties of composites have been
For example, butylated hydroxytoluene given in Table 6.17.
(0.01 wt%).
Advantages Biocompatibility
• Extend storage and stability of resin. Properly polymerized composites are relatively
• Delays polymerization thereby providing biocomp atible. However, monomer from
working time. unpolymerized materials can enter the dentinal
tubules and cause pulpal inflammation.
Optical Modifiers
Polymerization Shrinkage
These optical modifiers improve esthetic
properties by providing visual shading and The volumetric shrinkage during polymerization
translucency close to natural teeth. Metal oxides leads to marginal leakage and breach in bonding
of minute quantity are used, e.g. TiO2, aluminum and this shrinkage increases with an increase in
oxide (0.001–0.007 wt%). organic matrix. The volumetric shrinkage can be
minimized by manipulation in increments and of composites except in filler size, type and
use of indirect composite restorations. quantity.
• Type of filler: Quartz.
Water Sorption • Size: Average 8–12 µm
• Filler loading: 70–80 wt% or 50–60 vol%.
Water sorption depends on the resin content
and in the quality on bond between the resin
Properties
and the filler. Water sorption increases when—
• Increase in resin matrix as it is high soluble The properties are superior when compared
fraction. to unfilled restorative resins characteristic
• Incomplete curing. properties of different composites are given in
• Air voids. Table 6.17.
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion (COTE) Advantage

COTE should be as close to the tooth as • More strength and superior to unfilled resins.
poss ib le, i.e. 11.4 × 10 –6/°C and this can be
achieved by increase in the filler content using Disadvantages
prepolymerized filler particles.
• Rough surface leading to staining.
• Poor resistance to occlusal wear.
Thermal Conductivity
• It is difficult for conventional composite to
Thermal conductivity matches closely to enamel polish as it has high filler content leading to
and dentin and does not pose any problem and rough surface.
acts as a good thermal insulator.
MICROFILLED COMPOSITES
Compressive Strength
These are smoother comparable to the unfilled
It increases with increase in the volume fraction
resins but at the same time they are hard and
of the filler and decreases with increase in the
durable (Fig. 6.24A).
resin content.
Tensile Strength Composition

The composites have very low tensile strength so The composition previously discussed in
they are more likely to fail under tension. this chapter was same for all the varieties
of composites except in filler size, type and
Modulus of Elasticity quantity.
• Type of filler: Microfiller, colloidal silica.
It increases with an increase in the volume • Size: 0.02–0.04 µm
fraction of the filler. • Filler loading: 80 wt% or 70 vol% (actual
inorganic filler content is only 50 wt%).
CONVENTIONAL COMPOSITES
(TRADITIONAL OR MACROFILLED Drawbacks
COMPOSITES) • Due to large surface area of the colloidal
silica, more amount of resin is required
Composition
which leads to more viscous mix. Hence,
The composition discussed previously in more amount of filler cannot be incorporated
this chapter was same for all the varieties to obtain a workable mix.
Remedy between conventional and small particle

composites (Fig. 6.24C).
Methods of increasing filler loading:
• Reduce surface area by fusing colloidal
particles with sintering procedure.
Composition
• Addition of prepolymerized filler or organic The composition described previously in this
fillers. chapter was same for all varieties of composites
except in filler size, type and quantity.
Properties • Type of filler: Colloidal silica + Heavy metal
glasses
High resin content of this composite led to • Size: < 1 µm (0.6–1 µm)
inferior mechanical properties. Characteristic • Filler loading: Colloidal silica: 10–20 wt%,
properties of microfilled composites were given heavy metal glasses: 75 wt%.
in Table 6.17.
Properties (see Table 6.17)
SMALL PARTICLE COMPOSITE

NANOCOMPOSITES
All the other components are similar but vary
only in filler size, type and quantity (Fig. 6.24B). As the name implies, these include constituents
• Type of filler: Glass containing heavy metals that are mixed on a nanometer-length scale. A
+ Colloidal silica (5 wt%) nanocomposite has at least part of its grains of
• Size: 1–5 µm size of 1–100 nm.
• Filler loading: 80–90 wt% or 65–77 vol%. The nanofiller used includes an alumino
silicate powder having a mean particle size of
about 80 nm and a 1:4 ratio of alumina to silica.
Properties
This nanofiller has a refractive index of 1.508.
Best physical and mechanical properties are Restorative nanocomposites contain a
observed because of high filler content. These unique combination of individual nanoparticles
composites are both smoother and durable and nanoclusters. Nanoparticles are discrete
(Table 6.16). particles of 20 nm in size. Nanocluster fillers
are loosely bound agglomerates of nanosized
particles. The agglomerates act as a single
HYBRID COMPOSITES
unit enabling high filler loading and strength.
These are developed to obtain better surface These nanoclusters are lightly sintered so that
smoothness than that of small particle composite they can break apart during the wear process.
and maintain other properties, which range So during day to day abrasion of filling due to
Figs 6.24A to C (A) Microfilled composite (B) Fine-filled composites (C) Hybrid composite
brushing or eating, the optical effect is the loss Technique for Chemically
of a nanometer-sized particle rather than the Activated Resins
loss of a micron (e.g. hybrid composite) sized
particle. Dispension
Since nanocluster filler particles consist of
They are supplied in the form of powder and
loosely bound agglomerates of nano-sized filler
liquid/ 2-paste system/ paste-liquid system.
particles, during abrasion, the primary particles
(nanosized), not the cluster themselves, can be
worn away. This increases the polish retention Mixing
of the cured composite when compared to The correct proportions of pastes are dispensed
traditional hybrid composites. A good quality onto a mixing pad and combined by rapid
nanofilled composite resin is formulated using spatulation with a plastic or wooden spatula
both nanoparticles and nanocluster fillers. for 30 seconds. It is important that the mate
rial be thoroughly mixed in order to ensure a
Advantages homogeneous distribution of the curing agent
(activator) throughout the mass, yet not so
• Reduces polymerization shrinkage – as low
vigorously that air is incorporated.
as 1–1.6%.
• Allows excellent polish.
• More chameleon-like effect with a greater Insertion
scattering of light. The method of insertion is similar to that of the
• No compromise on strength. bulk or pressure technique described for unfilled
• Can be used for posterior and anterior acrylic resins. When the mixing is completed,
restorations. the resin should be promptly inserted into the
• Excellent hardness. cavity to avoid poor adaptation to the cavity
• Excellent flexural strength. walls and loss plasticity because of the onset of
• Superior elastic modulus. polymerization.
• Working time: 1–1½ minutes
Manipulation • Setting time: 4–5 minutes.
Care should be taken to avoid incorporating
General characters and criteria for selection of
air during mixing and insertion of the resin,
selected direct restorative materials were given
because the polymerized mass is oxygen
in Table 6.22.
inhibited, such air inclusions can result in soft
spots in the restoration.
Cleaning Contour of the restoration is achieved by the
The tooth is first cleaned with a mild abrasive. use of a properly placed matrix strip as shown
in Figure 6.25, which applies pressure to yield
Etching better adaptation to the walls by forcing the
material to flow during the plastic stage of the
The enamel at the cavity margins is acid etched polymerization .
with 37% orthophosphoric acid. The acid is
rinsed off and the area is dried thoroughly. Precautions
Bonding Agent Application • If the materials are furnished in jars, cross-
contamination must be avoided, because
An enamel or dentin-bonding agent is applied partial polymerization of the paste may occur
and polymerized. The cavity is now ready for in the contaminated container.
the composite. • Proportioning should be accurate.
Fig. 6.25 Matrix strip placement
• The mixing should be thorough to ensure

Fig. 6.26 Visible light curing unit
homogeneous mixture of the activator and
the initiator.
• Avoid using small instruments with sharp
Table 6.18 Different lamps used for curing and
edges during insertion, because such their wavelengths
instruments often leave imprints that can
result in voids when a new portion of Type of light source Wavelength
composite is added. LED lamps (light emitting diodes) 440–480 nm
QTH lamps(Quartz tungsten 400–500 nm
Advantages Halogen bulb) ( Violet blue)
• The rate of polymerization is uniform PAC lamp (Plasma arc curing 400–500 nm
throughout the mass. lamps) (Blue light)
Argon laser lamp 490 nm
Technique for Light Activated
Composites
sources or lamps (Table 6.18) available that
Light activated composites are supplied in the facilitate the operator to choose the lamp with
form of single paste systems. The polymerization suitable wavelength. If the cavity is so deep the
can be initiated when the resin is exposed to light restoration must be built up in increments. Each
with a suitable wavelength (may be UV light or increment must be cured before the successive
visible light). Light curing units are available to increment is added as this procedure can reduce
supply light (Fig. 6.26). the voids and also polymerization shrinkage can
Advantages of light activated resins over be compensated. The exposure time should not
chemically activated resins: be less than 40 seconds and the resin thickness
• Require no mixing since the material should be around 2–2.5 mm. Darker shades and
available in the form of single paste system. microfilled resins require longer exposure times.
• Adequate working time.
• Materials set rapidly once they are exposed Light Sources
to the curing light with a suitable wavelength.
There are four types of curing lamps which emit
light radiations of different intensities (Table
Insertion
6.18).
The best method to insert the restorative material 1. LED Lamps: LED stands for Light Emitting
into the tooth cavity is with a syringe. The depth Diodes. These lamps emit radiation only in
of cure depends on the material color, quality the blue part of visible spectrum between
and location of the light source. Different light 440–480 nm.
2. Quartz-Tungsten Halogen (QTH) Lamps:

These lamps are having quartz halogen bulbs
with tungsten filament which radiates both
UV and visible light, so filters are required to
remove the unwanted wavelength of light.
These are the most commonly used light
sources as these are inexpensive.
3. Plasma arc curing lamps: These lamps use
xenon gas. This gas is ionized and produces
plasma (a high intensity white light). Filters
should be used in these lamps to remove
heat and allow blue light to be emitted.
4. Argon laser lamps: These lamps produce high
intensity of light radiation. Fig. 6.27 Composite polishing kit
Precautions
• The resin paste should not be dispensed Glazing Agents
until it is to be used. Exposure to operatory
These consisting of dilute solutions of bis-GMA
lights for any appreciable time can initiate
are applied to overcome the roughness in the
polymerization of the material.
finished composite resin restoration surface.
• Exposure to sunlight should also be avoided.
The glazing agent is painted on the surface of
• Unused composite should never be returned
the restoration after final finishing providing a
to the syringe or kept for future use.
smooth coating.
• Storage should be in a cool and dry
environment to maintain shelf life for all
composites. ACID-ETCH TECHNIQUE
• The high intensity light can cause retinal
Bunocore et al in 1955 introduced acid etch
damage if one looks at it directly. Protective
technique to enhance bonding between tooth
eyeglasses should be used.
surface and restoration which provided scope
for the use of resin bonded metal retainers,
Disadvantages porcelain laminate veneers and orthodontic
• Uniform polymerization is not observed. brackets as it provides a strong bond between
• Deep cavities have to be filled incrementally, resin and enamel.
which is time consuming.
Principle
Finishing and Polishing The process of achieving a bond between
Finishing can be initiated upon removal of the enamel and resin based restorative materials
matrix or one minute after removal of the light involves discrete etching of the enamel to
in the case of light activated system. However, it provide selective dissolution of enamel rods with
is suggested that when finishing is delayed for 24 resultant microporosity.
hours, better marginal adaptation is achieved. Etched enamel has high surface energy
Carbide finishing burs are commonly used. allows a resin readily to wet the surface and
Final finishing can be done with abrasive points penetrate into the microporosity. Then it can be
slightly coated with silicon grease, a rubber polymerized to form a mechanical bond to the
cup and pumice paste or aluminum oxide and enamel. These resin tags may penetrate 10–20
zirconium silicate strips or disks (Fig. 6.27). µm into the enamel porosity (Fig. 6.28A).
“monocalcium phosphate monohydrate” on the
etched surface that inhibits further dissolution.
Types of Etchants
• Liquid etchants (Fig. 6.28C).
• Gel etchants (Fig. 6.28B).
Fig. 6.28A Resin tag formation Liquid Etchants

Liquid etchants are used primarily to etch large
surface areas of enamel, such as for veneers or
sealants. Common types of applicators include
small cotton pellets, foam sponges and brushes.
• Gently apply the acid to the appropriate
enamel surfaces to be restored, keeping the
excess to a maximum of 0.5 mm past the
anticipated extent of restoration.
• For preparations involving proximal area a
polyester strip is placed before acid etching
to prevent the etching of the adjacent tooth.
• The application of acid is repeated every
10–15 seconds to keep the area moist for 30
seconds.
Fig. 6.28B Gel etchant • Shorter etching time is advised as it yields
acceptable bond strength in most cases and
it also conserves enamel and saves time.
• Care is to be taken not to flood the area with
acid or to rub the enamel.
• The acid is rinsed off thoroughly with a
stream of water for 10–15 seconds after
etching the tooth.
• If cotton roles were used for isolation, it
should be replaced at this time, ensuring
that the cavity preparation does not become
contaminated with saliva.
• Now this tooth surface is dried with clean air
for 20 seconds.
Enamel that has been properly air-dried
is described as having a ground glass or white
frosted appearance.
Fig. 6.28C Liquid etchant
Gel Etchants
• For application of a gel etchant a brush paper
Procedure
point instrument or syringe are used to place
Acid used: 37% orthophosphoric acid. the etchant onto the prepared enamel.
If the concentration of phosphoric acid is • Leave the surface untouched for 30 seconds
greater than 50%, it results in the formation of after the application etchant.
• Rinse for 20–30 seconds with water. the composite resin by resin tag formation within
• Gel etchants are more easily applied with the enamel called as enamel bonding agents
small syringe. (Fig. 6.29A).
• Dry the tooth surface.
DENTIN BONDING AGENTS
Precautions
Enamel bonding agents fail to provide a strong
• Prevent the formation air bubbles during the bonding with the dentin. The reasons for this
acid application. failure are as follows:
• Etched surface should not be allowed to • Dentin is a heterogeneous that consists
contamination, e.g. blood, saliva, etc. such of 50% inorganic hydroxyapatite, 30%
contamination reduces the surface energy, organic material and 20% fluid. Dentin also
tag formation, and bonding with etched contains less amount of calcium for chemical
enamel. Contamination should be rinsed off. bonding.
• The concentration of phosphoric acid should • Dentinal fluids come onto the surface of the
not be used. dentin and prevent spreading of bonding
A tooth with high fluoride content derived agent.
from a fluoride water supply, i.e. resistant to acid • Presence of smear layer on the exposed
etching doubling or tripling of usual 35 seconds dentinal tubules.
etching time (Fluorapatite resistant to acids). • Low surface energy of the dentin.
Bond strength to etched enamel range from
The agents used for bonding with
18–25 MPa, depending on the resin and testing
dentin should contain both hydrophilic and
method used.
hydrophobic parts. Hydrophobic part provides
bonding with dentin by displacing the dentinal
BONDING AGENTS fluids and also hydrophobic part will react
chemically with resin restorative material.
Bonding agents are the materials similar to
Bonding is better to be polymerized separately
unfilled acrylics, which help in bonding between
to reduce the polymerization shrinkage.
resin and enamel and between resin particles.
Requirements Dispension
Dentin bonding agents are supplied as a kit
• It should be nontoxic.
containing primers/conditioners and the
• It should not disintegrate in the oral fluids.
bonding agent.
• It should be both hydrophobic to react with
the composite resin and hydrophilic to bond
with the tooth. Primers
• They should have good bond strength. Primers condition the dentin surface and
improve bonding. They are acidic in nature.
ENAMEL BONDING AGENTS For example, Ethylene–di amine–tetra acetic
acid (EDTA), nitric acid, maleic acid, etc.
Composites are mainly composed with
dimethacrylate resins. As the viscosity of
Functions of Primers
these resins is very high they cannot be able
to penetrate into the micro-porosities created • Removes smear layer and provides subtle
by acid etching. So the bonding agents are opening of dentinal tubules.
developed with high flow property and they • Provides modest etching to the intertubular
are mainly unfilled acrylic resins. They provide dentin.
mechanical bonding between the enamel and • It exposes collagen to the bonding agent.
Chemistry
Molecules designed for these purposes are
represented by formula M–R–X.
Where M is the methacrylate group that
reacts with resin matrix.
R is the spacer.
X is the functional group for adhesion to
tooth tissue.
The bond strength of these early systems
Generations of Dentin Bonding Agents was only 1–3 MPa. The clinical results with these
A convenient way of examining the progress in systems were poor.
the dentin bonding systems is the categorize
dentin adhesives into the so-called “generations”. Second Generation
Evolution of bonding agents was briefly discussed
In the late 1970’s, the second-generation systems
in Table 6.19.
were introduced. The majority of these are “halo
phosphorus esters” of unfilled acrylic resins such
First Generation as bis–GMA or HEMA.
In 1956, Bunocore et al demonstrated glycerol Mechanism of adhesion: The second-generation
phosphoric acid dimethacrylate containing systems bonded to dentin by an ionic bonding
resin and cyanoacrylates to bond to acid to Ca by chlorophosphate groups.
etched dentin. This bond is believed to be due
to production of a bifunctional resin molecule,
hydrophilic phosphate group from the glycerol
phosphoric acid dimethac rylate resin that
increases bonding with Ca ions of the hydroxy
apatite. The methacrylate groups were then able
to bond to an acrylic restorative resin.
Commercial product: Scotch bond. The systems were highly soluble in oral fluids
Relatively low bond strengths were obtained and moisture from dentin itself could result in
and decreased with storage in water for these composite resin debonding from the dentin and
systems. causing microleakage.
Nine years later Bowen tried to address However, these systems resulted in bond
this issue using N-phenyl glycerin and glycidyl strengths to dentin that was weak and unreliable.
methacrylate or NPG-GMA. It is a bifunctional Commercial products: Clearfil, Prisma
molecule; one end of the molecule bonds to Universal Bond, Johnson and Johnson Dentin-
dentin while the other bonds to composite resin. Enamel bonding agent.
Commercial names: Cervident, Palakav, etc. Third Generation Systems

As further developments ensured, interaction
with the smear layer, the cutting debris smeared
over the enamel and dentin and plugging the
dentinal tubules was appreciated as having a
significant influence on the behavior of adhesive
systems. Thus, the third generation of adhesive • Chemical union to either inorganic or
systems used a dentin conditioning step as organic components of the dentin.
well as an intermediate primer in conjunction Modern adhesives rely on a fourth concept,
with a bonding agent. The conditioning agents first proposed by Nakabayashi et al; diffusion
either modify or remove the smear layer before and impregnation of resins into the substrate
placement of adhesive resins and attempts have of partially decalcified dentin followed by
been made to bond chemically with the calcium polymerization creating a “hybrid resin rein
of dentin. forced layer”.
One of the first of these systems developed This hybrid layer is an acid resistant
by Bowen and employed a 2.5% of nitric acid admixture of polymer and tooth structure
or ferric oxalate dentin conditioner followed components creating a resin-dentin composite.
by treatments of NTG–GMA and PMDM Fourth generation system employing a
(Pyromellitic di anhydrate and 2-hydroxy ethyl dentin conditioning step followed by application
methacrylate). of a multicomponent resin system and fifth
This system was later modified by replacing generation system using a dentin conditioning
ferric oxalate with aluminum oxalate. system followed by application of one component
system.
Commercial names:
• Tenure:
Conditioner : P h o s p h o r i c a c i d w i t h Fourth Generation Systems
aluminum oxalate and nitric acid. These generation adhesive systems rely on the
• Mirage bond hydration of the dentin as a critical parameter
Dentin conditioner: HNO3 and NPG-GMA: for effective bonding. In this generation there
2.5% was a complete elimination of smear layer has
Primer: PMDM. taken place.
• Gluma bonding system
Dentin conditioner: EDTA. Commercial names:
Primers: HEMA + Glutaraldehyde. • All bond – II
• Scotch bond – II Conditioner: Phosphoric acid.
Dentin conditioner: Maleic acid and HEMA. Primers: Hydrophilic resins such as NTG-
Primers: BIS-GMA + HEMA. GMA + BPDM in acetone.
• Prisma universal bond – III: This is designed • Scotch bond multipurpose (Fig. 6.29B)
to bond both the inorganic and organic parts Conditioner: Maleic acid – 10%.
of dentin. Primers: Aqueous solution of HEMA and
copolymer.
Significant improvements in bond strengths
• Imperiva bond
were obtained with third generation systems.
• Perma quick
• Scotch bond – II: 9 Mpa.
• Probond
• Prisma Universal Bond – III and Tenure:
• Liner bond–II.
more than 18 Mpa.
In addition to dentin and enamel adhesion,
bond strength claims are made for cast alloys,
Newer Generation Systems amalgam and porcelain. Mean shear bond
Strategies for dentin adhesion so far have strengths of these systems are reported to range
included— from 17 Mpa to more than 24 Mpa.
• Bonding via resin tag formation in the
tubules of conditioned dentin. Fifth Generation
• Formation of precipitate on pretreated
To simplify the clinical procedure by reducing
dentin surfaces followed by chemical or
the bonding steps and thus the working time, a
mechanical bonding of a resin.
• These materials also generally rely on residual
moisture in the dentin and hydrophilic
water-chasing compositions to effect resin
penetration into the dentin.
The fifth generation system consists of single
bottle system.
One bottle system: To facilitate clinical use
one-bottle systems combined the primer and
adhesives into one solution to be applied after
etching enamel and dentin simultaneously.
Commercial names: One-bond, prime and
bond, optibond solo, scotch bond multipurpose,
etc.
Fig. 6.29A Enamel and dentin bonding agent
Sixth Generation
These generation systems consist of two different
types:
Self-etching primer: Self-etching primer is an
aqueous solution of 20% of phenyl – P in 30%
HEMA for bonding to enamel and dentin
simultaneously.
The combination of etching and priming
steps reduce the working time, eliminate
washing out of the acid gel and also eliminate
the risk of collagen collapse.
Fig. 6.29B Etchant, primer and adhesive
Disadvantages
• Less shelf-life.
better system was needed and also to prevent the • A residual smear layer remained in between
collagen collapse of demineralized dentin. The adhesive material and resin.
fifth generation bonding systems were developed • Less effectiveness and etching.
to make use of adhesive materials more reliable
for practitioners. Self-etching adhesives: These are all-in-one
The distinguishing characteristic of the fifth adhesives contain acidic unreacted monomer
generation system is the combination of the that contacts the composite restorative material
priming and bond resin application steps to directly. The etching, priming, and bonding
achieve bonding with a one component resin together in a single solution are now available.
formula. These systems are marketed as faster All-in-one provides similar enamel bond
and easier to use. These systems required the strengths but the dentin bond strengths are
following procedures: significantly lower than those obtained with
• Acid conditioning for maximal adhesion to total-etch adhesives.
enamel to enamel and dentin.
• These materials rely on the hybridization of Commercial products: Adper Prompt L-Pop
dentin for achieving adhesion as in fourth (3M ESPE), One-Up Bond F (Tokuyama Dental),
generation systems. Xeno III (Dentsply).
Seventh Generation Commercial products: iBond™ (Heraeus),

Xeno® IV (Dentsply), G-Bond™ (GC), Complete
The latest category, seventh-generation (Cosmedent), and OptiBond® All-In-One (Kerr).
bonding systems, is the “all in one” adhesives Both OptiBond All-in-One and Xeno IV are
that combine etch, prime, and bond in a fluoride releasing, while iBond and G-Bond are
single solution. Laboratory studies show bond non-fluoride containing.
strengths and margin sealing to be equal to sixth- Xeno IV self-etch seventh generation
generation systems. The all-in-one adhesives adhesive is available in a bottle or unit dose
are user-friendly, and most offer both a bottle delivery and does not require mixing. Xeno IV
and a unit-dose version. See Table 6.19 for the is pH balanced to reduce gingival irritation and
comparison of different dental adhesive systems. sensitivity.
Clearfil S3 Bond, G-Bond and iBond are
Table 6.19 Evolution of bonding agents available in a bottle. Clearfil S3 Bond contains
water to alleviate the need for a surface with
First and second degeneration
a specific degree of wetness and to resist
(1960s and 1970s)
Did not recommend dentin etching.
hydrolysis, providing for a lasting and reliable
Relied on adhesion to smear layer. adhesion. It resists hydrolysis which provides
Weak bond strengths for reliable and durable adhesion. G-Bond offers
versatility in the degree of wetness on the tooth
 surface at the time of adhesive application.
Third generation (1980s) Comparison of dental adhesives were given
Acid-etching of dentin in the Tables 6.20 and 6.21.
Separate primer
Increased bond strength
Margin staining caused clinical failure over time RECENT ADVANCES IN COMPOSITES
 Condensable Composites
Fourth generation (early 1990s) These are also called as packable composites
Hybrid layer of dentin and collagen
or polymeric rigid inorganic matrix material
Dentin seal
Concept of “wet bonding” introduced (PRIMM), was developed by Dr Lars Ehrnford
Technique sensitive of Sweden in 1995. This system is composed
of a resin matrix, and an inorganic ceramic
 component. In this system, the resin is
Fifth generation (mid 1990s) incorporated into the fibrous ceramic filler
Combined primer and adhesive in one bottle network rather than incorporating the filler
Maintained high bond strength particles into the composite resin matrix.
Unit-dose packaging introduced The filler mainly consists of aluminum oxide
 and silicone dioxide glass particles or barium
aluminum silicate or strontium glasses. Colloidal
Sixth generation (late 1990s, early 2000s)
“Self-etching” primers silica ultrafine particles are also incorporated
Reduced incidence of post-creatinine sensitivity to control the handling characteristics such as
Bond strengths lower than fourth and fifth viscosity, resistance to flow, condensability and
generations reduced stickiness.
The glass particles are liquefied to form
 molten glass which is forced through a die to
Seventh generation (late 2002) form thin strands of glass fibers with a diameter
All-in-one combines etching, printing and bonding of approximately 2–3 µm. These glass fibers are
Single solution
crushed into small fragments and then reheated
Good bond strength and margin sealing
to a sufficient temperature to cause superficial
Table 6.20 Comparison of 4th, 5th, 6th and 7th Generation dental adhesive systems
Generations Etching of enamel and Steps Sealing of enamel and dentin

dentin Priming of dentin
4th Generation Etchant Primer Resin/sealer
5th Generation Etchant Self-priming resin/sealer Self-priming resin/sealer
6th Generation Self-etching primer Self-etching primer Resin/sealer
6th Generation Self-etching, Self-etching, Self-etching,
(Mixing Required) Self-priming resin/Sealer Self-priming resin/Sealer Self-priming resin/Sealer
6th Generation Self-etching, Self-etching, Self-etching,

(No Mixing Self-priming resin/ Self-priming resin/ Self-priming resin/
required) Sealer desensitizer Sealer desensitizer Sealer desensitizer disinfectant
disinfectant disinfectant
Table 6.21 Comparison of the number of system components, number of steps required and
shear bond strength of dental adhesive systems
Generation Number of Description Number of Shear band

components steps required strength (MPa)
1st 2 Etch enamel, apply adhesive 2 2
2nd 2 Etch enamel, apply adhesive 2 5
3rd 2–3 Etch enamel, apply primer 3 12
4th 3–5 Total etch, apply primer 3 24
5th 2 Etch enamel, apply adhesive 2 25
6th 2 Apply self-etch adhesive 1 20
7th 1 Apply self-etch adhesive 1 25
fusion of glass fibers at selected sites (silanation). Disadvantages

This forms a continuous network of small
chambers or cavities with 2 µm dimensions. • Difficulties in adaptation between one
Resin is infiltrated into these spaces or chambers. composite layer and another.
This concept provides a basis for fabricating • Difficult handling.
packable or condensable posterior composite • Poor esthetics in anterior teeth.
resin.
Indications
Advantages • Class II cavity restoration in order to achieve
• Greater ease in achieving a good contact a better contact point.
point.
• Better reproduction of occlusal anatomy. Indirect Composite Resins
• Physical and mechanical behavior is similar Because of major clinical problems with
to that of silver amalgam. direct posterior composite resins, the indirect
• Clinical behavior is similar to that of hybrid composite inlay/onlay system was introduced.
composites. Since the restoration is generated on a die rather
than directly in the cavity preparation, superior Fiber Reinforced Composites (FRC)
marginal adaptation, contour and proximal
contact can be achieved. Most clinical studies Fiber reinforcement has further increased
have demonstrated a dramatic improvement in the potential uses of composites within res
general clinical performance. torative dentistry. Glass fibers, carbon fibers,
polyethylene fibers, aramid fibers, etc are
the most commonly used fibers in dental
Advantages composites. These fibers can be oriented in
• Has superior adaptation. different directions; unidirectional, weave type,
• Contour and proximal contact. mesh type, etc, in the resin matrix to improve
• Wear resistance. the physical and mechanical properties of
• Good esthetics. composites. The durability of the fiber-reinforced
• Control over polymerization shrinkage. composites mainly depends on the following
factors:
ORMOCER • The individual properties of the fibers and
resin matrix.
ORMOCER is an Organically Modified Ceramic • Fiber loading within the resin.
that contains inorganic-organic copolymers in • Adhesion of fibers to matrix.
addition to the inorganic silanated filler particles • Volume of fibers in the composite matrix.
such as urethane and thioether (meth)acrylate • The orientation of the fibers.
alkoxysilanes. ORMOCER is synthesized through • Location of fibers in the prosthesis cons
a sol-gel process. ORMOCERs are described as truction.
3-dimensionally cross-linked copolymers. Silane coupling agents are commonly used
to provide bonding between resin matrix and
Indications fibers.
• For cavities classes I to V.
• Reconstruction of traumatically affected Clinical Applications
anteriors. • Reinforced direct composite restoration.
• Veneering of discolored anteriors. • Single indirect restoration (inlay, onlay,
• Correction of shape and shade for better partial/full veneer crowns).
esthetics. • Periodontal splinting/post-trauma splints.
• Repair of veneers. • Immediate replacement transitional and
• Core build-up. long-term provisional bridges.
• Protective sealant for child teeth. • Fixed bridge work—anterior and posterior
• Orthodontic bonding adhesive. such as simple cantilever, fixed-fixed,
• Indirect inlays. implant supported.
• Reinforcing or repairing dentures.
Advantages • Fixed orthodontic retainers.
• Reduced polymerization shrinkage.
• Improved marginal adaptation. PIT AND FISSURE SEALANTS
• Best biocompatibility as no diluent monomer
Pits and fissures on the occlusal surfaces of the
is required.
posterior teeth are very susceptible to decay
• High abrasion resistance.
especially in the child patient. Deep pits and
• Protection against caries.
fissures provide shelter for carcinogenic factors
• Does not liberate any residual monomer after
and obstruct oral hygiene procedures.
polymerization.
Table 6.22 Comparison of direct restorative dental materials
Factors Amalgam Resin-based Glass ionomer Resin-modified
composite (Direct and glass ionomer
Indirect)
General A mixture of mercury and A mixture of Self-hardening Self- or light-
description silver alloy powder that submicron glass filler mixture of hardening mixture
forms a hard solid metal and acrylic that forms fluoride of sub-micron
filling. Self-hardening at a solid tooth-colored containing glass glass filler with
mouth temperature. restoration. Self- or powder and fluoride-containing
light-hardening at organic acid that glass powder
mouth temperature. forms a solid and acrylic resin
tooth colored that forms a solid
restoration tooth-colored
able to release restoration able to
fluoride. release fluoride.
Principal uses Dental fillings and Esthetic dental fillings Small non-load-bearing fillings, cavity
heavily loaded back and veneers. liners and cements for crowns and
tooth restorations. bridges.
Leakage and Leakage is moderate, Leakage low when Leakage is Leakage is low
recurrent decay but recurrent decay is properly bonded generally low, when properly
no more prevalent than to underlying recurrent decay bonded to the
other materials. tooth; recurrent is comparable underlying tooth;
decay depends on to other direct recurrent decay
maintenance of the materials, fluoride is comparable
tooth-material bond. release may be to other direct
beneficial for materials; fluoride
patients at high release may be
risk for decay. beneficial for
patients at high
risk for decay.
Overall Good to excellent in Good in small- Moderate to good in non-load-bearing
durability large load-bearing to-moderate size restorations; poor in load-bearing.
restorations. restorations.
Cavity Requires removal of Adhesive bonding permits removing less tooth structure.
preparation tooth structure for
considerations adequate retention and
thickness of the filling.
Clinical Tolerant to a wide range Must be placed in a well-controlled field of operation; very little
considerations of clinical placement tolerance to presence of moisture during placement.
conditions, moderately
tolerant to the presence
of moisture during
placement.
Resistance to Highly resistant to wear. Moderately resistant, High wear when placed on chewing
wear but less so than surfaces.
amalgam.
Resistance to Brittle, subject to Moderate resistance to Low resistance to Low to moderate
fracture chipping on filling edges, fracture in high-load fracture. resistance to
but good bulk strength restorations. fracture.
in larger high-load
restorations.
Contd...
Contd...
Factors Amalgam Resin-based Glass ionomer Resin-modified
composite (Direct and glass ionomer
Indirect)
Biocompatibility Well-tolerated with rare occurrences of allergenic response.
Post-placement Early-sensitivity to hot Occurrence of Low Occurrence of
sensitivity and cold possible. sensitivity highly sensitivity highly
dependent on ability dependent
to adequately bond on ability to
the restoration to the adequately bond
underlying tooth. the restoration
to the underlying
tooth.
Esthetics Silver or gray metallic Mimics natural Mimics natural tooth color, but lacks
color does not mimic tooth color and natural translucency of enamel.
tooth color. translucency, but can
be subject to staining
and discoloration over
time.
Relative cost to Generally lower; actual Moderate; actual cost of fillings depends on their size and
patient cost of fillings depends technique.
on their size.
Average One One for direct fillings; One One
number of visits 2+ for indirect inlays,
to complete veneers and crowns.
Cross-sectional views of typical fissure

morphology, varies from a wide “V” shape to a
bottleneck shape (Fig. 6.30B). Fluorides are least
effective in preventing caries in these areas.
The objective of sealant (Fig. 6.30A) use is
for the resin to penetrate into pit and fissures
and to polymerize and seal these areas against
oral bacteria and debris preventing occlusal
caries (Figs 6.30C). Success of sealant technique
is dependent on obtaining and maintaining an
intimate adaptation of sealant to tooth surface.
Requirements
• They should be biocompatible.
• They must have low viscosity so that they will
flow readily.
• Should possess anticariogenic property.
• Good esthetic quality.
• Good mechanical properties.
Figs 6.30A to C (A) Light curing pit and fissure sealant;
• They should maintain surface integrity and (B) Pit and fissure cavity with caries; (C) Sealant filled in
tooth structure. pit and fissure cavity
Materials DISADVANTAGES
Both filled and unfilled resins are employed as 1. It has a rich yellow color with a strong
pit and fissure sealants. metallic luster.
• Unfilled resins: Colorless or tinted transparent 2. It has high thermal conductivity.
materials. 3. It is lower in strength.
• Filled resins: Opaque and available either as 4. Technical difficulties in forming a dense
tooth colored or white material. restoration.
The resin systems include cyanoacrylates, 5. It has one of the highest densities of all elements
polyurethanes and UEDMA. Glass ionomer 19.3 g/cc. Thus, requires more material to
cements also can be used as pit and fissure restore the cavity.
sealants.
The properties of the sealants are similar
to those of the resin matrix component of FORMS OF DIRECT FILLING GOLD
composite materials. The composites because I. According to the microstructure of the piece
of high viscosity does not penetrate narrow pit 1. Gold foil or fibrous gold
and fissures hence are not good sealants. a. Sheet
Sealant should be examined every six i. Cohesive
months. If the sealant is missing, it should be ii. Noncohesive
reapplied. b. Ropes
c. Cylinders
Direct Filling Gold d. Laminated foil

e. Platinized foil
2. Electrolytic precipitate
Very few materials are used in dentistry in the
a. Mat gold
pure state for restorative purposes, for example,
b. Mat foil (gold foil + mat gold)
gold and titanium.
c. Gold-calcium alloy
3. Powdered gold or encapsulated gold
CHARACTERISTICS OF PURE GOLD powder
II. According to the surface condition of the
• Pure gold is the noblest of all metals.
piece
• Chemically inactive.
a. Cohesive (clean)
• It is one of the most malleable of dental
b. Noncohesive (containing adsorbed
alloys, thus gold restorations can be easily
gases)
inserted and adapted to the cavity wall. They
III. According to the geometric form in which it
can be hammered to a thin sheet of 0.13 mm
is supplied
thickness (0.00013 mm).
a. Sheets
• It is ductile, i.e. it can be drawn over the
b. Ropes
margins of the prepared cavity. It exhibits
c. Strips
excellent marginal seal. (12.8% elongation).
d. Pellets.
• Pure gold is extremely soft (25 BHN) but
it can be work hardened to approximately
the hardness of type-II casting gold, which COMPOSITION
ranges between 70 and 100 BHN.
All the types of direct filling gold is essentially
Pure gold is an almost ideal dental restorative
100% pure gold with exceptions of platinized
material for permanently pressing the tooth
foil and gold calcium alloy (alloyed electrolytic
structure in nonesthetic, low stress bearing
precipitate).
areas.
GOLD FOIL Gold Foil Cylinders

A process known as gold beating forms gold This form is produced by rolling cut segments of
foil. Gold is first passed through a series of number 4 foils into a desired width usually 3.2
rolls (rolling). For dental use 25 µm is starting × 4.8 × 6.4 mm.
thickness for beating operation and that reduces
it to a ribbon form of about 0.0025 mm thick Laminated Gold Foil
(tissue paper thickness). Laminated foils are made by placing a number
The gold is cut into small pieces of 3.5 × 3.5 of sheets on top of each other and cutting the
cm and each piece is placed in between two laminate into pieces of a desired size.
sheets of parchment paper to form a ‘cutch’,
which are placed one over other to form a packet.
A hammer of 16 pounds then beats the
Preformed or Corrugated or
packet, which may contain 200–250 pieces of Carbonized Gold Foil
small gold ribbons, for 1–½ hours. The final This is produced by placing sheets of gold
thickness of the gold (0.00064 µm) can be between papers and enclosing both in iron box.
determined only by its weight. The contents are then smoldered (fired without
Pure gold work hardens readily. Con flame). Then the paper is carbonized. When
sequently, it must be heat treated (stress carbon is blown off each sheet, the corrugated
relieving anneal) to increase its ductility and (small folded) gold remains.
malleability. This form of gold foil is of historical interest
Gold foil is supplied in flat square sheets because it was an outcome of the great Chicago
of varying thickness. For example, Standard fire in 1871. During this the foil was unharmed.
number gold foil is supplied in 4” × 4” sheets
(100 mm × 100 mm) that weigh four grains (0.259 Platinized Gold Foil
grams) and are about 0.51 µm thick. Similarly,
number 3 gold foil weighs (0.194 grams) and is It is produced by placing a layer of pure
about 0.38 µm. platinum foil between two sheets pure gold foil
Although foil may be obtained in thin sheets, (sandwiched) and hammered until the thickness
it is normally purchased in pellet/cylinder form. of no:4 sheet is obtained.
Sheets may be cut into 1/8, 1/16, 1/32, 1/64, etc. Platinized gold foil increases the hardness
and then compressed into pellet/cylinder. This and wear resistance.
particular shape is developed by loosely rolling
each of the sheets into cylinders of desired ELECTROLYTIC PRECIPITATE OR
thickness. Because of its softness and lack of
CRYSTALLINE GOLD
mass, gold foil takes longer time to build up and
for this reason it is used only in small lesions. Crystalline gold powder formed by electrolytic
However, it can be used throughout the cavity precipitation. It cannot be described as foil
and is suitable as a surface material. because it is not formed by a thickness reduction
process.
Advantages
Mat Gold
• Ease of manipulation and workability.
Sometimes referred to as ‘sponge gold’.
Disadvantages Manufacture
• Requires considerable time to build up the • A gold bar anode and a thin gold cathode
restoration. are used in an electrolytic bath. Here the
voltage is so increased such that the gold Alloyed Electrolytic Precipitate or
atoms are attracted so rapidly to the cathode Alloyed Gold or Gold-Calcium Alloy
that they do not orient themselves into a
dense solid metal. Instead, they form crystals Alloyed gold is a mat foil-calcium alloy marketed
in a helter-skelter pattern over the surface as Electralloy RV. It involves alloying of pure
with large voids between them, creating the gold powder with a small amount of calcium.
characteristic porosity of uncondensed mat The calcium content in a finished product is
gold (Fig. 6.31). about 0.1% and is added to produce stronger
• The gold is removed, washed and dried. restoration by dispersion strengthening.
• The gold is sized through sonic (vibrating)
sifter. The average size of the particle is 10–20 POWDERED GOLD
µm.
• Then the gold is shaped which involves Powdered gold is a blend of atomized and
making the particles 3–6 mm wide and chemically precipitated gold powders in pellet
sintered to make the cohesive crystals and with maximum particle size is about 74 mm and
grow together. the average is about 15 mm.
The atomized and chemically precipitated
powders are first mixed with a soft wax to made
Mat Foil
pellets, then wrapped with foil.
This is the combination of mat gold and gold foil.
Mat foil is a sandwich of electrolyte precipitated Cohesive and Noncohesive Gold
gold powder between sheets of number 3 gold
foil. The sandwich is sintered and cut into strips The surfaces of the gold foil sheets must be
of different widths. clean without any impurities to provide proper
It has rapid filling properties and is especially cohesion and compaction between the gold foil
suited for use as an internal filling material sheets during cold working in the tooth cavity.
in a preparation. In addition, it combines the But pure gold foils have the tendency to adsorb
adaptability of mat gold with the surface density gases like O2, N2, H2, etc. These gases prevent the
of the gold foil, making it effective throughout cohesion between the two gold foil sheets. These
the restoration. It facilitates in eliminating the kinds of gold foils with adsorbed gases are called
need to veneer the restoration with a foil. as non-cohesive foils.
Manufacturers usually supply gold foils in
non-cohesive state to prevent cohesion between
them during storage and transport.
Before condensing the gold foil sheets into
prepared tooth cavity non-cohesive gold foils
must be heated to remove the adsorbed gases.
Once the adsorbed gases are removed they can
be bonded very well on cold working. The gold
foils without contamination of gases are called
as cohesive gold foils.
Manipulation
Removal of Surface Impurities
In order to achieve good welding between the
pieces of gold, the surface of the gold should
Fig. 6.31 Electrolytic precipitate be clean. With the exception of noncohesive
gold, direct filling golds are received by the • Adhesion of pellets.

dentist in a cohesive condition. However, • Air currents that are effecting heating
during packaging and storage, they may be uniformly.
contaminated. Therefore, it is necessary to • Use of an excessive amount of gold to heat.
heat the direct filling gold to relatively high • Over sintering.
temperature immediately before it is carried • Greater exposure to contamination.
into the prepared cavity. This step is commonly
called as annealing heat treatment or degassing. Precautions
• Excessive amount of gold overheating or
Objective
repeated heating should be avoided.
The main objective of heating is to remove the • Care should be taken to handle the pieces
adsorbed impurities and they are by producing with stainless steel wire points that will not
an atomically clean surface to achieve cold contaminate the gold.
welding during condensation procedure.
Consequently, a more appropriate term would Alcohol Flame Method
be desorption.
Desorption is essential to remove possible In this, individual pellets are heated in a methyl
surface contaminants such as oxygen, nitrogen, or ethyl alcohol flame at 593 to 694°C. The pellet
water vapor, sulfur dioxide and ammonia is held by a pointed nichrome wire and passed
(intentional contamination). through the tip of the inner blue cone of flame
During desorption, it is possible that some with a slow continuous motion to allow the gold
amount of recrystallization or stress relief may to acquire a dull red glow (Fig. 6.32B).
occur but these are unintentional. Both over and Overheating to a bright red color makes the
under heating should be avoided to achieve good gold difficult to condense. Insufficient heating
cohesion. leaves impurities on the surface of the gold and
prevents complete welding.
In mechanical condensing, a pneumatic
Methods
condenser or an electromallet condenser may
Tray Method be used. Placing a condenser in contact with the
foil and striking the other end of the condenser
In tray method, numerous pellets heated with mallet can accomplish compaction.
simultaneously on a mica tray (Fig. 6.32A) over Subsequently additional foil is welded to these
an alcohol flame or an electric hot plate for 10 pieces in the same manner (cold welding).
minutes at 454°C. The time required varies from Condensers used are:
5 to 20 minutes depending on the temperature 1. Hand condenser with mallet.
and quantity of gold on the tray. Problems that 2. Mechanical condenser or pneumatic vib
may cause incomplete tray desorption include: ratory condenser (Fig. 6.33A).
3. Electrical condenser (Fig. 6.33B).
Each increment must be carefully condensed
by applying adequate compaction force to
produce a void free restoration.
There are several controlling factors in the
condensation process.
• Force of the condensing blow.
• Character of supporting bone and periodontal
membrane resistance.
Figs 6.32A and B (A) Mica tray (B) Alcohol • Size of the condensing point.
flame method • Proper stepping.
Figs 6.33A and B (A) Pneumatic vibratory condenser (B) Electrical condenser
During condensation, the strength is 2. Due to its low surface hardness, it is

increased by work hardening. Once the pre unacceptable in areas of high shear stress.
paration has been restored, the entire surface 3. With some patients the initial high cost of
is subjected to additional condensation for direct filling gold restoration may prohibit
the purpose of increasing surface hardness – its use.
Burnishing. Finishing follows this procedure. 4. Not adhesive to tooth structure.
5. Nonesthetic.
6. High thermal conductivity.
SUITABILITY OF DIRECT FILLING
GOLD AS A RESTORATIVE MATERIAL
Uses
Advantages 1. They are used primarily for pits and small
1. Direct filling gold is insoluble in oral fluids class I restorations.
and will not readily tarnish or corrode, 2. For repairing of casting margins.
maintaining a high polish. 3. For class III and V restorations.
2. Due to its high ductility, it is capable of
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Impression
Materials 7
of multiple teeth with prepared cavities used in
CONCEPTS RELATED TO IMPRESSION
constructing restorations such as crowns, bridges
MATERIALS inlays and onlays.
Impression
An impression is an exact negative replica of
Purpose of Making Impression
the oral structure with an accurate reproduction Many dental appliances are constructed outside
of all the finer details maintaining the correct the patient’s mouth on a cast of hard and / or
spatial dimensions. soft tissues. As the fabrication required many
Impression materials are generally transferred laboratory procedures and the patient cannot
to the patient’s mouth in an impression tray. The be asked to sit in dental office during this
tray is required because these materials are considerable period of fabrication. Therefore,
initially quite fluid and require support. Once they are constructed on the cast in the absence
positioned in the patient’s mouth, the material of patient. The accuracy of fit and the functional
undergoes setting either by physical or chemical efficiency of the appliance depend upon how
process. After setting, the impression is removed well the cast replicates the natural oral tissues.
from the patient’s mouth. This negative replica The accuracy of the cast depends on the accuracy
is converted into a positive replica by pouring it of the impression in which it was cast.
with cast or die materials.
Cast Impression Trays

Cast is the dimensionally accurate positive Impression trays are used as rigid containers
reproduction of a portion of the oral cavity and for carrying the impression material into the
extra oral facial structures, produced in a durable patient’s mouth, for maintaining it in position
hard material and is used as a base for the during setting or hardening and supporting
construction of orthodontic and prosthodontic it during removal from the mouth and when
appliances. casting the model.
Model Classification of Impression Trays

Model is a positive replica of the dentition and Impression trays may be classified as Stock trays
surrounding or adjoining structures and is used and special trays (Table 7.1).
as a diagnostic aid for example to observe the
progress of treatment in orthodontics. Selection of Trays
Impression trays are selected based on:
Die i. Relative need for retention
The term die is normally used when referring to For example, perforated trays for hydro
a positive replica of single tooth or reproductions colloids – Perforations will produce
Chapter 7 Impression Materials 159
Table 7.1 Differences between stock trays and special trays
Stock trays Custom or Special or Individual trays
Available in standard size. Fabricated from a cast of patient’s mouth and all are
disposable
a. Reusable: These are supplied either with or These are made up of:
without perforations a. Shellac or similar thermoplastic material
b. Disposable: Usually perforated made up of a b. Acrylic resins
polymer such as nylon or polystyrene.
Advantages Advantages
a. Eliminates time and expense of fabricating special a. Moderate impression material is required
trays
b. Metal stock trays are rigid b. Sterilization not needed since it cannot be used
for other patient
c. Nonsusceptible to corrosion
Disadvantages Disadvantages
a. Must be sterilized before using for other patient a. Trays are fabricated in laboratory so time
consuming process
b. Require more bulk of material
mechanical interlocking as the material The various types of impression materials

flows through holes. used are as follows:
ii. Special trays for free flowing impression
materials. Inelastic materials/ Elastic materials
For example, ZOE impression paste, and Rigid materials
elastomers, for elastomers retention is Impression Hydrocolloids
achieved by the application of tray adhesive compound
prior to the insertion of impression material. i. Reversible: Agar–Agar
iii. Based on the type of impression materials Impression waxes ii. Irreversible: Alginate
used
Impression plaster Elastomers
For example, perforated – Hydrocolloids
Nonperforated – Impression compound a. Poly sulfides
Special trays – ZOE impression paste and ZOE impression b. Poly silicones
elastomers. paste
iv. Based on the patient’s arch shape and size. i. Condensation silicone
U1, U2, U3, U4 / L1, L2, L3, L4
ii. Addition silicone
c. Poly ether
REQUIREMENTS AND
i. Chemically activated poly
CLASSIFICATIONS ether
II. Light activated poly ether
Impression Materials
Impression materials are used to register or
Ideal Requirements
reproduce the form and relationship of teeth
and oral tissues or used to accurately record Many materials have been used for taking
the dimensions of oral tissues and their spatial impressions. But none of them is perfect. Each
dimensions. material is superior to other in some respects. So
in order to have some means of comparison it is before setting so that all finer details can be
useful to enumerate the properties, which should recorded and less flow property (high viscosity)
be possessed by an ideal impression material. after setting so that impression can be withdrawn
from the mouth without any distortion. Based on
Biological Requirements viscosity, impression materials can be classified
into mucostatic and mucocompressive materials.
Biocompatibility: An ideal impression material i. Mucostatic: These are initially fluid and
should be non-toxic and nonirritant. compress soft tissues to a lesser extent. They
An exception is ZOE impression paste. are more fluid so all the finer details can be
Reactor paste contains eugenol, which may recorded and are used for taking secondary
cause irritation, allergy, burning sensation or or corrective wash impressions, e.g. light
chronic gastric disturbance in some patients. body elastomers, ZOE impression paste,
Disinfection: It should be possible to decontami impression plaster, Agar-Agar, and alginate.
nate an impression to render it safe for further ii. Mucocompressive: Initially more viscous,
handling without affecting the accuracy or fine exert more pressure and displaces soft
details. They can be decontaminated by soaking tissues to a greater extent. They are used to
in aqueous solution of glutaraldehyde (widely record primary or preliminary impression,
used) or formaldehyde or hypochlorite. e.g. impression compound and Putty body
elastomers.
Chemical Requirements Pseudoplasticity: Certain materials those appear
Inertness: An ideal impression material should fairly viscous while under low stress conditions
be: may become fluid during recording of the
i. Chemically inert in the mouth. impression, when the material is placed under
ii. Not dissolve or disintegrate in oral high stress. When a substance behaves in this
conditions. way, it is said to be pseudoplastic, e.g. addition
polysilicone is supplied in only one consistency
Moisture compatibility: An ideal impression (monophase material).
material should be hydrophilic for better
reproduction of details. Mixing time, working time, and setting time
Some are hydrophobic (e.g. addition i. Mixing time: Mixing time is the time from
polysilicones) they require dryfield of operation, the start of mixing until a proper smooth
otherwise they may be repelled by moisture in creamy homogeneous mix is obtained.
a critical area of the impression. This normally ii. Working time: Working time is the time from
results in the formation of ‘blow hole’ in the the start of mixing until the material is no
impression. For hydrophilic materials no special longer suitable for recording an impression.
precautions are necessary. It is normally characterized by the time
taken for the viscosity to increase by a
Compatible with cast or die materials: Impression
given amount above that of freshly mixed
material should be compatible with model and
material (Fig. 7.1).
die materials.
iii. Setting time: The setting time of an
impression material may be defined in
Rheological Requirements terms of the required time to complete the
Rheology is the science that explains the fluid or setting reaction or it is the time required to
flow characteristics of materials. reach a certain degree of rigidity hardness
or elasticity.
Fluidity and viscosity: Viscosity is the resistance Ideally, an impression material should
offered by a fluid to flow. Impression material have longer working time and shorter
should have good flow property (less viscosity) setting time.
Adhesion or retention: Should be adhesive or
remain attached to the tray during recording
the impression. Partial detachment may cause
distortion of the impression and will lead to ill-
fitting of restorations.
Retention can be achieved by using tray
adhesive (for elastomers) or by using a perforated
tray (for hydrocolloids).
Dimensional st abilit y: Should have no
dimensional changes in or out of the mouth at
Fig. 7.1 Relationship between viscosity and time, all temperatures and humidity or should have
that defines working and setting time perfect dimensional stability such that impression
would retain its original accuracy indefinitely,
e.g. Hydrocolloids are not dimensionally stable
Mechanical Requirements due to syneresis and imbibition.
Accuracy: Must be capable of reproducing all the Majority of material accuracy is best
finer details with greatest accuracy. For greatest maintained by pouring gypsum cast soon after
accuracy the dimensional change should be recording the impression.
minimum (± 20 µm).
Material that expands during setting, results Thermal Requirements
in under sized die or cast and vice-versa (Fig. 7.2).
Coefficient of thermal expansion (a) Must be zero
Elasticity: Impression materials should be or minimum to minimize dimensional change
sufficiently elastic (after setting) on removing on cooling or heating.
from the mouth so that under cuts can be On being withdrawing from the mouth
recorded without distortion or it should have at 37°C to room temperature of 27°C, the
large recovery and less permanent deformation. impression undergoes approxim ately 10°C
Tooth shape and curvature provide undercuts. cooling. This results in thermal contraction, the
magnitude of which depends on the value of
Tear strength: On removing the elastic impression COTE of the impression material and impression
material from undercut areas they are often tray, thermal contraction can be minimized if the
put under a considerable tensile stress. So the values of COTE of the impression material and
material should have sufficient tear strength to tray are same.
withstand such stresses without tearing.
The thickest parts of the impression are Thermal conductivity: Should be a good
compressed against the tray when they pass the conductor of heat so that it can soften or
widest part of the tooth (Figs 7.3 and 7.4). harden uniformly which minimizes distortion.
But practically, all impression materials are
Flexibility or strain in compression: Should be poor conductors of heat. Hence they do not set
sufficiently flexible to permit easy removal over simultaneously.
undercuts.
Fig. 7.2 When impression material undergoes contraction, results in oversized die
Fig. 7.3 Comparison of elastic and inelastic impression materials while they are removing
from undercuts
Fig. 7.4 On removing impression material which will be subjected to both compressive and
tensile stresses
For example, paste materials must be supplied in contrasting

1. Agar-Agar colors so that it is easy to see when mixing has
Impression cooling/physical been completed satisfactorily, there are no
compound → change setting streaks of individual color left in the mix.
Impression wax starts from cooler tray
side to warmer tissue Minor Requirements
side.
2. Alginate Acceptable taste and odor: Materials should have
ZOE impression paste Chemical change → good taste and odor.
Elastomers, and starts from warmer Exceptions – Impression plaster – bad taste.
Impression plaster tissue setting side to Polysulfide – Bad odor.
cooler tray side. Shelf-life: Materials should have longer shelf-life
Softening temperature: In case of thermoplastic so that the unused material can be stored.
material, the range of softening temperature Economic: Be relatively inexpensive, simple, and
should not be greater than 50–55°C. Otherwise easy to use.
on placing it in patient’s mouth it may burn the Availability: Be easily available.
oral tissues. It should set or harden at or near Ease of manipulation : Should be easy to
mouth temperature. proportionate, mix and clean. Should not require
Esthetic Requirements any elaborate equipment for manipulation.
Color contrast : Suitable colors are used to Sterilization: Should be easy to sterilize if used
distinguish materials of different viscosities. Two for more than once.
Reusability: To be used again and again without iii. Alginate
any loss of useful properties of material. iv. Light body elastomer
Should permit multiple die pours. v. Impression waxes
Be capable of having additions made and vi. ZOE impression paste.
insertion in the mouth without distortion. This b. Mucocompressive
will allow minor corrections to be made without i. Impression compound
having to take an entirely new impression. ii. Putty elastomer
None of the available materials satisfies all the IV. According to the nature of hardening or
above requirements hence suitable material setting–
could be selected according to the clinical a. By a physical change
condition of patient’s mouth. i. Impression compound
ii. Impression waxes
Classification of Impression Materials iii. Agar-Agar
I. According to their chemical name– b. By a chemical change
a. Impression compound i. ZOE impression paste
b. Impression waxes ii. Alginate
c. Impression plaster iii. Impression plaster
d. ZOE impression paste iv. Elastomers
e. Hydrocolloids V. According to their viscosity–
i. Reversible – Agar-Agar a. High viscosity—Impression compound
ii. Irreversible – Alginate and putty body elastomer
f. Elastomers b. Medium viscosity—Regular body
i. Polysulfides elastomers
ii. Polysilicones (Addition and Conden c. Low viscosity—Impression plaster
sation silicones) ZOE impression paste
iii. Polyether (Chemically activated and Hydrocolloids
light activated) Light body elastomers
II. According to their mechanical properties– VI. According to their dispensing system–
a. Elastic a. Cakes, cylinders, sticks, and cones –
i. Hydrocolloids Impression compound and impression
Reversible – Agar-Agar wax
Irreversible – Alginate b. Powder – Impression plaster and alginate
ii. Elastomers c. Two-paste system – ZOE impression
Polysulfides paste, polysulfide, and polysilicone.
Polysilicones (Addition and conden d. Three-paste system – Chemically
sation silicones) activated polyether.
Polyether (Chemically activated and e. Single paste system – Light activated
light activated) polyether.
b. Nonelastic or rigid VII. According to their clinical applications–
i. Impression compound a. Preliminary impression of edentulous
ii. Impression waxes arches—impression compound
iii. Impression plaster b. Secondary or corrective wash impression
iv. ZOE impression paste i. ZOE impression paste
III. According to the force exerted on the soft ii. Impression plaster
tissues– iii. Alginate
a. Mucostatic iv. Light body elastomer.
i. Impression plaster c. Cavity preparations of inlays and onlays
ii. Agar-Agar – Elastomers.
Fig. 7.5 Impression compound—cake form
d. Partial denture impressions – Hydro a. Impression compound

colloids, and elastomers. • It is supplied in the form of sheets
e. Special uses about 4 – 5 mm thick (Fig. 7.5).
i. Syringe material, e.g. Light body • It is used for making preliminary
elastomer. impression of edentulous arches.
ii. Tray material, e.g. Tray compound, b. Green stick compound
heavy body and putty body • Supplied in stick form and available
elastomers. in different colors (Fig. 7.8).
VIII. According to the mouth condition– • Used for copper band impressions of
a. Edentulous arches—All impression inlays, crowns and border extension
materials can be used. of special trays.
b. Dentulous arches—Hydrocolloids and Type II – High fusing material, e.g. Tray
elastomers. compound
• Used for constructing impression tray
into which another impression material
Impression Compound is carried to make a corrective wash
impression.
Impression compound is one of the oldest
impression materials. It is classified as nonelastic Dispensing
(rigid), mucocompr essive and reversible Impression compound is dispensed in the form
(thermoplastic) impression material, which of cakes, sticks, and cones (Fig. 7.5).
sets by physical change.
Composition: (See Table 7.2)
Alternative Names Setting Reaction
• Dental compound Impression compound is a thermoplastic
• Model compound material, i.e. they soften when heated and
• Model plastic harden when cooled, without occurrence of a
• Impression composition. chemical reaction.
ADA Specification Number 3

Types
Desirable Properties
According to ADA specification number 3, which
is classified into two types. They are: The impression compound should–
Type I – Low fusing material, e.g. 1. Be free of toxic or irritating ingredients.
Table 7.2 Composition of impression compound

Composition
Component Wt% Functions
Natural or synthetic resin 40 • Provides thermoplasticity.
Copal resin – 20%flow and cohesion. • Gives the qualities of flow and cohesion.
rosin – 20%
Waxes(Bee’s wax, carnauba wax, paraffin 7 • Provides thermoplasticity.
wax) • Characterizes the softening temperature and
produces smooth surface.
Stearic acid, shellac, and gutta-percha 3 Acts as a plasticizer, which improves plasticity and
workability.
Diatomaceous earth, French chalk, or talc 50 Acts as filler.
• Increases strength.
• Reduces flow at mouth temperature.
• Reduces COTE.
Coloring agent Trace Gives characteristic color
2. Be well tolerable by the patients, i.e. soften Rheological Properties

at a temper ature, which will cause no
discomfort to the patient. It is highly viscous (4000 centipoise). The very
3. Be hardened at or slightly above the mouth high viscosity is significant in two ways:
temperature without warpage or distortion i. Limits the degree of fine detail, which can
of any salt. be recorded.
4. Have sufficient flow at setting temperature, ii. Characterizes compound as a muco
so that all the fine details of oral structures compressive material.
are recorded. When recording the impressions of some
5. Have less flow at hardening temperature edentulous patients, it is necessary to record
to prevent distortion of impression during the full depth of the sulcus so that a denture
removal. with adequate retention can be designed. Only a
6. Exhibit a smooth glossy appearance after viscous material such as impression compound
it has been passed through a flame. is able to displace the labial and buccal soft
7. Be capable of being carved or trimmed tissues sufficiently.
without chipping or fracturing. Impression compound is mainly used for
8. Be a good conductor of heat for uniform preliminary impression of edentulous arches.
softening and hardening. This gives a model (intermediate cast) on which
9. Be capable of being sterilized without loss a special tray can be constructed. A secondary
of properties. impression is recorded in the special tray using
10. Be adhesive to the trays and not to the a less viscous material such as ZOE impression
tissues.
paste. Pouring this with gypsum product will
give a master cast over which the denture is
Properties fabricated.
Biological Properties Flow: Flow is the ability of a material to undergo
Impression compound is nontoxic and non plastic deformat ion under the influence of
irritant. external forces or by its own weight.
Table 7.3 Flow of impression compounds

at 37 and 45°C
Material Flow
At 37° C At 45°
C
Fig. 7.6 Measurement of flow of impression Type I Impression compound <6% >85%
compound
Type II Tray compound <2%
The flow of the impression compound can
be beneficial or a source of error.
• The impression compound should soften at Thermal Properties
a point just above the mouth temperature Fusion temperature: Fusion temperature
and should exhibit high flow to conform to is probably the temperature at which the
the tissues and register surface detail. crystalline fatty acids solidify. The noncrystalline
• The impression compound should harden at components solidify more slowly and at a lower
mouth temperature and exhibit a minimum temperature.
flow so that it can be withdrawn with out any The practical significance of fusion tempe
distortion. rature is that indicates a definite reduction in
i. Measurement: As shown in Figure 7.6, plasticity during cooling. Above this temperature,
a cylindrical specimen with 10 mm in the fatty acids are liquid and probably plasticize
diameter and 6 mm in height, is loaded at or lubricate the softened material to form a
a definite temperature (37° and 45° C) with smooth plastic mass while the impression is
a weight of 2 kg for 10 minutes. The flow being obtained. Thus, every detail of the mouth
is designated as the shortening in length tissues is more likely to be produced. Below this
of such specimen during the test. Flows temperature an accurate impression cannot be
of type I and II compounds at different expected.
temperatures are given in Table 7.3.
Thermal conductivity: Thermal conductivity of
Percentage Change in length impression compound is low. Due to lack of
of deformation = × 100 conductivity setting is not uniform (starts from
Original length
cooler tray side to warmer tissue side). So the
ii. Factors affecting flow impression must be given adequate time to
• Flow of the impression compound is soften or harden uniformly.
increased with the temperature, time and When immersed in the water bath or heated
amount of load. over a flame, they soften on outside rapidly
• Wet kneading should be avoided as whereas the inner region remains hard. It is
it increases the flow of the hardened important that the material be uniformly soft at
compound, which may lead to distortion the time it is placed in the tray and thoroughly
on removal from the mouth. cooled in the tray before the impression is
Wet kneading increases the flow of both the withdrawn from the mouth.
softened compound and hardened impression.
This effect on flow is believed to be caused by Coefficient of thermal expansion (COTE)
the incorporation of water in the compound Impression compound has a high COTE
that acts as a plasticizer. Excessive wet kneading (200–500 ppm) and undergoes considerable
can increase the flow qualities of the hardened shrinkage on removal from the mouth. The
material at mouth temperature that exceeds the average linear contraction of compound on
6% permissible in the specification at which cooling from mouth temperature (37°C) to room
distortion may occur on removal. So it should temperature (25°C) varies between 0.3 to 0.4%.
be avoided. This can result in inaccuracy. One way to reduce
the error due to thermal contraction is first to are normally softened by using a water bath at
obtain an impression as usual. Then pass the 55°C–60°C.
impression through a flame until the surface The compound is softened by immersing
is softened and retake the impression. During in the water bath at 55°C–60°C. Since the
second impression the shrinkage is relatively less material has low thermal conductivity it must be
since only the surface layer has been softened. immersed in the water bath for sufficient time to
Another modification of this technique is to ensure complete softening.
spray cold water on the metal tray just before it is Kneading: The compound is removed from the
inserted in the mouth. Thus the portion adjacent water bath and kneaded with the fingers in order
to the tray will be hardened while the surface to obtain uniform plasticity throughout the mass.
layer is still soft and records all the finer details.
Loading: The compound is kneaded to suitable
shape and placed in an impression tray
Mechanical Properties
(nonperforated stock tray).
Dimensional stability: Dimensional changes or Tempering: The outer surface (tissue side) of the
distortion can occur on standing the impression compound can be waved over the flame or spray
due to the relaxation of stresses. Stresses are cold water on metal tray just before it is inserted
incorporated due to the following reasons: into the mouth.
• High value of COTE.
• Poor thermal conductivity, and Making impression: The compound along
• Relatively large temperature drop from with tray is then inserted into the mouth. The
mouth to room temperature. impression is retained until it cools to mouth
To minimize distortion, the safest procedure temperature at that might take several minutes
is to allow thorough cooling of the impression due to its lack of conductivity.
before removal and to construct the cast Removal: After it has completely hardened the
immediately after removal from the mouth (at impression is removed from the mouth and
least within the first hour). washed, dried and trimmed.
Casting: A mix of stone/plaster and water poured
Manipulation into the impression and allow it to set. The safest
Softening: Impression compound can be method for removal of the impression is to
softened by using a thermostatically controlled immerse it in warm water until the compound
water bath (Fig. 7.7) or open flame, but they softens sufficiently to allow it to be separated
easily from the cast.
Precautions
• When direct flame is used, the compound
should not be allowed to boil or ignite so
that important constituents are volatilized.
• Prolonged immersion or over-heating in
water bath is not indicated. The compound
may become brittle and grainy because some
of the low molecular weight ingredients may
be leached out.
• Undue kneading should be avoided as it
increases the flow of hardened compound.
• The temperature of the water bath should not
be too low. If it is too low, the material does
Fig. 7.7 Thermostatically controlled water bath not soften properly.
• The temperature of the water bath should not • Does not reproduce fine surface detail.
be more than 60°C. Otherwise the material • Can only give an accurate impression with a
becomes sticky and unmanageable due to long and difficult technique.
leaching of some of the components (Stearic • As it can be resoftened and reused it tends
acid) into the water bath can also burn the to become unhygienic since it cannot be
patient’s mouth. sterilized without affecting its properties.
• The water bath should be lined with napkin, • Its thermal properties are not ideal – large
otherwise the material will adhere to the bath. COTE and low thermal conductivity.
• Impression must be given adequate time to
soften or harden uniformly. Uses
• Premature removal of the impression from • Used for recording preliminary impressions
the mouth should be avoided as it may result of edentulous arches for the construction of
in distortion of impression. special trays.
• Cast should be constructed as soon as possible
after the removal (at least within the first
Green Stick Compound
hour). If longer period elapses, warpage may
occur due to relaxation of internal stresses. It is a low fusing compound (type-I), introduced
• During the separation of the cast from by Green brothers, supplied in cylindrical rods or
the impression, compound should not be sticks of about 10 cm length and 6 mm diameter
overheated. Otherwise, it may adhere to the and is available in variety of colors such as green,
cast and causes discoloration of the stone. black, gray, brown and white (Fig. 7.8). The
composition of green stick compound is almost
similar to that of impression compound with
Advantages
more plasticizers. It is softened by waving over
• Can be used for compressing soft tissues. a gas flame and kneaded (dry kneading).
• Can be used for any technique requiring a
close peripheral seal. Copper Ring Technique or Tube Impression
• Can be used in combination with other Technique
materials.
• Can be added and readopted. Occasionally, green stick compound is used in
• Relatively cheap. operative dentistry to obtain an impression of
a single tooth preparation (crowns, inlays and
Disadvantages onlays). In this technique, green stick compound is
softened and placed in a cylindrical copper band.
• Distorts easily and should not be used when The filled band is then passed over the tooth and
undercuts exist. compound flows into the prepared cavity. After
Fig. 7.8 Impression compound—stick form

Zinc Oxide Eugenol

Impression Paste
It is classified as rigid or inelastic and mucostatic
Fig. 7.9 Copper band matrix impression impression material that sets by a chemical
reaction. These materials are normally used to
make secondary or corrective wash impressions
the compound has been cooled the impression
of edentulous arches. It is abbreviated as ZOE
is withdrawn from the mouth (Fig. 7.9).
impression paste or metallic oxide paste (Fig.
The contour of the entire tooth may not
7.10).
be reproduced accurately because of flow or
fracture of compound on removal. Secondary
or corrective wash impression is taken with light ADA Specification Number: 16
body elastomer.
The function of green stick compound is
Types
to strengthen the copper tube otherwise the Type I – Hard
impression will be squeezed with fingers when Type II – Soft
it is removed from the tooth and distortion will The difference between two types related to
occur. their hardness after setting. Krebs’s penetrometer
is used to find out the hardness of the set
Uses material.
• It is used for border extensions of special Dispensing

trays (border molding technique).
• To obtain an impression of single tooth Usually supplied as two pastes in collapsible
preparations using copper band. metal tubes (Fig. 7.10). Tube-1 is base (white in
• Peripheral seal material. color) and tube-2 is reactor (red in color). They
are also available in powder (ZnO) and liquid
Tray Compound (Eugenol) system.
The tray compound is high fusing compound Composition

and somewhat more viscous when it is softened
and more rigid when it is hardened. They are Compositions of base and catalyst paste are
similar in composition and working qualities given in Table 7.4.
to the impression compound except that the
temperature at which they soften, i.e. higher (70°
C) and the property of flow at mouth temperature
is minimal (less than 2%).
They are usually supplied in the shape of tray,
which may be black or white in color.
They are used to prepare custom made
preliminary impress ion (special tray) that
will later hold a second impression material,
which will record final impression (secondary
impression). Tray compounds lack strength and
dimensional stability; hence they have been
replaced to a large extent by trays made from
self-cure acrylic resins. Fig. 7.10 ZOE impression paste
Table 7.4 Composition of zinc oxide eugenol impression paste

Base paste
Zinc oxide (French processed or USP) 87 • Reactive ingredient, which takes part in setting
reaction.
• It should be finely divided and should contain less
amount of water.
Fixed vegetable oil or mineral oil 13 • Paste former.
(Olive or linseed oil) • Plasticizer – provides smoother and more fluid mix.
• Retarder—retards the rate of reaction and increases
the setting time.
• Aids in masking the action of eugenol as an irritant.
Reactor paste
Oil of cloves or eugenol 12 • Reactive ingredient, which takes part in setting
reaction.
• Oil of cloves contain 70–80% of eugenol it reduces
the burning sensation in the soft tissues of the
mouth when the mixed paste is first placed in
contact with them.
Gum or polymerized rosin 50 • Facilitates the speed of reaction and produces a
smoother homogeneous mix.
• Gives body and coherence to the mixed material.
• Imparts thermoplastic property to the set
impression so that it can be softened in hot water
for removal from the cast.
Filler (silica type)Kaolin, talc, etc. 20 • Used to form a paste with eugenol.
• Increases strength of the mixed paste.
Lanolin 3 Plasticizer.
Resinous balsam (Canada or Peru balsam) 10 To increase flow and improve mixing qualities.
Accelerator solution (CaCl2, or MgCl2) 5 Accelerates the setting reaction.
Color pigments Trace • To distinguish from other paste.
• Enables thorough mixing to be achieved as
indicated by a homogeneous color, free of streaks in
the mixed material.
Setting Reaction It can be seen that ionic salt bonds are

formed between zinc and phenolic oxygen
On mixing the two pastes, a reaction between of each molecule of eugenol. Two further
zinc and eugenol begins. The basis of the coordination bonds formed by donation of a pair
reaction is that the phenolic – OH groups of of electrons form methoxyoxygen to zinc.
eugenol acts as a weak acid and undergoes an Water is needed to initiate the reaction and
acid-base reaction with ZnO to form a salt, “zinc it is also a byproduct of the reaction. This type
eugenolate”. of reaction is often called “autocatalyzation”.
The reaction consists of ZnO hydrolysis and a Some manufacturers do not incorporate
subsequent reaction between Zn hydroxide and water into the paste and for these materials
eugenol to form a chelate, i.e. zinc eugenolate. setting is delayed until the mixed material
Setting reaction of zinc oxide eugenol impression paste
contacts moisture in the patient’s mouth. Water Relatively low viscosity (mucostatic) coupled
is then absorbed and setting is accelerated. with its pseudoplastic nature allows all the finer
Water that is formed aids in binding the details to be recorded in the impression.
individual chelate units together in a chain or
octahedral structure. The stoichiometric ratio of Setting Time
ZnO to eugenol is approximately 0.25 g/ml. The
set impression consists of an amorphous zinc Setting time should not be too long as it causes
eugenolate matrix, which binds unreacted zinc inconvenience to the patient and should not
oxide particles together. be too short so that the material cannot be
manipulated.
Factors affecting setting time are discussed
Properties in Table 7.5.
These materials are nontoxic but those containing
eugenol can be irritant giving stinging or burning Initial Setting Time
sensation to the patient and leaving a persistent It is the time from beginning of mixing until the
taste, which some patients may regard as material ceases to pull away or string out when its
unpleasant. surface is touched with a metal rod of specified
Table 7.5 Factors affecting setting time of zinc oxide eugenol/eugenol impression paste
Factors affecting setting time
Factors To decrease setting time To increase setting time
Temperature Increase (Glass slab and Decrease (Glass slab and spatula
spatula can be heated) can be cooled but not below the
dew point)
Humidity Increase Decrease
Altering the ZnO paste to eugenol More eugenol paste (reactor) More ZnO paste(Base)
Mixing time(within limits) Faster and longer Slower and shorter
Chemical modifiers Add accelerators(CaCl2, Add retarders (boroglycerin, inert
MgCl2, and water) oils and waxes)
dimensions. It includes time for mixing, filling Dimensional Stability

the tray and seating the impression in the mouth.
It is 3–6 minutes for both types of pastes. The dimensional stability is quite satisfactory.
A negligible shrinkage of less than 0.1% may
occur during setting and there is no dimensional
Final Setting Time change after setting. The impression can be
It is the time from the beginning of mixing preserved indefinitely without a change in shape.
until it gets maximum hardness, so that the
impression can be withdrawn from the mouth Rigidity and Strength
with minimum distortion. It should occur within
10 minutes for type-I and 15 minutes for type-II. Strength is not critical requirement for this
material since a tray supports it. The compressive
strength of hardened ZOE paste may be as great
Kreb’s Penetrometer as 7 MPa.
It is used to find out the hardness of set material.
Hardness is measured by noting the extent to Manipulation
which a loaded needle will penetrate on small
specimens of set material (minimum depth of Selection of Materials
penetration). The hardness is expressed in terms • Glass slab or oil impervious paper pad. Oil
of “millimeter” penetrated in a given time. impervious paper pad is preferred to avoid
Thirty seconds after the start of mixing, the cleaning a glass slab to which the material
loaded needle (weight 100 gm) is lowered on adheres firmly. Here the used paper is simply
to the surface of the specimen for 10 seconds torn from the pad and thrown away after use.
and penetration is recorded to the nearest • Stainless steel spatula.
0.1 mm.
Products with penetration values up to
Procedure
0.5 mm are described as type I or hardset and
products with values up to 0.9 mm or above Manipulation stages of ZOE impression paste
are described as type II or softset. The hardest were shown in Figure 7.11. The proper proportion
material sets faster (less than 10 minutes) com of two pastes is generally obtained by squeezing
pared to soft set material (less than 15 minutes). two ropes of pastes of the same length onto the
Hardset materials have a more fluid mixing slab. A flexible stainless steel spatula
consistency before setting and harder and more is used for mixing. The reactor paste is first
brittle after setting. Softset material is tougher collected and applied over the base paste. It is
and not as brittle, has a buttery consistency. It now mixed with broad strokes in a sweeping
has a longer setting time of 15 minutes. motion until a uniform homogeneous color
mix is obtained. Mixing time is approximately
1 minute.
Consistency
Now the mix is collected and spread over
Consistency is the amount of spreading of the the special tray and is placed in the mouth. The
material under a specified load when placed surface of the special tray should be dry since
between the two glass plates immediately after the material will not adhere to wet surfaces.
mixing. Mixed paste should be homogeneous and Unfortunately, the mix will stick to the dried skin
it should flow uniformly against the tissues while and instruments. So it is advisable to coat the
the impression is being obtained. Otherwise, patient’s lips with petroleum jelly. This enables
tissue displacement may occur. According to excess impression paste to be wiped away.
ADA specification number 16 it should be 30–50 It is held firmly in position until the material
mm for type-I and 20–45 mm for type II. has uniformly hardened.
Fig. 7.11 Dispension, mixing, uniform consistency after mixing and recorded impression
Once the material has set, the impression • They require no separating medium before
is removed from the mouth. If the impression the cast is poured.
is not properly recorded another increment of • They can be added and readopted if faulty.
a fresh mix can be placed over that and better • Easy to manipulate.
impression can be obtained. • Inexpensive.
The impression is well-rinsed under running
tap water for removal of any saliva or debris; Disadvantages
disinfected and dried (to be shaken to dispose
excess water). • It cannot be used when a slight undercut
Cast is made by pouring a mix of dental stone exists.
and water into the impression and allowing it to • Requires special tray for making impression.
harden. No separating medium is required when • Some patients find the eugenol content
making the cast. unpleasant (may cause burning sensation
The impression can be separated from the or irritation to the oral tissues).
cast by immersing in hot water at 60°C for 5–6 • Instruments are difficult to clean.
min.
After use, the spatula blade can be cleaned Uses
by warming in a flame until it softens and the • Used for secondary or corrective wash imp
blade can be wiped clean with a paper towel. ressions of edentulous arches.
Solvents are also available for cleaning. They • Temporary relining material and remodeling
mainly contain naphtha, light cutting oils. material.
Advantages Modifications
• They are accurate, register details well and Surgical Paste
are quite stable dimensionally.
• They adhere well to dried surfaces of After gingivectomy (surgical removal of gingiva)
compound, resin and shellac bases. an intraoral bandage such as a surgical ZOE
paste may be placed over the wound to aid in Composition

the retention of a medicament and to promote
healing. Supplied as two-paste system.
Composition is similar to conventional zinc
Requirements oxide eugenol paste with slight modification.
Plasticizers such as petrolatum are often added
Should be/have to reduce the tendency of the pastes to adhere
• Nontoxic, nonirritant, nonallergic to oral to oral tissues.
tissues. Two pastes are mixed together and applied
• Soft and flexible. to register proper occlusion.
• Strong enough to resist displacement during
mastication. Properties
• Bactericidal effect. • Being brittle the paste will tend to fracture
• Promote healing and aid in the retention of rather than distort on removal reducing the
medicament. possibility of inaccurate registration.
• Offer almost no resistance to closing of
Composition mandible thus allowing a more accurate
interocclusal relationship record to be
The composition is same as that of the impression
formed.
paste. However, these pastes are generally softer
• More stable than the one made in wax.
and slower setting (less amount of accelerator) in
composition with impression paste. They contain On the other hand the eugenol, if present,
more amounts of eugenol (weak antiseptic and may be irritating effect to some patients.
sedative); fillers (to increase strength) and more
amounts of plasticizers. Noneugenol Pastes
They are supplied as two pastes or powder (Substitutes for Eugenol)
and liquid system. The powder/liquid or two
pastes are mixed together to form a paste Drawbacks of Eugenol
like consistency. The mixture is formed into a
• Possible stinging or burning sensation
rope and packed into the gingival wounds and
caused by eugenol when it contacts soft
interproximal spaces to provide retention to the
tissues.
dressing.
• Some patients find eugenol extremely
disagreeable.
Drawbacks • Allergic response in some patients.
• May cause chronic gastric disturbance, if it • Leaching of eugenol from surgical pack may
is worn for several weeks. cause the patient chronic gastric disturbance.
• May cause irritation and burning sensation. To cater for this type of patient, eugenol free
zinc oxide pastes are available.
Bite Registration Paste A material similar to the ZOE reaction
product can be formed by a saponification
The materials that are used for recording the reaction to produce an insoluble soap, if the
occlusal relationship between natural or artificial zinc oxide is reacted with carboxylic acid (Ortho-
teeth include impression plaster, impression ethoxy benzoic acid).
compound, wax, resin and metallic oxide paste.
ZOE pastes are often used as recording ZnO + 2 RCOOH → (RCOO)2 Zn + H2O
material in the construction of complete denture Bactericides and other medicaments can be
and fixed or removable partial denture. incorporated without interfering.
Aqueous Elastic Dispersed Phase

The substance, which is distributed in the form of
Impression Materials colloidal particles, is known as dispersed phase.
In a colloid the particles in the dispersed phase
The aqueous elastomeric impression materials consist of molecules that are held together either
are of two types: the reversible and irreversible by primary or secondary forces.
hydrocolloids. The hydrocolloids are based on
colloidal suspensions of polysaccharides in Dispersion Phase
water. They exist in a form that is between that
of a solution (individual atoms or molecules The medium in which the colloidal particles are
dispersed in a medium) and a suspension distributed or dispersed is known as dispersion
(aggregations of atoms or molecules dispersed medium.
in a medium). They may also be thought of as
consisting of a dispersed particle phase (Agar) HYDROCOLLOIDS
and dispersion medium phase (water). Dental
hydrocolloids exist in two forms: a sol (a more Hydrocolloids are the colloids that contain water
or less viscous liquid) and a gel (an elastic solid). as the dispersion medium.
The impression material is introduced into the
mouth as a sol and converts into a gel through Sol
either a chemical or a thermal process. A colloidal system in which the dispersed phase
is a solid and dispersion medium is a liquid.
True Solution
If the size of the dispersed particles is small (less Gel
than 10-7 cm) and cannot be seen by naked eye A heterogeneous biphasic system in which a
or through a microscope, the system is termed liquid is dispersed in a solid dispersion medium
as true solution, e.g. sugar solution. is known as gel.
Suspension and Emulsion Gelation

If the size of the dispersed particles is large (more Gelation is a process of conversion of viscous
than 10-4 cm) and can be seen by naked eye or liquid sol into a semisolid jelly-like substance
through a microscope, the system is termed as (sol → gel). It is a solidification process and
suspension or emulsion. brought about by either a physical change or
Suspension: Solids dispersed in liquids, e.g. a chemical reaction. The temperature at which
sand in water. a sol converts to a gel (in case of reversible
Emulsion: Liquids dispersed in liquids, e.g. hydrocolloids) is known as gelation temperature.
oil and water.
Colloids Mechanism of Gelation

The term colloid is used to describe a state The aggregates of molecules are dispersed within
of matter in which the matter is divided into water when the material is in the sol form. By
particles of size between 10-7 cm to 10-4 cm and a reduction in temperature or by a chemical
distributed in another medium. reaction the aggregates of molecules in a colloid
Colloids are often classified as fourth state of can be made to join or agglomerate together to
matter. It is an intermediate state between true form a network of chains or fibrils or micelles.
solution and suspension. It contains two phases This fibril network encloses the dispersion
(heterogeneous system). They are: medium, i.e. water (held in interstices between
the gelation temperature and liquefaction

temperature of a gel is known as hysteresis.
Irreversible Hydrocolloids
Fig. 7.12 Brush-heap structure Here the change from thick colloidal solution to
a tough elastic gel is brought about by a chemical
the fibrils by capillary attraction). These growing reaction. Once the gelation is completed the
fibrils may branch and intermesh to form a resultant gel cannot be converted back to its
“brush heap structure” (Fig. 7.12). After the original sol state, such an impression material
molecules are joined together to form fibrils the is described as irreversible hydrocolloid.
consistency of the colloid becomes that of a jelly The molecules in the irreversible hydrocolloid
and it is in the gel form. Therefore the greater are joined together by primary bonds. The
the concentration of gel the stronger will be the bonds are very strong and cannot be affected
gel structure. In case of Agar the fibrils are held by temperature change except temperatures at
together by secondary forces, i.e. van der Waals which decomposition takes place.
forces and in alginates fibrils are held together
by primary valency bonds, i.e. covalent bonds.
General Properties
Reversible Hydrocolloids
Dimensional Stability
If a colloid is changed from the sol state to the
gel form and back again to the sol form, the They are dimensionally unstable because of
material is known as reversible hydrocolloid. syneresis and imbibition. They largely contain
This process can be repeated several times, water (dispersion medium in sol and dispersed
such a change in the state is brought about by a phase in gel), which is enclosed loosely within
temperature change. the gel fibrils. If the water content of the gel is
reduced, the gel will shrink and if the gel then
takes up water the gel will swell or expand. If these
Gel to Sol materials are used for obtaining impressions any
On heating, the gel converts to sol form. As change in dimension of impression after it has
the temperature raises, the kinetic energy of been removed from the mouth is a source of
the molecules in the fibrils increases and they error.
separate from each other to form sol.
Syneresis
Sol to Gel Hydrocolloids will lose water content on standing
When the temperature is reduced, by cooling, in an atmosphere, which is not saturated with
the secondary intermolecular forces once again water vapor (dry atmosphere). The gel may
come into play and molecules join together lose water by evaporation from its surface or
to form fibrils (gel). On heating the gel the by exudation of fluid onto the surface of the
secondary bonds are readily destroyed and gel. There also occurs the loss of some of more
broken and material returns to sol form. soluble constituents. Syneresis results in the
Reversible hydrocolloid does not return to formation of small water droplets of exudates on
the sol state at the same temperature at which the surface of the hydrocolloids that is not pure
it is solidified (gelation temperature). The water. It may be alkaline or acidic depending
gel must be heated to a higher temperature on the composition of the gel. Since the fluid
known as liquefaction temperature to return it is removed from the micelles of the gel by
to sol condition. The temperature lag between evaporation or syneresis, the gel shrinks. This
effect is known as syneresis. This property is less 3. The manufacturers can control strength of
in hydrocolloids containing a high concentration the gel by adding appropriate amount of
of dispersed medium. filler.
4. Faster loading or pressing causes greater
Imbibition resistance to deformation, i.e. it maximizes
elastic recovery and minimizes permanent
If a hydrocolloid gel is placed in water it will deformation. (Impression should be removed
absorb water by a process known as imbibition. from the mouth with a single and sudden
The gel swells during imbibition thereby altering jerk).
the original dimensions.
The reversible hydrocolloids will imbibe
only water to replace that which they have lost AGAR IMPRESSION MATERIAL
by syneresis. Gel appears to exhibit memory in (REVERSIBLE HYDROCOLLOID)
this respect (memory effect). However, some Agar hydrocolloid impression materials are
distortion of the gel may take place during compounded from reversible Agar gels. When
syneresis and imbibition. heated, they liquefy or go into sol state and on
Irreversible hydrocolloids will continue to cooling they return to the gel state. Because this
undergo imbibition if they are placed under process can be repeated, a gel of this type is
water. They imbibe until their water content is described as reversible.
much greater than that of the original gel. Chemically, Agar is an organic hydrophilic
hydrocolloid (polysaccharide) extracted from
Remedy certain types of seaweed. It is sulfuric ester of a
In order to ensure optimum accuracy the model linear polymer of galactose.
should be cast as soon as possible. If it is not
possible to pour it up immediately it can be ADA Specification Number: 11
stored in 100% relative humidity for not more
than 1 hour. For shorter periods the surface of the
Dispension
impression can be covered with damp napkin. These materials are supplied in two forms:
a. Tray material: Supplied as gel in plastic or
Gel Strength metallic types of disposable tubes.
b. Syringe materials: Supplied as gel in small
Hydrocolloid gels are relatively weak elastic cylinders of correct size to fit the syringe.
solids, which are subjected to tensile fracture, The only difference between two types is
i.e. tearing and flow. However, such a gel can difference in color and greater fluidity in the
support a sufficient level of stress without flow syringe material.
provided the stress is applied rapidly.
Composition
Factors Affecting Strength
Composition of Agar impression material is
1. Greater the density or concentration of discussed in Table 7.6.
dispersed phase in the sol greater will be the
fibrils formed up on gelation and greater will
be the strength.
Gelation Mechanism
2. Lower the temperature, stronger will be the
gel strength for reversible hydrocolloids. As
the temperature raises more of the fibrils
may revert to the sol phage and strength When the gel is heated, the kinetic energy of
decreases. the fibrils will increase so that the interfibrillar
Table 7.6 Composition of Agar impression material

Ingredient % Functions
1. Agar 13–17 To provide the dispersed phase of sol and the
continuous fibril structure.
2. Borax 0.2–0.5 To improve the viscosity of the sol and strength of
the gel.
3. Potassium sulfate 1–2 Gypsum hardener – to counteract the inhibiting
effect of borax and Agar on the setting of gypsum
model material.
4. Alkyl benzoate 0.1 Preservative—to prevent the growth of mould in
the impression materials during storage.
5. Diatomaceous earth (clay, silica, wax) 0.3–0.5 Filler – to control viscosity, rigidity and strength.
6. Water 85.5 To provide the continuous phase in the sol and
second continuous phase of the gel, the amount
controls the flow properties of the sol and the
physical properties of the gel.
7. Thymol Trace Bactericide
8. Glycerin Trace Plasticizer
9. Coloring and flavoring agents Trace To improve the appearance and taste.
distance increases and the gel is converted to Viscosity of the Sol

the sol because cohesion is less.
After liquefaction the material is sufficiently fluid
When the temperature of the sol decreases,
to record all the finer details. Agar is available
the kinetic energy of sol particles decreases and
in two viscosities, i.e. tray and syringe. Its low
fibrils will form and these form a brush heap
viscosity classifies it as a mucostatic impression
structure. The fibrils are enclosed by weak van
material.
der Waals’ forces. The water is enclosed loosely in
the interstices between fibrils. When the gel is Gelation Time
heated up to 100°C weak van der Waals forces
disappear because of heat absorbed by fibrils Gelation time is a function of both temperature
and increase in their kinetic energy. and time. It is approximately 5 minutes.
Liquefaction temperature of the gel, i.e. the
temperature at which gel is converted to sol Gelation Temperatures
and gelation temperature, i.e. the temperature Gelation temperature should not be too high
at which sol is converted to gel, both the (may burn soft tissues) or too low (it is difficult
temperatures are different for a hydrocolloid. to chill the material to form gel). According to
This temperature lag or difference between ADA specification no. 11 gelation temperature
liquefaction and gelation temperature is known should not be less than 32°C and should not be
as hysteresis, which makes the hydrocolloid to more than 45°C.
use in dentistry.
Gel Strength
Properties According to ADA specification no. 11 the gel
strength should not be less than 0.245 MPa.
They are nontoxic, nonirritant to the oral tissues. Strength depends on–
a. Concentration of dispersed phase If the thickness of the material is more
b. Temperature between the tray and the teeth, the amount
c. Filler content. of compression is more, so more will be the
deformation.
Tear Strength
It is about 715 g/cm. It is very low. So use
minimum thickness of 3–5 mm. It depends Agar impression materials are dimensionally
on the rate of loading, i.e. rapid removal is unstable due to syneresis and imbibition. So
recommended to maximize tear strength and to cast should be poured immediately after taking
minimize permanent deformation. the impression.
Flexibility Impression Trays

ADA requirement is 4–15%. Flexibility is Water-cooled perforated trays are used for
measured as the amount of strain produced mechanical retention (Figs 7.13B and C).
when a sample is stressed between 100–1000
g/cm2. It is required for easy removal of the Compatibility with Gypsum
impression from undercuts.
Agar is compatible with die stone.
Permanent Deformation
Electroplating
Agar impression materials are classified as
elastic but they are not perfectly so. They Agar impression material cannot be electroplated.
undergo a small amount of deformation known
as permanent set due to viscoelastic behavior. Disinfection
Permanent deformation is measured as
Agar impression can be disinfected by using
the percentage of deformation that occurs in a
iodopher bleach ‘or’ 2% glutaraldehyde.
cylindrical sample after it is compressed 10% for
30 seconds.
According to ADA specification no. 11 it Manipulation
should be less than 1.5%.
Reversible hydrocolloids are normally condi
Elastic recovery (ER) = 100–1.5
tioned prior to use, using a specially designed
= 98.5%
hydrocolloid conditioner (Fig. 7.13A). This
Permanent deformation is a time dependent
consists of three temperature-controlled
property and is a function of:
compartments containing water.
i. Percent compression
1. Liquefying component
ii. Time under compression
2. Storage component
iii. Time after removal of compressive load
3. Conditioning ‘or’ tempering component.
iv. Severity of undercuts.
Lower permanent deformation occurs when Liquefaction of Gel (Gel to Sol)
i. Percent compression is lower
ii. Impression is under compression for The filled syringes and tubes are placed in one
shorter time of the water baths of a hydrocolloid conditioner
(Remove the impression with a sudden at 100°C for 10–15 minutes. This rapidly converts
jerk) gel to sol. Insufficient boiling will lead to a
iii. When the recovery time is long after granular stiff mass that will not reproduce the
removal. finer details.
Figs 7.13A and B (A) Hydrocolloid conditioner (B) Water-cooled Rimlock trays
(C) Line diagram of water-cooled Rimlock trays
If the material is to be reliquefied after a ii. Reduce the temperature enough so that the
previous use, approximately three minutes material will not be uncomfortable to the
should be added to the boiling time, each time patient.
the material is reliquefied. The rate of gelation is influenced by the
At higher altitudes, the temperature of temperature at which the hydrocolloid is held.
water will not reach 100°C. In such cases a The lower the temperature the shorter should be
pressure cooker can be used or an agent such the storage time in conditioning compartment.
as “propylene glycol” can be added to the water
until a temperature of 100°C is attained. Impression Making
Storage of the Sol In order to secure maximum detail, the prepared
After the Agar gel has been converted to sol, the cavity is first filled by injecting the syringe
tubes and syringes are then placed in storage material taken directly from storage bath. Before
bath, which is maintained at 63°C to 66°C. It can placing the tray material in the mouth, the water
be stored at this temperature for several hours. soaked outer layer of tray material is blotted
Lower temperatures may result in some gelation with a dry gauge sponge. Failure to do so may
and inaccurate reproduction of fine detail. prevent firm union between the tray and syringe
The material in the syringe is never allowed material. The tray is immediately brought into
to drop below this temperature. Otherwise, it position and seated with passive pressure.
will undergo gelation and it is then difficult to
squeeze. Gelation
Gelation is accomplished by circulating cool
Conditioning or Tempering water approximately 18–23°C through the tray
The material that is used to fill the tray must be for not less than 5 minutes. The coolest areas of
cooled or tempered. When the impression is to the sol are converted to gel rapidly. So material
be taken, the stored Agar sol is squeezed in a in contact with tray sets more rapidly than
perforated water cooled tray, a gauge pad ‘or’ in contact with oral tissues due to its lack of
glass is placed over the top of the tray and the conductivity (tray to tissue side). Circulation of
tray is placed in conditioning bath at 43°–45°C ice water will induce rapid gelation and more
for 5–10 minutes. The purpose is to: concentrations of stress in hydrocolloid, which
i. Increase the viscosity of the sol so that it is nearer the tray and distortion of impression
will not flow out of the tray. may result.
Washing
The impression is rinsed thoroughly with water
and excess water is removed by shaking the
impression.
Construction of Cast
Cast is poured immediately after recording the
impression by pouring a mixture of water and
suitable gypsum product. Improper manipulation
techniques lead to failure of impression. Types
of failures and their causes are discussed in
Table 7.7.
Fig. 7.14 Final impressing with Agar Wet Field Technique

In this technique, the tooth surfaces and
Removal tissues are purposely wetted with warm water.
Then syringe material is injected quickly in
After gelation, the impression is removed rapidly bulk to cover the occlusal and incisal areas.
from the mouth with a single, sudden jerk in a Then immediately tray material is seated over
direction parallel to the long axis of the tooth. the syringe material. The hydraulic pressure
Impression made with Agar gives accurate of the viscous tray material forces the fluid
details (Fig. 7.14). syringe material into the areas to be recorded.
Table 7.7 Types of failures occur in Agar impressions

Type of failure Causes
Grainy material i. Inadequate boiling
ii. Storage temperature too low
iii. Storage temperature too long
Separation of tray and syringe material i. Water soaked layer of tray material is not removed
ii. Premature gelation of either syringe or tray material
Tearing i. Inadequate bulk
ii. Premature removal from the mouth
iii. Syringe material partially gelled when tray is seated
External bubbles Gelation of syringe material preventing flow
Irregular shaped voids Material too cool or grainy
Rough and chalky stone material i. Inadequate cleansing of impression
ii. Excess water or potassium sulfate left in impression
iii. Premature removal of die
iv. Improper manipulation of the stone
v. Air drying the impression before pouring
Distortion i. Impression not poured immediately
ii. Movement of the tray during gelation
iii. Premature removal from the mouth
iv. Improper removal from the mouth
v. Use of ice water during initial stages of gelation
Fig. 7.15 Alginate impression materials
Theoretically, there is less chance that these completed, the material cannot be reliquefied to
materials will tear when the impression is a sol. These hydrocolloids are called “irreversible
removed from the mouth. hydrocolloids” (Fig. 7.15).
Uses of Agar
• For dentulous impressions.
• For crown and bridge impressions to a
limited extent. This material is based on alginic acid, which
• For model duplication. is prepared from brown seaweed (algae), which
is a marine plant. Chemically, it is a linear
Advantages of Agar polymer of anhydro – D – mannuronic acid of
high molecular weight. Alginic acid is insoluble
• Reproduces finer details.
in water but the salts obtained with sodium,
• Used for model duplication.
potassium, and ammonium is soluble. Sodium,
• Sufficiently flexible.
potassium, and tri-ethanolamine alginates are
• High elastic recovery.
used in dental impression materials.
• Can be reused.
Disadvantages of Agar ADA Specification Number: 18

• Dimensional instability. Types
• Impression cannot be electroplated.
• Low tear strength. According to ADA specification number 18,
• Elaborated and expensive equipment is alginate impression material is classified into
required for manipulation. two types:
Type – I: Fast set
Type – II: Normal set
ALGINATE IMPRESSION MATERIAL
(IRREVERSIBLE HYDROCOLLOID) Dispensing
Dental alginate impression materials change Supplied as powder and available in two forms:
from the sol phase to the gel phase because a. Bulk containers: Packaged in a sealed screw
of a chemical reaction. Once the gelation is type plastic containers. It also contains a
plastic scoop for dispensing the powder and give a precipitate of calcium phosphate. This
a cylinder for measuring the water (Fig. 7.15). reaction delays the supply of calcium ions
b. Small sealed packets or sachets (preweighed) required for the gelation reaction and thereby
constructed of plastic metal foil. This package increases the working time.
prevents moisture contamination and
extends the shelf-life of alginate (Fig. 7.15).
Fluoride is frequently also present (often
as Na2SiF 6) in concentrations ranging from When all the sodium phosphate has reacted
0.3–4% to improve the quality of the stone poured the calcium ions begin to react with the soluble
against the set alginate. alginate to produce calcium alginate as a gel. As
the reaction proceeds, the degree of cross-linking
Composition of alginate increases and gel develops elastic properties.
Discussed in Table 7.8.
Gelation The set material is then a brush heap

structure of fibrils of calcium alginate enclosing
On mixing the powder with water a sol is formed unreacted sodium alginate, excess water, filler
and the alginate, the calcium salt, and phosphate particles and reaction byproducts.
begin to dissolve. Calcium sulfate rapidly reacts
with soluble alginate to produce an insoluble
calcium alginate gel in an aqueous solution. The Properties
production of calcium alginate is so rapid that Biological Properties
it does not allow sufficient working time. Thus,
a retarder, trisodium phosphate, is added to the Alginate impression materials are nontoxic and
solution to prolong the working time. nonirritant to the oral tissues.
Trisodium phosphate reacts with calcium Note: Alginate uses diatomaceous earth as filler.
sulfate in preference to the soluble alginate to Diatomaceous earth contains finely divided silica
Table 7.8 Composition of alginate impression material

Soluble alginate (Na, K, NH4 or tri- 15 Main reactive ingredient. Forms sol with water. Reacts with
ethanol amine alginate) Ca ions to form a gel of calcium alginate.
Calcium sulfate dihydrate 16 Reactor – releases Ca ions to react with soluble alginate to
form insoluble calcium alginate gel.
Trisodium phosphate 2 Retarder – to react preferentially with Ca ions and provides
sufficient working time before gelation.
Diatomaceous earth 60 Filler—to increase strength and stiffness of the gel structure
that is not tacky and controls the viscosity of the mix.
Zinc oxide 4 Filler—has some influence on physical properties and
setting time of the gel.
Potassium titanium fluoride 3 Gypsum hardeners – to counteract the inhibiting effect of
alginate on setting of die material and improve the surface
of the stone model.
Flavoring agents(Winter green/ Trace To provide pleasant taste to make it more acceptable to the
peppermint) patient.
Color pigments Trace To provide characteristic color.
particles. Some of these particles are present in iii. Time after removal of compressive load
the dust, which rises from the tin or container iv. Severity of undercuts.
after tumbling or fluffing or shaking. These
Lower permanent deformation occurs when the:
silica particles are found to be a source of health
i. Percent compression is lower
hazard if inhaled.
ii. Impression is under compression for
Remedy: The tin or container is allowed to shorter time
settle for a while after tumbling. Then hold the (Remove the impression with a sudden jerk)
container away from the face when opened iii. When the recovery time is long up to about
to avoid breathing the dust or use dust-free 8 minutes.
alginates. If the thickness of the material is more
between the tray and the teeth, the amount
Gelation Time of compression is more, so more will be the
deformation.
Gelation time is the time from the beginning
of the mixing until the gelation occurs. It is
measured as the time from the start of mixing Gel Strength
until the material is no longer tacky or sticky According to ADA specification no. 18, the gel
when it is touched with clean and dry finger. strength should not be less than 0.343 MPa.
Based on gelation time there are two types
of alginates: Factors Affecting
Type-I: Fast set – 1 to 2 minutes.
Type-II: Normal set – 2 to 4.5 minutes. 1. Decrease in W/P ratio, within limits, increases
strength.
Controlling of gelation time 2. Both under and over spatulation decreases
1. By altering the W/P ratio or mixing time – not strength.
recommended.
2. By adding retarder to the material – controlled Tear Strength
by the manufacturer.
3. By altering the temperature of water used Tear strength varies from 300–700 gm/cm2. It is
for mixing. (Decrease in water temperature very low. So use minimum thickness of 3–5 mm.
increases setting time).
Flexibility
Permanent Deformation According to ADA specification no. 18, the
Alginate impression materials are classified as flexibility should be 5–20%. It is measured as
elastic but they are not perfectly so. They undergo amount of strain produced when a sample
a small amount of deformation known as is stressed between 100–1000 gm/cm 2. Most
permanent set due to their viscoelastic behavior. alginates have a typical value of 14%.
Permanent deformation is measured as
the percentage of deformation that occurs in a
cylindrical specimen after it is compressed for 30 Alginate impression materials are dimensionally
seconds. According to ADA specification no. 18, unstable due to syneresis and imbibition. So cast
permanent deformation should be less than 3%. should be poured immediately after taking the
impression.
Elastic recovery = 97% (100 – 3)
Permanent deformation is a time dependent
Impression Trays
property and is a function of:
i. Percent compression Perforated trays (Fig. 7.16C) are used for
ii. Time under compression mechanical interlocking of the material.
Figs 7.16A to D (A) Flexible rubber bowl and alginate spatula, (B) Alginate scoop and water measuring jar,
(C) Perforated tray, and (D) Measured amount of alginate powder and water
Compatibility with Gypsum to fill the voids in the dispensing scoop and to
ensure a reproducible volume of the powder is
Alginate is compatible with die stones. used in each mix. The blade of the spatula is
then used to scrape off the excess from the top
Electroplating of the cup.
Impressions cannot be electroplated. For maxillary impression: 2 scoops of powder
+ 1 measure of water by volume.
15 g of powder + 40 ml of water by weight.
Shelf-life For mandibular impression: 1 scoop of
Alginate impression materials have a shorter powder + ½ measure of water.
shelf-life. They deteriorate rapidly at higher 7.5 g of powder + 20 ml of water
temperatures. Therefore, it is better not to stock The most accurate way of dispensing alginate
the material more than one year and it should is by weighing it; volumetric dispensing can
be stored in a cool and dry environment. differ from the recommended weight by 10–20%.
Manipulation Mixing
The measured powder is shifted into premeasured
Instruments Required
water that has been placed in a clean rubber
Flexible rubber mixing bowl, alginate-mixing bowl. The powder is incorporated into water by
spatula with wide blade and perforated tray careful spatulation.
(Figs 7.16A to D). Once the powder has been wetted, the
material is mixed with a vigorous figure 8 motion
with the mix being swiped or stropped between
Proportioning
the blade of the spatula and sides of the mixing
The container of the powder should be shaken bowl with intermittent rotation of the bowl.
before use to get uniform distribution of Mixing time is about 45 seconds. Both under
constituents. The powder dispensing scoop is spatulation and over spatulation should be
slightly over filled, tapped gently with spatula avoided.
Fig. 7.17 Loading alginate material
Figs 7.18A and B An alginate impression of (A) The upper arch; (B) Lower arch
Under spatulation Impression Making

i. Inadequate wetting and lack of homo
geneity. The loaded tray is carried to the patient’s mouth
ii. Mix will be grainy and poor recording of to record the impression. The posterior portion
details. of the tray is usually seated first then the anterior
part. The tray is held gently until the alginate sets
Over spatulation
(gelation starts from warmer tissue side to the
i. Reduction in working time.
cooler tray side).
ii. Reduction in strength due to destruction of
gel fibrils as they form.
The final mix should be a smooth, creamy Removal
mixture that does not drip off the spatula when
it is raised from the bowl. After the seal between the impression and
peripheral tissue is broken the tray and impres
sion should be removed with a single sudden jerk
Loading
to minimize permanent deformation.
The mixed alginate is transferred to a perforated Impressions made with alginate were shown
tray by using mixing spatula and is generally in Figures 7.18A and B. One can make accurate
added to the posterior portion of the tray and impression when proper impression technique is
pushed towards anterior portion as shown in followed. Types of failures in alginate impression
Figure 7.17. were discussed in Table 7.9.
Table 7.9 Types of failures in alginate impressions
Types of failure Causes
Grainy material • Improper mixing
• Prolonged mixing
• Lower W/P ratio
• Undue gelation
Tearing • Moisture contamination
• Premature removal from the mouth
• Prolonged mixing
• Inadequate bulk
External bubbles • Undue gelation preventing flow
• Air incorporation during mixing
Irregular-shaped voids Moisture or debris on the tissue
Rough or chalky stone model • Inadequate cleaning of impression
• Excess water left in the impression
• Premature removal of the model
• Improper manipulation of stone
Distortion • Movement of the tray during gelation
• Premature removal from the mouth
• Tray held in the mouth too long
• Impression not poured immediately.
Washing • Correct W/P ratio as specified by the

manufacturer has to be followed. Variation
It should be washed under running tap water in W/P ratio affects setting time, permanent
and excess water should be shaken off. deformation, flexibility and strength.
• Air should not be incorporated during
Disinfection mixing.
• Both under and over spatulation should be
The impression can be disinfected by 10 minutes avoided.
immersion or spray with sodium hypochlorite or • The temperature of water used for mixing
glutaraldehyde or iodopher. should be between 18°C– 23°C.
• At least 3–5 mm thickness of material should
Construction of Cast be present between the tray and the tissues.
• Tray should not be moved during gelation.
Cast should be poured immediately with a • Impression should be held in the mouth for
mix of dental stone and water, as they are not at least 2–3 minutes after the material has
dimensionally stable. gelled. Because strength and elasticity of
the gel increases with time thus permitting
superior reproduction of undercuts.
Precautions
• Cast should be poured immediately. For
• The instruments must be absolutely clean. shorter periods it can be stored in 100%
Small amount of gypsum left in the bowl will humidity or its surface can be covered with
accelerate the reaction. damp napkin.
• Dust is raised due to tumbling of the powder, • Cast should not be left too long in the
should not be inhaled. impression.
Advantages
• Reproduces excellent surface detail.
• High elastic recovery.
• Record undercuts.
• Comfortable to the patient.
• It is hygienic since fresh material is used each
time.
• It is inexpensive.
Disadvantages
• Dimensionally unstable.
• Low tear strength.
• Cannot be electroplated.
• No proper storage medium.
• Cannot be added if faulty. Fig. 7.19 Dust-free alginate
Uses
• Used for making the impressions of Siliconized Alginates
edentulous and partially edentulous mouths.
• To a limited extent in making the impressions Alginates modified by the incorporation of
of inlay, crown and bridges. silica particles have been developed. These are
• In orthodontics, it is used to take the supplied as two pastes, which are mixed together.
impression of the patient’s mouth prior Tray and syringe consistencies are available.
and during the treatment to construct study These materials have superior resistance to
models. tearing when compared to unmodified alginates.
However, dimensional stability is poor. These
Modified Alginates materials are considered as hybrids of alginates
and silicone elastomer but their properties are
Dust-free or Dust-less Alginates closely related to those of alginates.
It has been suggested that air-borne particles
(dust) from alginate impression powders have Alginates in the form of Sol
the potential for causing respiratory problems. They are supplied as two-paste system. One
One study found that from 10–15% of these contains the alginate sol while the second
particles are siliceous fibers in the 3–20 micron contains calcium reactor. They may be supplied
size range; these dimensions are similar to those in both tray and syringe viscosities.
of asbestos and glass particles, which are known
carcinogens. Modified by the Addition of Chemical
Many materials have now been formulated
Indicators
which give off little or no dust particles avoiding
dust inhalation. This can be achieved by coating The purpose is to indicate different stages of the
the material with a dedusting agent such as manipulation, chemical reactions taking place
glycerol to agglomerate the powder particles. and change in pH of the mix. The indicator
This causes the powder to become denser than incorporated gives a color change setting
in the uncoated states (Fig. 7.19). reaction proceeds.
For example, it shows violet color – during • The bond between alginate and Agar is not
spatulation. always strong.
Pink color – ready to load. • Highly viscous alginate may displace the Agar
White color – material has set. during seating.
Alginates Containing Disinfectants Duplicating Materials

Recently developed alginates contain disinfec Duplicating materials are used to make an
tant in the material itself that destroy the accurate replica of model or cast (Fig. 7.20). A
microorganisms. This eliminates the disinfection duplicate refractory is used in the construction
of the impression by immersing in or spraying of prosthetic appliances (partial dentures)
with disinfectant, which may lead to dimensional and orthodontic models. It is required for two
changes, e.g. quaternary ammonium salt. reasons:
• COE hydrophilic gel (GC America) is a. The cast on which the wax pattern of metal
a dustless alginate that contains 1.0% framework is to be formed must be made
chlorhexidine diacetate as an antimicrobial from a refractory investment, since it must
agent. withstand the casting temperatures.
• Jeltrate Plus Antimicrobial Alginate b. The original cast is required for checking
(Dentsply/Caulk) contains 1.7% didecyl- the accuracy of the metal framework and for
dimethyl ammonium chloride and has processing the plastic portion of the denture.
exhibited an ability to markedly reduce the
number of bacteria present. ADA Specification Number: 20
• Identic dust-free (Cadco) contains a
proprietary antimicrobial agent. Materials
• Blueprint Asept (de Trey) contains didecyl- Type I (reversible) It is of two types:
dimethyl ammonium chloride and has been Class I (hydrocolloid) e.g. Agar
found to be effective in reducing bacterial 1. Reproduces excellent surface detail.
counts. 2. Can be reused.
3. Adequate strength and elasticity to duplicate
Laminate Technique undercut areas.
4. Not dimensionally stable.
In this technique, the Agar material is injected
onto the prepared teeth and alginate in an Class II (nonaqueous) e.g. PVC gel.
impression tray positioned over it. Alginate They have high strength and chemical
gels by a chemical reaction whereas Agar gels stability, which permits a large number of
by means of contact with cooler alginate rather duplications before replacements.
than circulating water. The impression may be
removed in about 4 minutes.
Advantages
• Cost of equipment is lower because only
syringe needed to heat.
• Elimination of water-cooled trays.
• Records all the finer details.
Disadvantages
• Poor dimensional stability. Fig. 7.20 Cross-section of duplicating flask
Type II (irreversible) It is also of two types: Elastomeric Impression Materials

Class I (hydrocolloid) e.g. Alginate The materials which will deform elastically while
1. Does not require heating or storage equip removing from the undercut areas and spring
ment. back to its original state after removing are called
2. Cannot be reused. elastic impression materials.
3. Dimensionally unstable.
Class II (nonaqueous) e.g. polysilicones and ADA Specification Number: 19
polyethers.
Types
• Very expensive.
According to ADA specification number 19 for
Properties: According to ADA specification
nonaqueous elastomeric impression material
no. 20, duplicating materials (type-I and type-
there are four types:
II) should have maximum of 3% permanent
1. Polysulfide
deformation.
2. Condensation polysilicone
Flexibility = 4–5%
3. Addition polysilicone
Duplicating procedure: Agar duplicating material 4. Polyether
is the most common type used in the dental
laboratory technique for duplication, involves Classification
standing the cast on a glass slab surrounded by 1. According to their chemical name–
a metal duplicating flask. Agar gel is heated to a. Polysulfide
100°C to convert the gel to sol and then allowed b. Polysilicones
to cool to 50°C before use. The fluid material is i. Condensation
then poured through a hole in the top of the flask ii. Addition
until it overflows through another hole as shown c. Polyether
in Figure 7.20. When gelation is completed, the i. Light activated polyether
master cast is removed with a single sudden ii. Chemically activated polyether
jerk to minimize permanent deformation. The 2. According to their viscosity–
duplicating cast should be poured immediately a. Very high viscosity or putty elastomer (P)
with refractory material (silica bonded or b. High viscosity or heavy body (tray
phosphate bonded) to avoid dimensional consistency) – type I (H)
changes due to syneresis or imbibition. c. Medium viscosity – regular body – type–II
(R)
d. Low viscosity – light body (syringe
Nonaqueous Elastomeric consistency) – type III (L)
Polysulfides are available in – L, R, and H
Impression Materials Condensation polysilicones – L,P
Addition polysilicones – L, R, H, P
Elastomers are a group of polymers that undergo Polyether – R + body modifier or L, H
very large reversible elongation at comparatively 3. According to the method of polymerization–
low stress. a. Condensation polymerization, e.g.
Or polysulfides and condensation poly
Elastomers are synthetic resin polymers with silicones.
high elasticity due to their coiled structure. b. Addition polymerization, e.g. addition
Or polysilicone and polyether.
Elastomers are polymers which may be 4. According to the method of activation–
stressed in a manner similar to rubber and which a. Chemical or catalyst activated, e.g.
will spring back to its original dimension when polysulfide, polysilicones and chemical
unstressed. activated polyether
b. Light activated, e.g. light activated and recoiling on application and removal of
polyethers stress.
5. According to the mode of dispensing– • They must be cross-linked so that–
a. Single paste system, e.g. light activated a. Chains do not slip under prolonged
polyether stretching.
b. Two-paste system (Base + Reactor), e.g. b. Chains will not go apart.
polysulfides and polysilicones c. Lower permanent deformation occurs.
c. Single paste with reactor liquid, e.g. • Should be amorphous.
condensation polysilicones • Glass transition temperature (Tg) should be
d. Three-paste system (Base + Reactor + below the room temperature.
Body Modifier) e.g. Chemically activated
polyether
6. According to their clinical application– POLYSULFIDE IMPRESSION MATERIAL
Impression Uses Viscosities used Alternative Names
technique
Double i. Cavity L ight body + 1. Mercaptan impression material – by
mix single impressions Heavy body chemistry.
impression or of inlay and 2. Thiokol – first manufacturing company.
multiple mix onlay 3. Vulcanized impression materials – by
technique ii. Impressions processing technology.
of crown
Double i. Cavity Light body + Dispension
mix double impressions putty body
impression of inlay and Supplied as two pastes in collapsible tubes (base
onlay and reactor).
ii. Impressions Polysulfides are available in light, regular,
of crown and heavy body consistencies. May also be
iii. Impressions available in putty like consistency.
of partial
dentures
Composition
Single i. Cavity
mix single impressions Composition of base and catalyst pastes are
impression of inlay and discussed in Table 7.10.
onlay
ii. Impressions Setting Reaction
of partial
On mixing the two pastes, the terminal
dentures
iii. Impressions and pendant –SH groups of the polysulfide
of full prepolymer are oxidized by lead dioxide to
denture or produce polysulfide rubber with the elimination
edentulous of water as byproduct. During this reaction–
mouths. • Chain lengthening occurs due to the reaction
of terminal –SH groups.
• Cross-linking occurs due to the reaction of
Requirements
pendant –SH groups.
• Should be soft and flexible. Since the pendant –SH groups compose
• Should exhibit reversible deformation. only a small percentage of available – SH
• Should be a high polymer. groups, initially chain lengthening occurs which
• Chain molecules should undergo uncoiling increases the viscosity of the mix.
Table 7.10 Composition of polysulfide impression material

Base
Moderately low molecular wt. polysulfide 74-80 This is further polymerized and cross-linked to
prepolymer with terminal –SH groups. form rubber.
Moderately low molecular wt. polysulfide 2 Undergoes cross-linking, which reduces permanent
prepolymer with pendant –SH groups. deformation during removal from the mouth.
Reinforcing fillers, e.g. TiO2, chalk, 16 (L)56 (P) Paste former. Improves strength. Gives body and
lithopone (BaSO4 + ZnSO4) control viscosity.Modifies physical properties.
Plasticizer (Dibutyl phthalate) 0.5 To confer appropriate viscosity to the paste.
The base paste is normally white due to the filler and has an unpleasant odor caused by the high
concentration of thoil (—SH) groups.
Reactor ‘or’ catalyst paste
Lead dioxide (PbO2) 78 Oxidizing agent.
Undergoes polymerization and cross-linking by
oxidation of –SH groups. Gives characteristic dark
brown color to the paste and has a bad smell.
Sulfur 3 To facilitate the reaction or as a promoter.
Involved in the setting reaction.
Dibutyl phthalate 17 To form a paste with PbO2 and sulfur.
Inert oils (Stearic acid) 2 Retarderto control the rate of reaction.
Deodorants Trace To offset the unpleasant smell of PbO2
Polysulfide prepolymer with terminal and pendant –SH groups Polysulfide rubber
The subsequent cross-linking links all the of 3–4°C. The reaction is sensitive to moisture
chains together in a three dimensional network and temperature and increase in either will
which confers elastic properties to the material. accelerate the reaction.
This reaction is more effective in the presence of During condensation process, water is
sulfur. formed as byproduct. Loss of even this small
The polymerization of polysulfides is amount of water by evaporation will have a
exothermic with a typical increase in temperature significant effect on the dimensional stability of
the impression. Although the mix sets to rubber that it can be removed from the mouth with
in about 10–20 minutes but the polymerization minimum permanent deformation. Setting
reaction continues for several hours. time of polysulfide impression materials can be
measured by:
Modifications • Vicat penetrometer
• One material avoids the use of PbO2 and • Reciprocating rheometer.
replaces it by an organic reactor such
as cumene hydroperoxide or t-butyl Factors Affecting Setting Time
hydroperoxide. However, this constituent is
1. Temperature: Increase in the temperature
volatile and its loss by evaporation leads to
accelerates curing rate and thereby decreases
shrinkage of the set mass.
both working and setting time.
• A recently developed polysulfide replaces the
Cooling is the practical method of
lead dioxide by inorganic hydroxide such as
increasing working time of the material.
Cu(OH)2.
This can be accomplished by storing the
material at a low temperature or by mixing
Properties
on a chilled dry glass stab. But when the
• They are non-toxic and non-irritant to the material is carried to the mouth, setting time
oral tissues. It has a bad smell and odor is decreased due to the oral temperature.
due to the presence of PbO2 and mercaptan 2. By altering the base/reactor paste ratio: It
groups. is not recommended because mechanical
This problem can be avoided by properties can be adversely affected.
using oxidizing agents such as cumene 3. Adding a drop of water accelerates the curing
hydroperoxide or copper hydroxide. rate.
• They are available in light; regular, heavy and 4. Addition of retarder such as oleic acid
putty body consistencies. The consistency increases working and setting time.
is largely controlled by the amount of
filler incorporated by the manufacturer. Flow After One Hour Setting
Availability in a range of viscosity will help
the operator to choose the material with This property is very important because it relates
suitable flow property. to the amount of deformation of a polymerized
impression material undergoes after being
Working Time poured up with a gypsum product.
Flow after one hour setting is measured
The measurement of working time begins with the by determining the percentage of deformation
start of mixing and ends just before the impression of the sample after 1 hour setting, when it is
material has developed elastic properties. subjected to a load of 100 g for 15 min. It is
At the end of working time material is 1.5% more when compared with other elastic
no longer capable of adequately registering impression materials.
necessary details. So the working time includes
time for mixing, loading the tray and seating the Permanent Deformation
impression in the mouth. It is measured at room
temperature. The working time of polysulfide is Permanent deformation is measured as the
about 3–6 minutes. percentage of deformation that occurs when
the test sample is held under 12% strain for 30
seconds.
Setting Time
Permanent deformation of polysulfide
It is the time elapsed from the start of mixing impression material is 3%.
until the material has polymerized sufficiently Elastic Recovery [ER] =100 – 3 = 97%
Elastic properties improve with time. In other deformation associated with distortion, is to use
words, the longer the impression remains in the a minimum amount of material.
mouth, the greater the accuracy. The most accurate impressions can be
Elastic recovery is a function of: made by using a custom or special tray (acrylic
a. Amount of strain (should be low) tray), because it ensures a uniform thickness of
b. Duration of strain (should be low). material.
Cast should be made within the first 30
minutes after removal of the impression from
Flexibility
the mouth.
Flexibility is the amount of strain produced when
the sample is stressed between 100–1000 g/cm. Hardness
It is approximately 5–10%.
Hardness is measured by shore-A-durometer.
Polysulfide is one of the least stiff or highly
Hardness of polysulfide impression material
flexible materials, which allows the set material
is 30.
to be removed from the undercuts with minimum
permanent deformation.
Disinfection
Tear Strength Polysulfide impressions can be disinfected by
most of the antimicrobial solutions without
Tear strength polysulfide is 4000 g/cm. They have adverse dimensional changes provided the
highest resistance to tearing. But because of its disinfection time is short.
susceptibility to distortion, it is possible that the One recommended procedure is to immerse
impression may distort rather than tear. Rapid the impression for about 10 minutes in 10%
removal with a single sudden jerk increases the hypochlorite solution.
tear resistance.
Compatibility with Gypsum
These materials are compatible with die stones.
These materials are dimensionally unstable. Multiple dies can be poured but the successive
dies are less accurate.
Reasons
1. Polymerization shrinkage during cross- Impression Trays
linking. Special tray needs to be fabricated.
2. Evaporation of volatile by product (water),
formed during the reaction that causes Tray Adhesive
shrinkage.
3. After removal from the mouth, incomplete Tray must be painted with an adhesive to hold the
recovery due to viscoelastic properties. impression material in place. This adhesive forms
4. Thermal contraction that occurs when it is a tenacious bond between the rubber material and
cooled from mouth temperature to room the tray. Tray adhesive for polysulfide contains
temperature and due to its large COTE of “Butyl rubber or Styrene acrylonitrile” dissolved
about 150 ppm/°C. in a suitable solvent such as “chloroform”.
5. Although they are water repellent, they
absorb fluids when exposed to water, Electroplating
disinfectant or a high humid condition. They can be electroplated to give metal-coated
Remedy: One way to minimize the polymerization dies, which have greater resistance to abrasion
shrinkage, loss of reaction byproducts and than gypsum dies.
Shelf-Life Uses
These materials have got adequate shelf-life. • Impressions of crowns.
• Cavity impressions of inlays and onlays.
Reproduction of Detail • Impressions of partially dentulous mouths.
• Impressions of complete dentulous mouths.
These materials are capable of reproducing small
lines of 0.025 mm width.
CONDENSATION POLYSILICONE
Advantages IMPRESSION MATERIAL
These materials are also called as room
• Longer working time.
temperature vulcanizing silicones.
• High tear resistance.
• High flexibility for easy removal from the
undercut areas. Dispensing
• Inexpensive. They are supplied as–
• Long shelf-life. • Two-paste system (Base paste + Reactor
• Impression can be electroplated. paste)
• Base paste + Reactor liquid.
Disadvantages
Composition
• Disagreeable taste and odor due to the
presence of PbO2 and – SH groups. Composition of base and catalyst pastes are
• Longer setting time. discussed in Table 7.11.
• D i m e n s i o na l l y u n s t ab l e d u e t o t h e
evaporation of byproducts. Setting Reaction
• Need a special tray. On mixing the two components a reaction begins
• Can stain the cloths. immediately in which the terminal hydroxyl
• Second pour is less accurate. groups of polysilicone prepolymer chains react
Table 7.11 Composition of condensation polysilicone impression material

Base
Ingredient Functions
1. Moderately low molecular weight polysilicone It undergoes polymerization and cross-linking to form
pre polymer with–OH terminal groups or rubber.
hydroxyl terminal poly (dimethyl-siloxane)
2. Reinforcing fillers (35–75%)(Copper carbonate, • As a paste former.
Colloidal silica) • Increases strength of the set rubber.
• Gives body and controls viscosity and modifies
physical properties.
Reactor Paste
1. Tri or tetra functional alkyl silicate or tetra ethyl Acts as a cross-linking agent.
ortho silicate. Acts as a catalyst–
2. Tin or stannous octoate [Sn(C7H5COO)2]. • To form a paste.
3. Reinforcing filler or thickening agents (Colloidal • To control the viscosity.
Silica). To indicate uniform mix.
4. Color pigments. To distinguish from the base paste.
Fig. 7.21 Setting reaction of condensation polysilicone impression material
with cross-linking agent (tetraethylorthosilicate) correct impression technique.

under the influence of a catalyst (tin octate) • They are very hydrophobic and are repelled
(Fig. 7.21). by water or saliva hence a dry field of
Each molecule of cross-linking agent may operation is necessary. If not “blow holes” are
potentially react with up to four prepolymer likely to occur in the impression as it fails to
chains causing extensive cross-linking. Cross- dry away the residual moisture.
linking produces an increase in the viscosity and The contact angle with water is 98°
a rapid development of elastic properties. indicating poor wettability and castability of
Ethyl alcohol is a byproduct of the die stone is 30%.
condensation reaction. Its subs e quent
evaporation probably accounts for much of the Working Time
contraction during first 24 hours after setting in Working time represents the maximum amount
a set silicone rubber. of time available to mix and handle the material
The multifunctional ethyl silicate produces before it is placed in the mouth. It is around 2–3
a network of cross-linked structure that partly minutes.
accounts for the low values of permanent
deformation and flow values.
Setting Time
Setting time is 6–10 minutes.
Setting time is the time from the beginning of
Properties mixing until the material is sufficiently elastic so
that it can be removed from the mouth without
• Silicone elastomers may be considered as significant permanent deformation. Setting time
nontoxic. But tin octate or stannous octate is 6–10 minutes.
present in the reactor paste as catalyst when Both working and setting times are measured
placed in direct contact with soft tissues by Vicat penetrometer and Reciprocating
found to be toxic. So care should be taken rheometer.
to mix the material well thus preventing the
catalyst from coming in contact with the
Factors Affecting Setting Time
tissues.
• They are available in a variety of viscosities • Reaction is sensitive to temperature. Cooling
like light, regular, heavy and putty like the material or mixing on a cooler glass slab
elastomers and help the operator to choose will increase working and setting times.
the material with a suitable flow property • By altering base/reactor ratio – Not recom
and it also allows flexibility in choosing the mended.
Elasticity • Thermal contraction when cooled from

mouth temperature to room temperature.
Condensation silicones are more ideally
elastic than polysulfides. They exhibit minimal COTE = 190 ppm/°C
permanent deformation and recover rapidly Thus, the most accurate model is obtained by
when strained rapidly. Hence the impression pouring up the impression immediately (within
must be removed rapidly with a single sudden first 30 min) after it is removed from the mouth.
jerk. Cross-linking reduces the permanent Putty-wash technique is normally used to
deformation of a set rubber. Prolonging the compensate for the poor dimensional stability.
strain will increase the deformation because
the polymer chains respond in viscous manner. Reproduction of Detail
Permanent Deformation = 0.7% These materials are capable of reproducing lines
Elastic Recovery = 100–0.7 = 99.3% of 0.025 mm width.
Flow After One Hour Setting Compatibility with Gypsum

Flow after one hour setting is by determining These materials are compatible with die stone.
the percentage of deformation of a cylindrical
sample of 1 hour, when it is subjected to a load Electroplating
of 100g for 15 min. it is 0.1% and lower than Dies can be electroplated with silver or copper.
polysulfides. It is low due to rapid setting reaction But because of their dimensional instability after
and highly cross-linked structure. setting, stone dies are more frequently made
than metal.
Flexibility
Hardness
Flexibility is measured as the amount of strain
produced when the sample is stressed between Hardness of condensation silicone is about 43.
100–1000 g/cm. Flexibility of condensation Hardness of these materials can be measured by
silicones is around 2–7%, not very stiff which shore A durometer.
means it is not very difficult to remove them
Impression Trays
from undercuts without distortion.
Disposable stock trays are normally preferred.
Tear Strength Tray Adhesive
Tear strength is lower (3500 g/cm) than Tray adhesive consists of poly (dimethyl siloxane)
polysulfides. But they do not tear as easily as or other silicone that reacts with the impression
hydrocolloids. The impression must be rapidly material and ethyl silicate to create a physical
removed to maximize the tear strength. bond with the tray.
Dimensional Stability Disinfection

Dimensional stability is not good due to: Impression can be disinfected by immersing in
• Large polymerization shrinkage (0.6–1%) most of available antimicrobial solutions for less
because the setting reaction continues even than one hour.
after the material is clinically set and the
polymerization shrinkage continues. Color Contrast
• Loss of volatile reaction byproduct (ethyl Base paste is colorless. Dyes are added to the
alcohol), which produces a measurable colorless reactor paste to indicate the completion
weight loss (0.9%). of mixing.
The different consistencies are in different • Slightly more expensive.

colors or at least different shades of the same • Putty wash method is technique sensitive.
color so that they can be readily distinguished • Liquid component of the reactor paste may
in an impression made by using putty wash be hazardous if not handled properly.
technique.
Uses
Shelf-Life
• W i d e l y u s e d f o r c ro w n a n d b r i d g e
Alkyl silicates are slightly unstable, particularly
impressions.
if they are mixed with a tin compound to form
• Cavity preparations of inlays and onlays.
a single catalyst liquid. Thus, a limited shelf-
• Occasionally used for partially dentulous
life may result because of oxidation of the tin
mouth impression.
compound within the catalyst.
Shelf-life failure may also occur as a result of
degradation of the base or cross-linkage of base Modifications
during storage. Store the material in cool, dry A major modification of the condensation
environment. silicone material is a change in the setting
mechanism. This modification has brought
Advantages about a new family of impression materials, the
addition reaction silicones.
• Adequate working and setting times.
• Clean and pleasant odor and no staining.
• Adequate tear strength. ADDITION POLYSILICONE
• Better elastic properties on removal. IMPRESSION MATERIAL
• Available in complete range of viscosities
thus allowing flexibility in choosing an Addition polysilicones are often termed as
impression technique. polyvinyl siloxane or vinyl polysiloxane since
• Less distortion on removal. they undergo vinyl polymerization or addition
polymerization (Figs 7.22A to C).
Disadvantages
• Poor dimensional stability.
Dispensing
• Adequate accuracy only when poured Supplied as two-paste system and are available
immediately. all four viscos ities. Also available as single
• Need for a dry field of operation since it is consistency called single phase or mono phase
hydrophobic. and can be used both as tray and syringe
• Poor shelf-life. consistency due to its pseudoplastic nature.
Figs 7.22A to C Addition polysilicone (A) Light body; (B) and (C) Putty body
Table 7.12 Composition of condensation polysilicone impression material
Base
Moderately low molecular weight polysilicone Takes part in the polymerization reaction.
prepolymer with silane terminal groups or poly
(methyl hydrogen silicone).
Reinforcing fillers (colloidal silica) Controls viscosity and modifies the physical properties.
Reactor
Moderately low molecular weight polysilicone • Main reactive ingredient.
prepolymer with vinyl terminal groups or poly • Takes part in the polymerization reaction.
(dimethyl vinyl siloxane) • Paste former.
Reinforcing fillers (powdered silica) • Increases strength.
• Gives body and controls viscosity.
• Modifies physical properties.
Chloroplatinic acid (H2PtCl6) As a catalyst–
Low molecular weight liquid polymer of the • Retarder.
same type as the base polymer. • Provides working and setting time.
Finely divided Pt or Pd To absorb H2 gas evolved or as a scavenger for H2 gas.
Color pigments To distinguish it from base paste and for indicating
completion of mixing.
Composition 1. To minimize this, the present day silicones

contain a noble metal such as platinum or
Composition of base and catalyst pastes are
palladium, which acts as a scavenger for the
discussed in Table 7.12.
H2 gas evolved.
2. Another method is to wait an hour or longer
Setting Reaction (Fig. 7.23) before pouring up the impression (until the
H2 gas is completely evolved). This delay does
On mixing the two pastes, a platinum catalyzed
not cause detectable dimensional change.
addition reaction occurs causing cross-linking
3. Elimination of impurities.
between the two types of siloxane prepolymer.
4. Placing the impressions in the vacuum either
There are no byproducts (which result in
before or after pouring the stone cast.
minimum dimensional change) as long as
the correct proportions of vinyl siloxane and Cross-linking produces an increase in
hydride silicone are maintained and there are viscosity coupled with the increase in elastic
no impurities. properties. Increase in temperature increases
If the proportions are out of balance or rate of reaction and decreases working and
impurities are present, then side reactions will setting times.
produce hydrogen (H2) gas. It is formed due to Setting time is about 6–8 min.
the reaction between residual silanol groups or
moisture with hydrides of the base polymer. Properties
Hydrogen gas that evolves from the set • They are highly biocompatible and cause less
material can result in pinpoint voids in the stone tissue reaction than condensation silicones.
cast that are poured immediately after removing They do not possess an unpleasant taste or
from the mouth. odor and are acceptable by the patient.
Fig. 7.23 Setting mechanism of addition polysilicone impression material
• They are available in complete range of phase). One mix is used on the tray (subjected
viscosities, i.e. light, regular, heavy and putty to low shear stress) and another mix is loaded in
body. It helps the operator to choose the a syringe (subjected to high shear stress). When
material with suitable flow properties. syringed, the material flows readily and records
For example, double mix double impression the finer details.
(putty + light)
(Putty body – for preliminary impression
Flow After One Hour Setting
Light body – secondary impression)
The consistency is controlled by the amount Flow after one hour setting is measured by
of filler and molecular weight of the polymer. determining the percentage of deformation in
a cylindrical sample of one hour old after it is
Consistency subjected to a load of 100 g for 15 minutes. It
relates to the amount of deformation after the
Light body: 36–55 mm.
impression being poured with a gypsum product.
Regular body: 30–40 mm.
Flow after one hour setting for these materials is
Heavy body: 20–32 mm.
less than 0.05%, it is very low.
Putty body: 13–30 mm.
Pseudoplasticity Working Time

Addition polysilicones exhibit pseudoplastic The measurement of working time begins with the
property, i.e. viscosity gradually decreases as start of mix and ends just before the impression
the shear stress increases. They are supplied material has developed elastic properties.
as single consistency (single phase or mono The working time is about 2–3 minutes.
Setting Time Dimensional Stability

It is defined as the time elasping from the begin Dimensionally stable because:
ning of mixing until the curing has advanced 1. Clinically set material is so close to
sufficiently (becomes elastic) that the impression being completely cured so there is little
can be removed from the mouth with a minimum polymerization shrinkage.
distortion. It is about 6–8 minutes. 2. No volatile byproducts are released to cause
Both working and setting times are measured the material to shrink.
by Vicat penetrometer and reciprocating 3. Primary dimensional change comes from
rheometer. thermal shrinkage as the material cools from
mouth to room temperature (COTE: 190 ×
Factors Affecting Setting Time 10-6 ppm/°C).
4. Impression does not have to be poured
1. Increase in either temperature or humidity immediately. Most manufacturers claimed
will decrease working and setting time. that pouring could be delayed up to 7 days.
2. Material can be refrigerated before mixing The combination of superior elasticity and
of the material on a cool dry slab to increase excellent dimensional stability means that
the working time and setting time. multiple casts can be made from the same
3. Both working and setting times can be impression, all having the same accuracy.
prolonged by the addition of retarder as
supplied by the manufacturer. Surface Reproduction
Elasticity These materials are capable of reproducing lines
of 0.025 mm width.
Addition polysilicones are most ideally elastic
of the currently available materials because Hardness
the permanent deformation is very less that is
about 0.07%. Hardness is about 55. Hardness can be measured
Permanent deformation is measured as the by shore A durometer.
percentage of deformation of that occurs when
the test sample is held under 12% compression Compatibility with Gypsum
for 30 seconds. Amount of material and duration
Addition polysilicones are hydrophobic. So it is
of strain affects the permanent deformation.
difficult to wet the surface of the impression by
Elastic recovery = 99.93% gypsum slurry. With these materials it is very
difficult to get a bubble-free stone cast.
Tear Strength Remedy: There are a number of surfactants,
Tear strength is adequate (3500 gm/cm) but if sprays that reduce the surface tension, so that
not handled correctly they will tear. They are stone wets the surface of the impression.
highly viscoelastic, so using a rapid strain rate
produces an elastic response. Electroplating
Flexibility Impressions can be electroplated with silver or

copper to form electroplated dies.
Flexibility is the amount of strain produced when
a sample stressed between 100–1000 gm/cm2. It
Disinfection
is very low (2–3%). Lower than any other rubber
materials except polyether. So removal of the Addition silicone impressions can be easily
impression from undercut areas may be difficult disinfected by 10–15 minutes immersion in 2%
because of its stiffness. glutaraldehyde or 10% hypochlorite solution.
Impression Trays • May release hydrogen gas on setting and

produces pinpoint voids in the die.
Either stock or special trays can be used. • High surface tension causes difficulty in
pouring the cast.
Tray Adhesive • Moisture incompatibility (hydrophobic).
Tray adhesive contains poly (dimethyl siloxane) • Low flexibility (stiff ) value – difficult to
or other silicone that reacts with the impression remove from undercut areas.
material and ethyl silicate to create a physical
bond with the tray.
Uses
• Most widely used for crown and bridge
Color Contrast impressions.
• Cavity preparations of inlays and onlays.
It is supplied in two different pastes. Different • Impressions of partial and complete dentures.
viscosities of the same material are supplied
in different colors. The base paste is usually Modifications
colorless or white and the color pigments are
added to the reactor to give a characteristic Hydrophilic Polyvinyl Siloxanes
color. High surface tension of polyvinyl siloxane causes
difficulty in pouring the cast and moisture
Shelf-Life incompatibility makes it difficult to obtain good
impression if saliva or blood is present in the
It is about 2 years. Tubes or containers must be mouth.
tightly closed when not in use and should be To compensate for these serious problems,
stored in a cool, dry environment. a surfactant can be added to make the material
hydrophilic. This surfactant reduces the contact
Advantages angle, which improves wettability and thereby
simplifies pouring the cast. There are a number
• Pleasant to handle (no disagreeable taste or of surfactant sprays, which reduce the surface
odor). tension. The most widely used surfactant is
• Excellent elasticity of 99.97%. “nonylphenoxy polyethanol homologues”.
• Shorter setting time. • Pooling the spray or thick layer of wetting
• Adequate tear strength. agent can affect the dimensional accuracy
• High dimensional stability. of the impression and cause the surface of
• Impression can be stored for about 7 days the stone cast to be soft and porous.
without pouring. • A dilute solution of soap is an effective
• Impression can be electroplated. surfactant but taste is rather offensive. So the
• Available in complete range of viscosities.
commercial wetting agent may be preferred.
• Produces a highly accurate impression.
• Easy to manipulate – Automatic device can Drawbacks
be used. 1. Longer immersion in disinfectant solution
• Stock or special tray can be used. will lead to the leaching of the surfactant and
• Multiple accurate dies can be poured. as a result the hydrophilic material becomes
hydrophobic.
2. Addition of surfactant makes the preparation
Disadvantages
of electroformed dies difficult because the
• More expensive especially with automatic metallizing powder does not adhere well
mixing device. to the surface of the hydrophilic addition
• Shorter working time. silicone.
Distinct activation, initiation and propagation
POLYETHER IMPRESSION MATERIALS
stages may be identified in the reaction. The
Polyether impression material was introduced reaction is of addition type with no byproducts
in Germany in late 1960’s. being formed.
Since each prepolymer molecule has two
Dispension reactive epimine groups, individual propagation
reactions may produce simple chain lengthening
They are dispensed as three-paste system (Base and cross-linking.
+ Reactor + Body modifier) and are available in As the reaction proceeds, the viscosity
single consistency (heavy or regular body). increases and eventually a relatively rigid cross-
linked rubber is produced.
Composition Imine terminated polyether prepolymer +
Base, reactor and body modifier paste’s sulphonic acid → polyether rubber.
composition is discussed in Table 7.13. Activation
Setting Reaction
When two pastes are mixed together a cationic,
ring opening addition polymerization occurs. Initiation
The ionized form of the sulfonic acid ester
provides the initial source of cations and each
stage of the reaction involves the opening of an
epimine (aziridine) ring and the production of
a fresh cation.
Table 7.13 Composition of polyether impression material

Base Paste
Ingredients Functions
Moderately low molecular weight polyether Becomes cross-linked to form rubber.
prepolymer with “imine” terminal groups.
Inert filler (Colloidal silica) Gives body, controls viscosity and physical properties.
Plasticizer (glycol ether phthalate) Aids in mixing.
Reactor
Ester derivative of aromatic sulphonic acid Cross-linking agent.
(benzene sulphonic acid)
Inert filler (colloidal silica) Gives body and controls viscosity.
Plasticizer (glycol ether phthalate) To form paste.
Body Modifier
Optyl pthalate and 5% methyl cellulose • To reduce the stiffness
• To reduce the viscosity of unset material
• Provides more working time
Propagation 1. Vicat penetrometer

2. Reciprocating rheometer.
Flow after one hour setting
Flow after one hour setting is measured by
determining the percentage of deformation in
a sample of one hour old after it is subjected to
a load of 100 g for 15 minutes. The percentage
Properties of deformation is very low (0.03%), which is less
than addition polysilicone. It is due to cross-
• The presence of aromatic sulphonic acid
catalyst in the reactor paste sometimes linking and its high stiffness values.
causes irritation, hypersensitivity or contact
dermatitis. Therefore direct contact of
Elasticity
the skin with the reactor paste should be Polyethers are slightly elastic. They have slightly
avoided. Thorough mixing should be done to higher permanent deformation values than
prevent the reactor paste coming in contact addition polysilicones. Permanent deformation
with soft tissues. This material should be is about 1.1% and elastic recovery is 98.9%.
avoided for the patients with known allergic Permanent deformation depends on the amount
to this material. of material and duration of compression.
• Originally polyethers are supplied as one
viscosity. The pseudoplasticity allowed one Flexibility
mix to be used for both syringe and tray Polyethers are less flexible, 2%, (very stiff ). So
material. it is difficult to remove the impression from
Manufacturers also supply an additional the undercut areas. Use of body modifier and
paste, body modifier that could be used to minimum thickness of material (2 mm instead
produce a thinner mix (added to the premixed of 4 mm) will increase the flexibility.
material to render it more fluid for the purpose Modified polyether has been introduced that
of injection). has more flexibility and tear strength and working
Recently, polyethers are supplied in low and time. This material is identified by the addition
heavy consistencies. The low viscosity is supplied of letter ‘F’ (flexible) following brand name.
with an automatic mixing device.
Working and Setting Time Tear Strength

The curing rate of polyether is less sensitive Tear strength is lowest (2700 g/cm – very low)
to temperature. Some modifications in base: of all the elastomeric impression materials. As
accelerator ratio can be used to extend working a result thin strips of impression material may
time. Use of thinner or body modifier also tear during removal.
extends working time with only a slight increase
in the setting time. Also available for use with Hardness
polyethers is a retarder that can extend working Hardness is about 84. It is measured by shore A
time without reducing the elastic properties or durometer. It is high so more force is needed to
increasing polymerization shrinkage. remove the impression from the mouth.
Mixing time: 30–45 seconds.
Working time: 2–4 minutes. Dimensional Stability
Setting time: 6–8 minutes.
They are dimensionally stable because:
Both working and setting time can be measured 1. Polyether curing reaction produces no
by: volatile byproducts.
2. Less polymerization shrinkage although difficult to remove the cast from the impression.
residual polymerization continues beyond Weaker stone cast may fracture during removal.
the clinical setting time for a much shorter
period than polysulfides. Impression Trays
Theoretically, ring-opening reaction
should produce a setting expansion rather Either stock or special trays can be used. It
than shrinkage. It is possible that thermal is important to use adequate amount of tray
shrinkage offsets any polymerization adhesive so that stress during removal does not
expansion if it occurs. dislodge the material from the tray.
Volume contraction: 0.4%.
Weight loss (after 24 hours): 0.02% - Disinfection
Due to the evaporation of water-soluble
Impressions can be disinfected by immersing
plasticizer.
in 2% glutaraldehyde solution for less than 10
COTE: 300 ppm/°C.
minutes. If the immersion time is longer, they
3. High stiffness of the material means that
are susceptible to dimensional change because
the force needed to remove the impression
of their pronounced hydrophilic nature.
is greater for polyethers. Yet, the recovery is
nearly complete because of excellent elastic Shelf-Life
properties. Thus, impressions can be poured
immediately after removal, after several days Shelf-life is adequate when stored under normal
and resulting casts will have same accuracy. environm ental conditions. Storing in a cool
4. Polyethers exhibit the least amount of and dry environment prolongs the shelf-life.
distortion from the loads imposed on the However, the chilled polyether becomes rigid
set material. Thus pouring up the impression and cannot be used. So it is necessary to allow
and removing the cast several times does not the material to reach room temperature before
alter the dimensional stability even though a using.
fairly substantial force is needed each time
the cast is removed from the impression. Advantages
One property that has a negative effect on
the material is the absorption of water or fluids • Faster working and setting times.
and simultaneous leaching of water-soluble • Less hydrophobic – better wetting.
plasticizer. So the impressions cannot be • Less distortion on removal.
electroplated since electroplating bath contains • G ood dimensional stability and excellent
water. However, there is no problem in this elastic recovery.
regard with the use of gypsum products. Thus, • Multiple dies can be poured with great
stored impressions must be kept in dry, cool accuracy.
environment to maintain its accuracy. • Pseudoplasticity.
• Long shelf-life.
Surface Reproduction
Disadvantages
Capable of reproducing ‘v’ shaped groove of
0.025 mm width. • More expensive.
• High stiffness values after setting.
• Low tear strength.
Compatibility with Gypsum • Impressions are difficult to electroplate.
Pouring the stone cast is easier. Polyethers are • Not available in complete range of viscosities.
somewhat hydrophilic and form low contact • Poor dimensional stability under high humid
angles with gypsum slurry and hence are easy conditions.
to pour. But their high stiffness values make it • Catalyst can be sensitizer.
Uses Manipulation
• Mainly used for crown and bridge impres No mixing is required.
sions. Light body material is syringed into the
• Impressions of cavity preparations of inlays impression area. The tray is loaded with the
and onlays. heavy body material and placed in the patient’s
• Impressions of partial and complete mouth. After the tray is seated in the mouth,
dentulous mouths. both the viscosities are cured simultaneously
using a visible light-curing unit having 8 mm
Modifications or larger diameter probe. The curing time is
Reducing the stiffness and producing polyether approximately 3 minutes.
in low and heavy body viscosities have been
the major changes for this type of impression Advantages
material.
• Command setting, i.e. infinite working time
and shorter setting time.
LIGHT ACTIVATED POLYETHER • Excellent physical, mechanical and clinical
IMPRESSION MATERIAL properties.
• Simplification of the manipulation technique,
Light activated polyether impression material i.e. no mixing is required.
was introduced in 1988.
Disadvantages
Dispensing
• Need for the special trays that are transparent
Available as two viscosities. to the visible light and are required to cure
1. Light body – Packed in disposable syringes. the material.
2. Heavy body – Packed in tubes. • Material should not be used in the patient’s
mouth with known allergy or sensitivity to
Composition urethanes or methacrylates.
It contains– • The material should be stored in a dark place,
i. Visible light curing polyether – Urethane away from the light.
dimethacrylate elastomer resin.
ii. Visible light cure photo initiator. Measurement of Working and Setting
iii. Photo accelerators. Time of Elastomer
iv. Silicone dioxide as filler – It has a refractive
Working and setting time can be measured by:
index close to that of the resin, in order
1. Reciprocating rheometer.
to provide translucency necessary for the
2. Vicat penetrometer.
depth of cure.
Reciprocating Rheometer
Properties
Wilson described reciprocating rheometer in
• Excellent elasticity.
1966.
• Very low dimensional changes upon setting.
It can be poured immediately or up to two Principle: It is based on the motion of perforated
weeks. tray through a mixed material and the tray is
• Polyether is very rigid (stiff ). So undercuts driven through a spring. As the time elapses, the
should be blocked out for easy removal of viscosity of the mix increases and movement of
the impression. the tray becomes restricted. Thus, a measurement
of the movement of the tray gives information Vicat Penetrometer
about the setting of the material.
It consists of rod weighing 300 g with a needle
Procedure: The material under test is mixed of 3 mm diameter. A metal ring of 8 mm height
and placed on the perforated tray. The motor is and 16 mm width is filled with freshly mixed
switched on at 1.5 minutes after start of mixing. material whose working time has to be measured
The movement of the tray is recorded on a and placed on the penetrometer base. The rod
rotating drum with the help of a pen assembly. is lowered until it contacts the surface of the
As the time elapses from the start of mixing, material and then the needle is released and
the viscosity of the mix increases and resists allowed to penetrate the mix and it is repeated
the movement of the tray. The tray movement for every 30 seconds.
is restricted when resistance set by the material Initial set or working time is that time at
(due to increase in viscosity) is greater than that which the needle no longer penetrates the
set up by the spring which drives the tray. The specimen to the bottom of the ring.
motor left running until the trace is completed. Final set or setting time is the time of the
Measurement: The total working is estimated as first three identical nonmaximum penetrations
the time from the start of mixing until the tracing reading (minimum depth of penetration).
deviates from an initial parallel line as shown in
Figure 7.24. Manipulation of Elastomers
Setting time is taken to be that time when 1. Selection of materials.
each side of the tracing is first deviated from 2. Preparation of custom or special tray.
the curve and becomes straight line as shown 3. Adhesion to the tray.
in Figure 7.24. 4. Proportioning and mixing.
Advantages 5. Impression techniques.
• One instrument determines both working
and setting time. Selection of Materials
• The skill and time required to perform the The selection of rubber impression material
test are minimal. should be based on the clinical usage of the
• Method is suitable for both elastic and material and the properties required.
nonelastic materials.
• Only a small amount of material is required. Preparation of a Special Tray
Disadvantages i. An impression of the patient’s mouth using
• Viscosity of the material cannot be measured. alginate (before cavity preparation).
• Working time obtained depends on the ii. Stone cast.
stiffness of the spring, which drives the iii. Covers the areas which are to be included in
performed tray. the final impression with one or two strips
of base plate wax (acts as a spacer or relief).
iv. Resin dough is rolled into a sheet, adapted
to the diagnostic cast and allowed to
polymerize.
v. Wax sheet is removed from the tray. This
tray provides a uniform bulk of material,
minimal dimensional changes.
Adhesion to the Tray

Fig. 7.24 Estimation of working and setting times by Elastomers are nonadhesive to the trays. Adhesion
reciprocating rheometer can be achieved by the application of adhesive to
the tray prior to the insertion of the impression Paste and reactor liquid: Certain length of the
material. The solvent from adhesive layer is then base paste is dispensed onto a mixing pad and
allowed to evaporate (otherwise the material liquid is placed inside the rope of the paste with
will separate from the tray during removal from a stated number of drops of liquid/unit length
the mouth). The adhesive forms tenacious bond of the paste. The paste is picked up with spatula
between the tray and the impression material. and smoothened. The mixing is continued until
complete blending of material is obtained as
Composition of tray adhesives
indicated by an even color throughout the mass.
Polysulfides: Butyl rubber or styrene – acrylonitrile
dissolved in a suitable volatile solvent such as Two putty system: Putty elastomers are usually
chloroform. dispensed in a jar rather than in a tube. It is so
viscous that it must be dispensed by volume
Polysilicones: Poly (dimethyl siloxane) or similar
using a scoop. It may be mixed with heavy
reactive silicone, which acts as an adhesive for
spatula or kneaded in hands until the mix is free
the rubber and ethyl silicate to create a physical
from individual color streaks.
bond with the tray.
In either case a slightly roughened surface Base putty and reactor liquid: Base putty is
of the tray will increase the adhesion. For putty dispensed with a scoop. Depressions are made
elastomer, retention can be achieved by using on the surface of the putty and the appropriate
perforated trays (mechanical retention). number of drops or length of accelerator is
added. A stiff spatula is used to mix the putty
Proportioning and Mixing and liquid reactor. Once the reactor is well-
incorporated, mixing may be continued by hands
Two-paste system: Equal lengths of two pastes for about 30 seconds. The final mix should mix
are squeezed onto a mixing pad or glass slab. free from individual streaks. Initial mixing by
Some manufacturers mark their pads at one- hands is not advisable since a high concentration
inch intervals as an aid for proportioning. The of reactor contacts skin and may cause allergic
catalyst or reactor paste first collected with a response.
stainless steel spatula and then distributed over
Automatic mixing: It is generally used for light
the base, and the mixture is spread out over the
viscosity and medium viscosity materials. It is
mixing pad. The mass is then scraped up with
used with addition poly-silicones and polyethers
the spatula blade and again smoothed out. The
(Fig. 7.25).
process is continued until the mixed paste is
of uniform color with no streaks of the base or Advantages
reactor appearing in the mixture. If the mix is
not homogeneous, curing will not be uniform • There is a greater uniformity in proportioning
and distortion of impression will result. and mixing.
Fig. 7.25 Automatic mixing devices

• Very few air bubbles in the mix. Advantages
• Mixing time reduced. • Less amount of material is required than with
• Possibilities for contamination of material the stock trays.
are less. • Sterilization of the tray is not required as it
is used only once.
Impression Techniques • Uniform thickness of material throughout
the tray minimizes distortion resulting from
Multiple Mix Technique curing shrinkage.
This technique is also called as “double mix- • Produces a dimensionally accurate and
single impression technique” or “syringe-tray stable impression.
technique”. Drawbacks
Consistencies • Construction of special tray is time consum
Heavy body – as a tray material. ing.
Light body – as a syringe material. • Tray must be aged 24 hours to minimize
further distortion before use.
Trays
• The monomer may be a sensitizer for some
• Special tray is required
patients.
• Can be used with polysulfides, polysilicones
and polyethers. Uses
It is called multiple mix technique because • Cavity impressions of inlays and onlays,
two separate mixtures are required with two crown and bridge impressions.
separate mixing pads and spatula.
Stages (Figs 7.26A to F) Reline Technique
1. Light body is mixed first and injected into This technique is also called as double mix-
the impression area. double impression technique or putty wash
2. Meanwhile the heavy body is mixed on a technique.
glass slab or paper pad, loaded on the tray
and placed over the light body material. Consistencies
3. The light and heavy body materials set i. Putty elastomer – for primary impression.
together to give a single impression in which ii. Light body – for secondary impressions.
light body supported by heavy body and This technique is most widely used with
tray. Light body records all the finer details; condensation and addition polysilicones.
whereas heavy body assures optimum
accuracy and dimensional stability. Stages: Two stages are involved in this technique
4. When both materials have set together, the (Figs 7.27A to K).
impression is removed with a single sudden 1. Preliminary impression: Putty material is
jerk to minimize distortion and is checked placed in a perforated stock tray (adhesive
for the details. coated) and the impression is made before
5. Impression is cleaned under running tap preparing the teeth. Space for the wash
water, excess water is shaken off and is material is provided either by cutting away
disinfected. some of the putty material from the original
6. A die is prepared by pouring high strength impression or by using a spacer between
stone material and allowing it to harden. the putty and the teeth when recording the
Pouring should not be delayed for polysulfides preliminary impression. When the putty
and condensation polysilicones because of their material has set, impression is removed and
dimensional instability. washed.
Figs 7.26A to F Multiple Mix technique (A) Dispension of light body material (B) Mixing of light body material (C)
Loading some of the light body material onto the prepared tooth in the patient’s mouth (D) Loading both heavy
and light body material into an impression tray (E) Making the impression (F) Final impression
2. Secondary impression: After cavity prepa • Elimination of time and expense of fabricating
ration, the light body is mixed and injected special tray.
into the cavity preparation (sometimes even • Low polymerization shrinkage since they
into the putty impression tray). The tray contain less amount of polymer and more
plus preliminary impression is reinserted filler.
(preliminary impression acts as a custom • Overall thermal expansion or contraction is
tray for light body) and held gently until less than that of a polymer because the filler
the material sets. Then the impression is particles have low COTE values.
removed with a single sudden jerk, washed, • Metal stock trays are rigid and are not
dried and die is prepared. susceptible to distortion.
Advantages Drawbacks
• Rapid curing of putty material – preliminary • Practically putty wash technique leads to
impression needs to be held in the mouth for a gross inaccurate impression, if a critical
only few minutes. portion of preliminary impression is held
Figs 7.27A to K Reline technique (A) Dispension of putty material (B) Kneading of putty material (C) Loading
putty impression materials onto a perforated stock tray (D) Placement of spacer, which provides space for light
body material (E) Recording preliminary impression with putty material (F) Preliminary impression with putty
material (G) Dispension of light body material (H) Mixing of light body material (I) Loading of light body material
onto the preliminary impression recorded with putty material (J) Loading some of the light body materials on
to prepared teeth (K) Final impression
under pressure while the wash material is Single Mix-single Impression Technique
setting, this leads to elastic deformation.
Consistency: Single consistency (regular or heavy)
• Inadequate relief for wash material.
having pseudoplastic property (monophasic
• Metal trays must be sterilized.
material).
• Putty is quite expensive.
• Used with addition polysilicones and
• More impression material is required.
polyethers as they have pseudoplastic
Uses property.
• Impressions of crowns and bridges. • This technique requires special tray.
• Impressions of cavity preparations for inlays When subjected to a low shear rates during
and onlays. spatulation or while an impression is made in a
Table 7.14 Types of failures and causes in elastomeric impressions

Failure Causes
Rough or uneven 1. Incomplete polymerization caused by premature removal from the mouth.
surface
2. Contamination of the mix or oils or organic material on the teeth.
3. Too rapid polymerization caused by high humidity or high temperature.
4. Very high accelerator: base ratio for condensation polysilicones.
Bubbles 1. Too rapid polymerization preventing flow.
2. Air incorporated during mixing.
Irregularly-shaped Moisture or debris on the surface of the teeth.
voids
Rough or chalky 1. Inadequate cleaning of impression.
stone cast
2. Excess water left on the impression.
3. Excess wetting agent left in the impression.
4. Premature removal of cast.
5. Improper manipulation of the stone.
6. Failure to wait at least 20 minutes before pouring.
Distortion 1. Continuing polymerization shrinkage of special tray caused by inadequate
aging.
2. Lack of adhesion of rubber to the tray caused by too few coats of adhesive.
3. Filling the tray soon after the application of adhesive.
4. Using wrong adhesive.
5. Lack of mechanical retention for those materials where adhesive is ineffective.
6. Development of elastic properties in the material before the tray is seated.
7. Excessive bulk of the material.
8. Insufficient relief for the reline material.
9. Continued pressure against the impression material that has developed elastic
properties.
10. Movement of the tray during polymerization.
11. Premature removal from the mouth.
12. Improper removal from the mouth.
13. Delayed pouring of polysulfide or condensation poly-silicone impressions.
tray they have high viscosity and possess body in into the syringe and sprayed on the teeth. This
the tray. The same material can also be used as thinned material has better flow. Tray is seated
a syringe material because at higher shear rates, over the syringe material and held gently under
as they pass through the syringe tip viscosity pressure. After it sets, the impression is removed,
decreases. washed and a die is made.
A pseudoplastic mix becomes thinner when
stressed more (shear thinning). A part of the mix Uses
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69. Sinal Shah, Geeta Sundaram, David Bartlett, formed resin sheets as spacers for putty-
Martyn Sherriff. The use of a 3D laser scanner wash impressions. J Prosthet Dent. 2007;97:
using superimpositional software to assess the 54-5.
accuracy of impression techniques. J Dent. 74. Wu G, Yu X, Gu Z. Ultrasonically nebulised
2004;32: 653-8. electrolysed oxidising water: a promising
70. Srivastava A, Aaisa J, Tarun Kumar TA, Kishore new infection control programme for impres
G, Nagaraja Upadhya P. Alginates: a review of sions, metals and gypsum casts used in dental
compositional aspects for dental applications. hospitals. J Hosp Infect. 2008;68:348-54.
Trends Biomater Artif Organs. 2012;26(1): 31-6.
Orthodontic Wires
8
The word ‘orthodontics’ is derived from Greek • Modulus of elasticity should be high. It
word ‘Ortho’ meaning ‘right or correct’, ‘odonto’ enables the wire to apply more force for tooth
meaning tooth. movement.
Orthodontics is the study of growth and • Formability should be high so as to bend
development of the masticatory apparatus and the wire into desired configuration without
the prevention and treatment of abnormalities fracture.
of this development. • Spring back should be high which results
Orthodontic appliances are devices by which in an increase in its range of action. Spring
mild pressure may be applied to a tooth or group back is the measure of how far a wire can
of teeth to bring about necessary changes. be deflected without causing permanent
deformation. It is also called elastic deflec
tion.
CLASSIFICATIONS OF ORTHODONTIC
• Stiffness should be lower. It provides the
APPLIANCES ability to apply lower forces constantly for a
lower time.
Active • Resilience should be high. It increases the
Active appliances exert a force on the teeth or working range.
supporting structures to bring about necessary • It should be soldered or welded.
tooth movement. • Ductility should be sufficient to allow
fabrication of appliance.
• Should maintain the desirable properties for
Passive
extended period of time after manufacture.
Passive appliances are mostly used to retain • Should provide least friction at bracket – wire
teeth, which have been moved into ideal interface. Otherwise it leads to undue strain,
location. which limits the tooth movement.
Orthodontic wires are one of the active
components of fixed appliances. They can bring
CLASSIFICATIONS OF ORTHODONTIC
about various tooth movements through the
medium of brackets and buccal tubes, which act WIRES
as handles on the teeth. 1. Based on material used:
a. Stainless steel
b. Co-Cr-Ni alloy
REQUIREMENTS c. b-Titanium alloys
• Should be nontoxic. d. Ni-Ti alloys
• Should be resistant to corrosion and tarnish. e. Gold alloys
2. Based on cross-section: hardness and brittleness. Heating this from

a. Round 200–450°C, reduces the brittleness, called
b. Square tempering.
c. Rectangular The term stainless steel is applied to all alloys
d. Multistranded of iron and carbon that contain Cr, Ni, Mn and
3. Based on gauge size: others such as Si, P, S, Tantalum, Niobium, and
a. 0.018” Columbium.
b. 0.016”
c. 0.07” Chromium renders the resistance to corrosion
attack. When it is exposed to oxidizing
atmosphere, it forms a thin, transparent but
MATERIALS tough and impervious chromic oxide layer
(Cr2O3). This protective oxide layer prevents
Stainless Steel
further corrosion. This is called passivation.
Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon with up to 2% Chromium also reduces critical temperature
of carbon. Stainless steel wires are available in at which austenitic structure breaks down on
different gauges. The gauge indicates thickness cooling.
of the wire. The stainless wire, which is shown
Nickel reduces critical temperature and helps
in Figure 8.1 is the “19” gauge wire. In the
in corrosion resistance and also improves the
solid state steel is able to adopt a variety of
strength.
structures depending on the carbon content
Other elements in small amounts prevent
and temperature.
the formation of carbides of iron and chromium
Austenitic steel is an interstitial solid solution of (stabilizing agents). Molybdenum increases
carbon in FCC iron. In this 2.1 wt% of carbon resistance to pitting corrosion.
exists between 912– 1394°C. On slow cooling
which gives a mixture of ferrite steel and
Types (Table 8.1)
cementite (Fe3C). On rapid cooling or quenching
which gives martensite steel. 1. Ferritic stainless steel – little applications in
Ferritic steel is a very ductile solid solution of dentistry.
carbon in BCC iron. This exists between room 2. Martensitic stainless steel – used for surgical
temperature to 912°C. and cutting instruments
3. Austenitic stainless steel – most widely used.
Martensitic steel is a solid solution of carbon in In addition to chromium, nickel and carbon
distorted BCC lattice of iron (Body Centered some other ingredients may also present in small
Tetragonal (BCT)). This results in increase in amounts such as silicon, phosphorus, sulfur,
manganese, tantalum, and niobium.
Table 8.1 Composition of three types of

stainless steels
Types of Chromium Nickel Carbon
stainless steel
Ferritic (BCC) 11.5–27.0 0 0.20 max
Austenitic 16.0–26.0 7.0–22.0 0.25 max
(FCC)
Martensitic 11.5–17.0 0–2.5 0.15–1.20
Fig. 8.1 Stainless steel wire (BCT)
Chapter 8 Orthodontic Wires 219
Austenitic Stainless Steel to the depletion of grain boundary chromium

(18-8 Stainless Steel) and decrease in corrosion resistance since no
chromium is available for passivation to occur.
Composition This is known as sensitization and results in
intergranular corrosion and partial disintegration
Chromium – 18%
of metal and weakening the structure. This can
Nickel – 8%
be eliminated by:
Carbon – 0.25%
1. Reducing the carbon content of steel (not
Si, P, Mn, Tantalum, Niobium, and Columbium
economically feasible)
– trace.
2. Stabilization.
Austenitic stainless steels are proposed because–
• Greater ductility and ability to undergo more Stabilization
cold work without fracture.
The method employed most successfully is the
• Substantial strengthening during cold
introduction of some elements that precipitate as
working (some transformation to BCC).
carbide in preference to chromium. If titanium,
• Greater ease of welding.
niobium, or columbium is introduced in amount
• Ability to fairly readily overcome sensitization.
approximately six times the carbon content,
• Less critical grain growth.
the precipitation of Cr3C can be inhibited for
• Comparative ease of forming.
shorter periods between 400–900°C. Stainless
• Low cost.
steel have been treated in this manner are said
to be stabilized.
Properties
They are obtained in three grades often referred Soldering
to as soft (ductile), half hard and hard. The type of Silver solders containing silver, copper, zinc,
wire chosen according to the amount of bending, to which tin and indium are added to reduce
which must be carried out. fusion temperature and increase solderizability,
They have high modulus of elasticity can be used. Fluoride containing fluxes are
(179 GPa) and therefore used to apply relatively used because ordinary solders cannot dissolve
high forces. Lower forces can be achieved by chromic oxide film. They can also be joined by
using a wire of smaller diameter. It is highly soft welding.
ductile which allows bending. During soldering, wires should not be
Yield strength – 1579 MPa overheated since this may cause recrystallization
UTS – 2117 MPa of the grain structure with subsequent lack of
Hardness – 600 KHN springiness. After soldering, it can be cleaned
by pickling in warmed nitric acid.
Sensitization (Weld Decay)
The 18-8 stainless steel may lose its corrosion
General Causes of Corrosion
resistance if it is heated 400–900°C (during • Any surface inhomogeneity is a potential
soldering); the exact temperature depends on source of tarnish and corrosion.
the carbon content. At temperatures between • Severe strain hardening produces electric
400–900°C, the small rapidly diffusing carbon couples in the presence of saliva.
atoms migrate to the grain boundaries from • Any surface roughness or uneveness
all parts of the crystal to combine with large, (minimized by polishing).
slowly diffusing chromium at the periphery • Incorporation of bits of carbon steel or similar
of the grain where the energy is highest, and metal in its surface during manipulation with
precipitates as chromium carbide (Cr3C). This pliers or during cutting with stainless steel
formation is most rapid at 650° C. This will lead bur.
• Soldered or brazed points leading to the whereas at higher temperatures (above 885°C)
formation of galvanic cell. the metal rearranges into a BCC or b-crystal
lattice. Alloying elements are added to stabilize
b-crystal lattice at room temperature that has
Cobalt-chromium-nickel Alloys (Elgiloy)
better mechanical properties.
A cobalt-chromium-nickel alloy known as elgiloy
is available in wire and band forms for various Composition
dental appliances. These alloys were originally
developed for use as watch spring by ELGIU Titanium 78%
national company. Molybdenum 11.5%
Zirconium 6%
Tin 4.5%
Composition
Cobalt 40% Properties
Chromium 20%
TMA has lower force magnitudes. Low elastic
Nickel 15%
modulus (71.7 GPa). Lower yield strength (860 to
Molybdenum 7%
1170 MPa). Good ductility. High springable and
Manganese 2%
highly formable. It can be highly cold worked.
Beryllium 0.04%
Mechanical properties can be altered by heat
Carbon 0.16%
treatment that used a or b crystal lattice transfor
Iron 15.8%
mations, but it is not recommended. Excellent
corrosion resistance. They can be welded by
Properties electrical resistance (true weldability).
Elgiloy wires are available in different tempers
(amount of cold work) and usually color-coded. Nickel-titanium Alloys (Nitinol)
High spring temper (red), semispring temper
A wrought Ni-Ti alloy known as Nitinol (Nickel-
(green), soft or ductile temper (yellow) are the
Titanium naval ordinance laboratory) was
different types available. They are easy to bend.
introduced in 1972. It is characterized by its high
They can be heat hardened (7 minutes at 482°C)
resiliency, limited formability, shape memory or
after manipulation to relieve hardness (strength)
thermal memory, and pseudoelastic or super-
approximately equal to that of stainless steel.
elasticity.
Low cost. Tarnish and corrosion resistance is
excellent. They can be soldered (fluoride fluxes
are used) and welded. Composition
• Proportional limit – 1610 MN/m2 Nickel 55%
• Modulus of elasticity – 184 GPa Titanium 45%
• Yield strength – 1413 MPa Cobalt 0 to 2%
• UTS – 1682 MPa At higher temperatures a BCC lattice
• VHN – 700 kg/mm2. referred to as austenitic phase is stable, whereas
appropriate cooling can induce transformation
to HCP martensitic phase. This transformation
Titanium Alloys (TMA Alloy)
can also be induced by the application of stress.
Titanium-molybdenum alloy also known as There is a volumetric change associated with
b-titanium alloy, which was introduced in transition. This transformation results in two
1979 by Goldberg and Burstone. Pure titanium unique features. They are:
at temperatures lower than 885°C exists in a 1. Shape memory
Hexagonal Close Packed (HCP) or a-crystal 2. Pseudoelasticity or superelasticity.
Chapter 8 Orthodontic Wires 221
Shape Memory Table 8.2 Properties of gold alloys
Shape memory is achieved by first establishing Material Proportional Tensile Fusion

limit strength temperature
a shape at temperatures near 482°C if the
appliance wire is then cooled and formed PGP 552–1034 862–1241 1500–1530°C
into a second shape and heated through a MPa MPa
lower transition temperature range (TTR), PSC 690–793 965–1070 1050–1080°C
the wire will return to its original shape. The MPa MPa
cobalt content is used to control the transition
temperature range, which can be near mouth
temperature.
Properties
Superelasticity or Pseudoelasticity Modulus of elasticity 41.4 GPa
Yield strength 427 MPa
Inducing the austenitic to martensitic transfor
Ultimate tensile strength 1489 MPa
mation by stress can produce superelasticity, a
It has limited ductility and is not easy to bend
phenomenon that is employed with Ni–Ti wires
without fracture. The alloy cannot be soldered or
(Fig. 8.2).
welded (joined by mechanical means).
Application of bending stress initially results
in standard proportional stress-strain behavior
(AB) as shown in Figure 8.2. However, at a Gold Alloys
stress sufficient to induce phase transforma Two types of gold alloys are available according
tion (austenite to martensite) there is a signi to ADA No. 7.
ficant increase in strain (BC) referred to as Type I—noble or high noble— ≥ 75% of noble
superelasticity or pseudoelasticity. This addi metal elements.
tional strain is caused by the volumetric change Type II—noble or high noble— ≥ 65% of
due to phase transformation. At point ‘C’, where noble metal elements.
the transformation is complete, the behavior There are also two other wires designated
reverts to conventional elastic and plastic strain as PGP (Platinum–Gold–Palladium) and PSC
with increasing stress (CD). Unloading results in (Platinum–Silver– Copper).
the reverse transition and recovery. This results These wires are highly ductile, highly
in lower forces and a large working range or corrosion resistant. They can be heat hardened,
spring back. can easily be soldered. Borax flux and gold solders
are used for soldering. They have higher elastic
modulus and therefore apply lower forces. The
physical and thermal properties of 2 types of gold
wires are given in Table 8.2. They are expensive.
The high platinum and palladium contents
increase the melting point and recrystallization
temperature which ensures that the wires do not
melt, recrystallize during soldering process. They
also ensure a fine grain structure.
SUGGESTED READING
1. Burstone CJ, Liebler SAH, Goldberg AJ.
Polyphenylene polymers as esthetic orthodontic
archwires. Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop.
Fig. 8.2 Superelasticity of nitinol wire 2011;139(4)Supple 1:e391-8.
2. Iijima M, Yuasa T, Endo K, Muguruma T, Ohno 9. Mistakidis I, Gkantidis N, Topouzelis N. Review

H, Mizoguchi I. Corrosion behavior of ion of properties and clinical applications of
implanted nickel-titanium orthodontic wire in orthodontic wires. Hellenic Orthodontic Review.
fluoride mouth rinse solutions. Dent Mater J. 2011;14(1):45-66.
2010;29(1): 53-8. 10. Ozturk Y, Firatli S, Almac L. An evaluation
3. Kim H, Johnson WJ. Corrosion of stainless steel, of intraoral molar distalization with Nickel-
nickel–titanium. Coated nickel titanium and Titanium Coil Springs. Clinics in Dent Pract.
titanium orthodontic arch wire. Angle Orthod. 2005;3(4):15-20.
1999;69:39-44. 11. Talass ME. Optiflex archwire treatment of a
4. Klump JP, Duncanson MG, Nanda RS, Curier skeletal Class HI open bite. J Clin Orthod.
GF. Elastic energy/stiffness ratios for selected 1992;26:245-52.
orthodontic wires. Am J Orthod. 1994;106:588-96. 12. Watanabe M, Nakata S, Morishita T. Organic
5. Kohl RW. Metallurgy in orthodontics. Angle polymer wire for aesthetic maxillary retainers.
Orthod. 1964;34: 37-52. J Clin Orthod. 1996;30:266-71.
6. Krishnan V, Kumar JK . Weld characteristics of 13. West AE, Jones ML, Newcombe RG. Multiflex
orthodontic arch-wire materials. Angle Orthod. versus super elastic; a randomized clinical trial
2004;74:533-8. of tooth alignmentability of initial archwires. Am
7. Krishnan V, Kumar JK. Mechanical properties J Orthod Dentofac Orthop. 1995;95:464-71.
and surface characteristics of three archwire 14. Wilcock AJ Jr. Applied materials engineering for
alloys. Angle Orthod. 2004;74: 825-31. orthodontic wires. Aus Ortho J. 1989;11:22-9.
8. Minick GT, Oesterle LJ, Newman SM, Shellhart 15. Zufall SW, Kusy RP. Sliding mechanics of coated
WC. Bracket bond strengths of new adhesive composite wires and the development of an
systems. Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop. engineering model for binding. Angle Orthod.
2009;135:771-6. 2000;70:34-47.
Implant Materials
9
An implant is defined as a medical device v. A joint approach between the various
made from one or more biomaterials that is specialties to optimize patient selection.
intentionally placed within the body, either vi. Implants spacing.
totally or partially buried beneath an epithelial vii. Load distribution.
surface. viii. Prosthodontic geometry.
ix. Follow-up care.
This knowledge has evolved at the expense
BIOMATERIAL
of many failed implants, in part because
The term biomaterial is defined as a nonviable clinical treatment often preceded controlled
material used in a medicinal device, intended experimental studies in animals and humans.
to interact with biological systems. So generally For most of the period, they have been
stating implant is a device inserted into the body dominated by belief that success was predomi
below the skin or oral mucosal membrane, which nately design related, although more recently
may penetrate for the purpose of modifying the importance of the material of construction,
form and function of the jaws or face, usually by aspects of their application were not, however,
mechanical means. scientifically considered until recent decades.
Practicing dentists spend much of their
time replacing partially missing tooth structure.
However, researchers have now searched for
improved methods of anchoring prosthetic
material within the jaw to reconstruct an entire
tooth either as a single restoration or as a support
for a removable partial denture or a fixed partial
denture.
Through the years, it has become obvious
that this complex field of “dental implantology”
would require the optimization of several
important variables to enhance the chances of
success. The variables are as follows:
i. Proper material selection and design.
ii. An understanding and evaluation of
biologic interaction at the interface between
the implant and tissue.
iii. An evaluation of quality of the existing Fig. 9.1 Implant-supported replacement tooth that
bone. illustrates the bonding of tooth to the bone and implant
iv. A careful and controlled surgical technique. to the bone
REQUIREMENTS
• They should promote osseointegration.
• They should be nontoxic and nonirritant.
• They should be chemically stable in the bone
bed.
• They should be able to bear the masticatory
forces.
• They should have mechanical properties
similar to that of bone.
• It should be easy to manipulate, easy
available and not expensive.
TYPES OF IMPLANTS
There are principally three types of devices used
as follows:
Subperiosteal Implants
It is a framework that rests on the bony ridge but
does not penetrate it. This has longest history
of clinical trial. This type has been principally
used in the atrophic mandible. They consist of
a cast metal frame on which a prosthesis may be
mounted (Fig. 9.2A).
The frame is usually made from cobalt-
chromium alloy on a cast prepared from an
impression of the jawbone. The technique can
provide a very satisfactory result in the short-
term. However, over periods in excess of fifteen
years failures tend to become more common.
The survival rate is 54% over 15 years.
Transosteal Implants
This penetrates completely through the mandible.
Its use is limited to mandible (Fig. 9.2B). The
survival rate of these implants is of 90% over an
8–16 year period. This type of implant typified
by the ridge augmentation technique in which
the highest of reabsorbed alveolar ridge was Figs 9.2A to C (A) Subperiosteal implant; (B)
increased with an implant. transosteal implant; (C) Endosseous implant
Various ceramics were popular for this, as
well number of polymer based materials such
as carbon-fiber composites. appear to offer the best solution interims of
Endosseous Implants fewer clinical limitations and greater success.
Reports suggest high success rate over a 15-year
This is partially submerged and anchored within period for a specific type of cylindrical-shaped
the bone (Fig. 9.2C). The endosseous implants screw implant.
Chapter 9 Implant Materials 225
They have been manufactured as essentially dental implants were commonly loaded at
blade, nail or screw-like devices inserted through placement because immediate bone stimulation
the oral mucosa into the jawbone. They have was considered to avoid crestal bone loss.
been produced in a wide range of shapes and Bränemark et al. in 1969 showed that direct bone
materials and until recently had an uncertain apposition at the implant surface was possible
prognosis. The endosseous cylindrical design is and lasts under loading at the condition that
now often thought of as being synonymous with implants were left to heal in a submerged way.
dental implants.
Implant Materials
Osseointegration
1. Metals and alloys
Bränemark observed the fusion of bone with 2. Ceramics
titanium chambers when he had placed 3. Polymers
them into the femurs of rabbits. The word 4. Composites.
“osseointegration” is coined by him for such a
phenomena, which is defined as the apparent
METAL AND ALLOYS
direct attachment or connection of osseous
tissue to an inert, alloplastic material without Most commonly, metals and their alloys are used
intervening connective tissue. During osseointe for dental implants.
gration, osteoblasts and mineralized matrix
contacts the implant surface even when loads Stainless Steel
are applied. The first practical application
of osseointegration was the implantation of Steel is an iron based alloy, which contains less
new titanium roots in an edentulous patient than 1.2 percent of carbon. Stainless steel can be
in 1965 and the first ground breaking study classified into three implant types based on its
was published 16 years later by Adell et al. composition. They include ferritic, martensitic
in the International Journal of Oral Surgery. and austenitic steel.
This is considered to be the beginning of Austenitic steel implants are the most
the birth of modern implantology and its commonly used material. The austenitic steel
acceptance worldwide. Since then titanium and mainly contains 18% of chromium; provides
its alloys have been extensively used as implant corrosion resistance, 8% of nickel; stabilizes
materials for over 40 years due to their excellent the austenitic structure, 80 percent iron and
biocompatibility, mechanical properties and 0.05%–0.15% of Carbon.
high corrosion resistance. Biocompatibility of Properties
implants is very important with the physiological • Nickel is considered as a potential allergenic
environment in which they are placed. Osseo agent.
integration provides a stable bone-implant • Austenitic steels have high strength and
connection that can support a dental prosthesis ductility so they are more resistant to brittle
and transfer applied loads without concentrating fracture.
stresses at the interface between the bone and • Tensile strength: 70–145 PSI.
the implant. • Elongation to fracture: 30%.
Osseointegration takes place when the • Susceptible to pit and crevice corrosion.
bone is viable and space between the bone and • Direct contact with the dissimilar metal
implant must be less than 10 nm without any should be avoided as it results in galvanism.
fibrous tissue. Both the aspects of osseointegra
tion, maintenance of present bone (remodelling) Cobalt-Chromium-Molybdenum Alloys
and new bone formation (modelling), determine
the fate of implant healing and implant stability. They are used as cast and cast-annealed
Before introduction of the Bränemark protocol, conditions. This permits custom fabrications of
Table 9.1 Composition of Co-Cr-Mo alloys rods, posts, and blades made of either pure
Component Wt. Functions titanium or titanium alloys. Commercially pure
% titanium (Cp) is a very highly reactive metal.
It oxidizes (passivates) on contact with air or
Cobalt 63 • Increases MOE, strength
and hardness. normal tissue fluids. This reactivity is favorable
to the implant devices because it minimizes
• Provides continuous
biocorrosion. An oxide layer of 10Å thick on the
phase for the basic
properties.
cut surface of the titanium within a millisecond
is formed. Thus any scratch in the oxide coating
Chromium 30 • Forms secondary phase. is essentially self-healing. Titanium can be
• Corrosion resistance. further passivated by placing it in a nitric acid
Molybdenum 5 Provides strength and bulk bath to form a thick, durable oxide coating.
corrosion resistance. Cp titanium is available in four different grades
Carbon Trace Acts as a hardener. such as Cp grade 1, Cp grade 2, Cp grade 3 and
Cp grade 4. Cp titanium contains oxygen and
Nickel Trace Forms the secondary
phase.
minor amounts of impurities such as nitrogen,
carbon, hydrogen, etc.
alloys. Composition of these alloys is discussed Titanium-Aluminum-Vanadium Alloys

in the Table 9.1.
Composition
Properties Component Wt %
• Excellent biocompatibility if properly
Titanium 90
fabricated.
• The amount of carbon greatly influences Aluminum 6
the mechanical properties of the alloy. For Vanadium 4
example, if the alloy contains more amount
of carbon content, it reduces its ductility and Modulus of elasticity is slightly greater than
vice versa. Cp Ti and it is about 5.6 times that of compact
• Co-Mo-Cr alloys have a high elastic modulus. bone. Although Ti is biologically compatible
metal with high corrosion resistance, the
Advantages
titanium oxide surface does release some Ti ions
• These alloys possess an outstanding
at a low rate in the electrolytes such as those in
resistance to corrosion and they have high
blood and saliva.
modulus.
• Low cost and long-term clinical success.
Metal with Surface Coating
Limitations: The cobalt alloys are least ductile
and bending must be avoided. The new implant design used in titanium is
plasma sprayed or coated with a thin layer of
calcium phosphate ceramic or hydroxyl apatite
Titanium and Titanium Alloys
to produce bioactive surface that promotes bone
(Ti-Al-V alloys) growth. The bond is chemical in nature as the
Titanium is the most popular implant material. bone integrates with the coated surface. In this,
Titanium exists in nature as a pure element with a porous or rough titanium surface has been
an atomic number of 22 in periodic table. For fabricated by plasma spraying in a powder form
more than 25 years titanium has been used for of molten droplets at 1500°C temperature. The
both endosseous and sub-periosteal implants. plasma sprayed layer is provided with 0.04 to
Endosseous implants have taken the form of 0.05 mm thickness after solidification.
Porous titanium surface from various biodegradation high strength and physical
fabrication methods may increase the total surface characteristics such as color, minimal thermal
area (up to several times), produce attachment and electrical conductivity and wide range of
by osteoformation, enhance by increasing ionic elastic properties.
interactions, introduce a dual physical and Ceramics are brittle and susceptible to
chemical anchor system and increase the load flexible fracture but their outstanding feature of
bearing capability from 25% to 30%. The coatings biocompatibility and inert behavior made them
have been applied to a wide range of endosteal and as an important implant material.
subperiosteal dental implants with overall intent There are many types of ceramics out of which
of improving implant surface biocompatibility only two are well-developed and important.
profiles and implant longevities. 1. Bioactive materials
2. Nonreactive family of ceramics.
The Advantages of Coatings
• Tissue bonding. Bioactive Material
• Components those are normal to physio
Hydroxyapatite: They are rich in calcium
logical environments.
phosphates in dental reconstructive surgery. It
• Regions that serve as barriers elemental
is the material with the formula Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2
transfer, heat or electrical current flow.
that is similar to that of bone and teeth. It’s mainly
• Control of color.
been used as an implant material for augmenting
• Opportunities for the attachment of active
alveolar ridges or filling bony defects. These are
biomolecules synthetic compounds.
produced in a block or granular form that is
Limitations packed or fitted into site providing a scaffold for
new bone growth.
• Mechanical strength properties along the Mixtures of particulates with collagen and
substructure to coating interface. subsequently with drugs and active organic
• Biodegradation that could adversely compounds such as “bone morphogenic proteins”
influence tissue stabilities. increased the range of application. The granular
• Tissue dependent changes in physical form of this material is difficult to keep it
characteristics. localized at the site of implantation. The material
• Minimal resistance to scraping or scraping can be synthesized in either a dense or porous
procedures associated with oral hygiene. form, the later containing porosity 100–300 µm
• Susceptibility to standard handling. in size, which is adequate for bone in growth.
• Sterilizing.
Advantages
• Placing methodologies.
i. Chemical composition of high purity and of
Other Metals and Alloys substances that are similar to constituents
of normal biological tissues.
Many other metals and alloys have been used for ii. Excellent biocompatibility profiles within a
dental implants device fabrication. Early spirals variety of tissues when used as intended.
and cages included tantalum, platinum, iridium, iii. Opportunity to provide attachments
gold, palladium, and alloys of these metals. More between selected calcium phosphate
recently devices made from zirconium, hafnium ceramics and hard and soft tissues.
and tungsten have been evaluated. iv. Minimal thermal and electrical conductivity
plus capability to provide a physical and
chemical barrier to ion transport.
CERAMICS v. Modulus of elasticity is more similar to
Oxide ceramics were introduced for surgical bone than any other implant materials used
implant devices because of inertness to for load bearing implants.
vi. Color is similar to bone, dentin and enamel. • High stiffness.

Disadvantages • High hardness.
i. Variation in chemical and structural
characteristics for some currently available Carbon and Carbon Silicon Compounds
implant products.
Carbon compounds are often classified as
ii. Relatively low mechanical tensile and
ceramics because of their chemical inertness
chemical strength under condition of
and absence of ductility; however they are
fatigue loading.
conductors of heat and electricity. Extensive
iii. Relatively low attachment strengths for
applications for cardiovascular devices excellent
some coating to substrate interfaces.
biocompatibility profiles and moduli of elasticity
iv. Variable solidities depending on the
close to that of bone have resulted in clinical trials
product and the clinical application.
of these compounds in dental and orthopedic
Uses: Mainly for the endosteal and subperiosteal prosthesis. Ceramic and carbon substances
implants. continue to be used as coatings on metallic and
ceramic materials.
Bioglass
A dense ceramic material made from calcium POLYMERS
oxide, sodium oxide, phosphorus pentoxide and
silicon dioxide. Polymers have been fabricated in porous and
The strong bonding layer has been shown solid forms for tissue attachment and replace
to be 100–200 µm thick roughly 100 times ment augmentation and as coatings for force
the thickness comparable layers formed by transfer to soft and hard tissues.
hydroxyapatite. The bond has been shown to
be so strong that when tested to failure, fracture Fiber Reinforced Polymers
occurs within the bone or bioglass material
leaving the interface intact. They offer advantages in that they can be designed
to match tissue properties, can be anisotropic
Limitation: The brittle nature of bioglass becomes with respect to mechanical characteristics, can
the limiting factors in its use as a stress bearing be coated for tissue attachments and can be
dental implant materials. fabricated at relatively low cost.
Nonreactive Family of Ceramics

High ceramics from Al, Ti, and Zr oxides have COMPOSITES
been utilized for root form endosteal blade and Combination of polymer and other categories of
pin type dental implant. These are designed with synthetic biomaterials continue to be introduced.
either screw or blade shape and appear to work Several of the more inert polymers have been
optimally when they are used as abutments for combined with particulate or fibers of carbon,
prosthesis in partially edentulous mouths. aluminum oxide, and hydroxyapatite and glass
The important ones are aluminum oxide, ceramics.
either as polycrystalline or as a single crystal Some are porous, while others are constructed
(sapphire). It is not bioactive material since it as solid composite structural forms. In some
does not promote the formation of bone as do cases, biodegradable polymers, such as polyvinyl
the other ceramic materials. alcohol (PVA), polylactides or glycolides,
Advantages cyanoacrylates or other hydratable forms have
• Well-tolerated by bone. been combined with biodegradable calcium
• High strength. phosphate particulate or fibers.
Limitations: Composites of polymers are 8. Cochran DL. Endosseous dental implant
especially sensitive to sterilization and handling surfaces in human clinical trials. A comparison
technique. using meta-analysis. J Periodontol. 1999;70:
i. Most cannot be sterilized by ethylene oxide 1523-39.
9. Faeda RS, Tavares HS, Sartori R, Guastaldi AC,
or steam.
Marcantonio E. Evaluation of titanium implants
ii. Most are electrostatic and tend to gather
with surface modification by laser beam.
dust or other particulate if exposed to Biomechanical study in rabbit tibias. Braz Oral
semiclean air environments. Res. 2009; 23(2):137-43.
iii. Tale or starch or surgical gloves, contact 10. Gemelli E, Scariot A, Heriberto N, Camargo A.
with a towel or gauze pad, or the touching Thermal characterization of commercially pure
of any contaminated area must be avoided titanium for dental applications. Mater Res.
for all biomaterials. 2007;10(3):241-6.
11. Gotfredsen K, Wennerberg A, Johansson CB,
Advantages Skovgaard LT, Hjørting-Hansen E. Anchorage
i. Long-term experience. of TiO 2 -blasted, HA-coated and machined
ii. Excellent biocompatibility profiles. implants. An Experimental study in rabbits. J
iii. Ability to control proper ties through Biomed Mater Res. 1995;29:1223-31.
composite structures. 12. Guehennec LL, Soueidan A, Layrolle P, Amouriq
iv. Properties can be altered to suit clinical Y. Surface treatments of titanium dental
application. implants for rapid osseointegration. Dent Mater.
2007;23:844-54.
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Use of Ti-coated replicas to investigate the effects
SECTION 3
Laboratory
Dental Materials
• Gypsum Products • Casting Procedures for Casting Alloys
• Denture Base Resins • Dental Ceramics
• Dental Waxes • Mechanics of Cutting with Dental Burs
• Investment Materials • Abrasion and Polishing
• Dental Casting Alloys • Soldering and Welding
(Casting Gold and Base Metal Alloys)
Gypsum Products
10
GYPSUM CLASSIFICATION OF GYPSUM
PRODUCTS
Gypsum is a naturally occurring mineral found
in many parts of the world. Chemically, it is 1. According to ADA specification number 25
CaSO4.2H2O (Calcium sulfate dihydrate). gypsum products are classified into five types
as given below:
2. According to calcination they are classified
GYPSUM PRODUCTS into two types:
Gypsum products are the materials mainly i. Calcium sulfate b-hemihydrate: Obtained
obtained from gypsum, or the term gypsum by dry calcination, e.g. impression plaster
product refers to various forms of calcium (type I) and dental plaster (type II).
sulfate hydrous and anhydrous, manufactured ii. Calcium sulfate a-hemihydrate: Ob-
by calcination of gypsum. tained by wet calcination, e.g. dental
Gypsum products are the results of partial stone (type III), die stone with high
dehydration of gypsum, which produces calcium strength (type IV) and die stone with
sulfate hemihydrate (CaSO4.1/2 H2O). high strength and high setting expansion
(type V).
Types Name Applications

Type I Impression plaster (b-hemihydrate) For making corrective wash or secondary impressions
(edentulous) in the construction of complete dentures.
Type II Dental plaster/model plaster/ 1. Used for pouring casts or models of oral structures when
Plaster of Paris (b-hemihydrate) high strength and abrasion resistance is not needed.
2. Used to fill the flask in denture construction.
Type III Dental stone/hydrocal/ Class I stone Used for construction of working casts in the fabrication
(a-hemihydrate) complete dentures that fit soft tissues.
Type IV Die stone with high strength/ Used for making dies those are used for fabricating gold
Densite/Class II stone. restorations, crowns, bridges, inlays, onlays, etc.
Type V Die stone with high strength and Used for making very hard dies those are used for
high setting expansion/Class III fabricating restorations, crowns, bridges, inlays, onlays, etc.
stone/Crystocol. with base metal alloys.
236 Section 3 Laboratory Dental Materials
sulfate hemihydrate is dried and grounded to

MANUFACTURING
the desired fineness. The powder obtained by
Gypsum products used in dentistry are formed this process is densest of the three methods.
by driving off part of crystallization from gypsum
to form calcium sulfate hemihydrate.
SETTING REACTION OR CHEMISTRY
Depending on the method of calcination
different forms of the hemihydrate can be
obtained.
Dry Calcination When mixed with water, calcium sulfate

(b-Hemihydrate Manufacturing) hemihydrate combines with it to form the
dihydrate by the exothermic reaction. Crystalline
Produced by heating the gypsum mineral in an
theory of setting is widely accepted theory.
open kettle (vessel) at a temperature of about
Others include colloidal theory.
110–120°C. The hemihydrate produced is called
calcium sulfate b-hemihydrate (in absence
of water). Such a powder is known to have CRYSTALLINE (DISSOLUTION-
somewhat irregular shape and is considered to
PRECIPITATION) THEORY OF SETTING
be porous (sponginess) in nature.
Process
Wet Calcination
Stage I: When a hemihydrate is mixed with
(a-Hemihydrate Manufacturing)
water a suspension is formed, i.e. fluid
Different procedures can be used to obtain and workable.
a-hemihydrate. Stage II: The hemihydrate is sparingly soluble
1. Calcined under steam pressure in an auto- in water (0.9%). It dissolves until it
clave (in the presence of water vapor) at forms a saturated solution.
a temperature of 110–120°C. The powder Stage III: This saturated solution of the hemi
particles of this product are more uniform in hydrate is supersaturated with
shape and denser than the particles of dental respect to the dihydrate. So they later
plaster. This is also called as autoclaved precipitate out at suitable nucleation
calcium sulfate hemihydrate or hydrocal sites in the suspension. (The solubility
(dental stone). of dihydrate in water is 0.2%).
2. Produced by calcining finely divided ground Stage IV: As the dihydrate crystallizes, more
gypsum in water with small quantity of hemihydrate dissolves and the process
organic acid or salt (sodium succinate) in an continues until all the hemihydrate is
autoclave at 130°C. The product obtained is converted to dihydrate. As the amount
called crystocol (type V). of gypsum forming increases it starts
3. Produced by boiling or calcined in a 30% to liberate and the mass thickens
calcium chloride solution, after which the and harder into a needle like crystals
chlorides are washed away and the calcium called spherulites.
Chapter 10 Gypsum Products 237
Stage V: Finally intermeshing and entangling High w/p ratio (more water, less powder): There
of crystals lead to a strong solid will be very few numbers of nuclei per unit
structure, which is the final set. volume.
The reaction rate can be followed by the Higher the w/p ratio longer the setting time,
exothermic heat evolved. and lesser the strength and setting expansion.
PROPERTIES Setting Time
W/P Ratio Setting time may be defined as the time elapsed

from the beginning of mixing until the material
It is the ratio of water to the powder usually hardens (gain certain rigidity) or the reaction
expressed as the amount of water used per 100 completes.
gm of powder. Traditionally, two different setting times have
The w/p ratio is an important factor in been associated with the hardening of calcium
determining the physical and chemical proper sulfate dihydrate.
ties of the final gypsum product. To get good 1. Initial setting time
results water and powder should be proportioned 2. Final setting time.
properly by weight. 1. Initial setting time: During setting, viscosity of
Theoretically, a ratio of 18.6 is required to reactive mass begins to increase rapidly and
satisfy the reaction. But in practice, however, at the same time the mass no longer flows
more water than this is used when mixing plaster into the fine details of the impression that
or stone to give a smooth workable mix. Thus means the material has reached its working
water in excess is required for chemical reaction time or initial set. At this point the material
is called “excess water”. has reached initial setting time and should
This excess water serves to wet the hemi no longer be manipulated.
hydrate particle during mixing and does not Initial setting time must occur within 3
react with hemihydrate crystals and can be seen minutes from the start of mixing.
by the presence of voids due to evaporation of 2. Final setting time: It is defined as the time at
excess water in the set product. which the material is completely set and can
Type I Impression plaster—60–70% be separated from the impression without
Type II Model plaster—45–55% distortion or fracture.
Type III Dental stone—35–40% According to ADA specification number
Type IV Die stone with high strength—22–26% 25, final setting times must occur within
Type V Die stone with high strength and high 12 ± 4 minutes from the start of mixing.
setting expansion—18–22%.
Measurement of Setting Time
Effect of W/P Ratio on Properties of 1. Loss of glossy test or glass disappearance.
Gypsum Products 2. Penetration test.
3. Indentation test.
Low w/p ratio (less water, more powder): There
4. Exothermic reaction.
will be more number of nuclei of crystallization
per unit volume. These crystals are very close to Loss of gloss: As the reaction proceeds some of
each other, so they intermesh with one another the excess water is taken up in forming dihydrate
during growth. This intermeshing gives strength by capillary action so that the mix loses its gloss.
and rigidity to final gypsum product. When loss of glass occurs further manipulation
Lower the w/p ratio shorter is the setting of gypsum mass should be avoided.
time, and more will be the strength and setting Penetration test: This test is conducted by using
expansion. Vicat penetrometer. It consists of load weighing
300 gm with a needle of 1 mm diameter and 5 cm diameter (Fig. 10.1B). The setting time is defined
long. Ring container is filled with the mix setting as the setting time from the start of mixing until
time of which is to be measured (Fig. 10.1A). the bigger Gillmore needle fails to produce any
The rod is lowered until it contacts the surface indentation on the surface of the plaster mix.
of the material and then the needle is released
and allows penetrating the mix. Ready for Use
When the needle fails to penetrate to the
bottom of the container the material has reached Technically, it may be considered at a time when
Vicat setting time. the compressive strength is at least 80% of that
Initial setting time is defined as the time obtained at 1 hour. Most modern products reach
from the beginning of the mixing until the Vicat the ready for use state in 30 minutes.
needle no longer penetrates the entire depth
(5 cm) of a given mass of material. Factors Affecting Setting Time
Indentation test: In this, setting time tests are Theoretically, there are at least three methods by
carried out by piercing the respective needle which setting time can be controlled.
over the surface of the plaster/stone mix at fixed 1. Number of nuclei of crystallization can be
time intervals. The time at which the needle no increased or decreased.
longer indents the surface is considered as the 2. Solubility of hemihydrate can be increased
setting time. or decreased.
Small Gillmore needle is used to measure 3. The rate of crystal growth can be increased
initial setting time of the gypsum product. This or decreased.
needle weighs 1/4 lb (113.4 g) and 1/12 inch in
diameter (Fig. 10.1B). Setting time is defined as Factors Controlled by the Dentist/
the time from the start of mixing until the smaller Manufacturer
Gillmore needle fails to produce any indentation
on the surface of the plaster mix. W/P ratio: Higher the W/P ratio slower is the rate
Bigger Gillmore needle is used to measure of setting reaction and increases the setting time.
the final setting time of gypsum products. This Particle size/fineness of particle: Smaller or finer
needle weighs 1 lb (453.6 g) and 1/24 inch in the particle faster the rate of dissolution of
Figs 10.1A and B (A) Vicat penetrometer (B) Gillmore needles

hemihydrate, greater the number of nuclei of Addition of Chemical Modifiers
crystallization, which in turn accelerates rate of
setting and decreases setting time. Accelerators: Accelerators are the chemicals
that increase the rate of reaction so that the
Mixing time: Within practical limit an increase setting time is reduced to several minutes. An
in amount of spatulation will shorten the setting accelerator changes the hemihydrate to be much
time. The amount can be influenced by either more soluble than dihydrate (increase the rate
speed or time of spatulation or combination of of dissolution of hemihydrate), thus accelerating
both. During spatulation the formed crystals are the chemical reaction, e.g.
broken up by mixing spatula and are distributed • Potassium sulfate appears to accelerate
throughout the mixture with the resulting setting in any case, but particularly effective
formation of more nuclei of crystallization. in case higher than 2% since the reaction
Impurity (uncalcined gypsum) or if the manu- product is syngenite (K 2 Ca(SO 4 ) 2 .H 2 O),
facturer adds gypsum, setting time will be which crystallizes very rapidly.
shortened because the increasing number of • Na 2SO 4 – 3.4%, more than that acts as a
nuclei of crystallization. retarder.
Hexagonal anhydrate – decreases the setting • NaCl – 2% in maximum cases.
time. Retarders: These are the chemicals that decrease
Orthorhombic anhydrate – increases the the rate of reaction so that the setting time is
setting time. increased.
Humidity: The hemihydrate of gypsum is a Retarders generally act by forming an adsorb
hygroscopic material by nature. Initially, plaster layer on the hemihydrate to reduce its solubility,
takes up sufficient water vapor to start setting; e.g.
first hydration produces a few crystals and • Borax—it forms calcium borate as a reaction
these crystals act as nuclei of crystallization and of it with calcium sulfate and subsequently
increases the setting time. deposited on the growing dihydrate crystal
Increased contamination by moisture pro- and thereby retards crystallization.
duces sufficient dihydrate on the hemihydrate. • NaCl—more than 2.0%
Under these conditions the water penetrates • Sodium sulfate—more than 12%
dihydrate coating with difficulty and the setting • Colloidal systems such as blood, saliva, and
time is prolonged. Therefore, gypsum product alginate and Agar impression materials,
should be stored in a closed container and they retard rate of setting reaction by being
should be protected from the atmospheric adsorbed on crystals or calcium sulfate
humidity. dihydrate nucleation sites and thus inter
fering hydration reaction.
Temperature: As the temperature of mixing water
• Citrates, acetates act by nuclei poison.
increased from 20–37°C the rate of dihydrate
formation increases and consequently setting
time decreases. DIMENSIONAL CHANGES
As the temperature is around 40°C the rate
Setting Expansion
of reaction decreases and the setting time is
prolonged. As the setting of gypsum takes place, the growing
As the temperature of water exceeds 40°C, the crystals push each other and cause certain
solubility of the dihydrate increases. Near boiling amount of expansion. This expansion ranges
point of water the solubility of dihydrate and from 0.06–0.5% (linear expansion). This is the
hemihydrates are approximately equal (0.17). In apparent or observed expansion.
this case, no reaction takes place and the plaster But theoretically certain amount (appro-
will not set to a harder mass of gypsum. ximately 7%) of contraction occurs. If equivalent
volumes of hemihydrate, water and the reaction Two Types of Expansions

product (dihydrate) are compared, the volume
of dihydrate formed is less than the equivalent • Normal setting expansion
volumes of hemihydrate and the water required. • Hygroscopic setting expansion.
The apparent volume is greater than the Normal setting expansion: Setting expansion that
real volume due to the fact that as the material occurs under normal condition that is without
sets, the spherulites not only intermesh but also water immersion is termed as normal setting
intercept each other during growth, i.e. if the expansion (Fig. 10.2A).
growth of one crystal is interrupted by another, Hygroscopic setting expansion: Expansion that
a stress is present at this point in the direction occurs under water is known as hygroscopic
of the growth of the impinging crystals creating setting expansion. This setting expansion that
micropores. These micropores contain the excess occurs under water is greater than the normal
water used for mixing. This excess water is lost setting expansion (Fig. 10.2B). This water is
on drying and the total empty space is greatly added during/after the initial set. Comparison
increased. between normal and hygroscopic setting
Greater the w/p ratio, greater is the poro expansions were discussed in the Table 10.1
sity because the number of nuclei of crystal For the preparation of models and casts,
lization per unit volume is decreased and less this setting expansion should be minimum. But
intermeshing of crystals of gypsum occurs. when the dental stone is used as the binder in
When the plaster is poured to set in the investment materials, large setting expansion
impression mould any expansion is restricted or is required. This is to compensate casting
overcome by the frictional force between plaster shrinkage.
and the mould surface. So during the initial set Hygroscopic expansion is more, if
of plaster, apparent expansion is overcome by • Time of immersion in water is more.
this friction. • Less w/p ratio.
• Longer spatulation time.
Factors Affecting Setting Expansion • Fresh material.
• No chemicals are added.
1. Water/powder ratio: If the w/p ratio is
increased setting expansion is reduced MANIPULATION
because less number of spherulites per unit
volume are formed, thus less outward thrust. The plaster or stone is usually mixed in a flexible
2. Mixing time: Longer time of mixing will break rubber or plastic bowl using a stiff bladed
the spherulites and increases the setting spatula. The water is dispensed in the bowl first,
expansion. the powder is then added and allows settling
into the water for approximately 30 seconds.
3. Accelerators and retarders: These decrease This technique minimizes the amount of air
the setting expansion. Retarders either incorporated into the mix during the initial
change the crystalline form of dihydrate spatulation.
or rate of crystallization is so rapid that
growth is resisted. Expansion takes place Mixing
after the induction period. But on addition
of accelerator the rate of crystallization is so Mixing is carried by stirring the mixture vigorously
rapid that a rigid framework is formed before and at the same time wiping the inside surface
the crystallization is completed so setting of the bowl with the spatula to be sure that all
expansion is reduced. the powder is wet and mixed uniformly into
Fig. 10.2A Normal setting expansion
Fig. 10.2B Hygroscopic expansion
Table 10.1 Comparison of normal and hydroscopic setting expansion

Normal setting expansion Hygroscopic setting expansion
Stage 1:
The particles of hemihydrate surrounded by water Same as in normal setting condition
Stage 2:
• The dihydrate crystals begin to form. • The setting takes place under water.
• Amount of water is reduced by hydration. • The water of hydration is replaced.
• The particles are drawn more closely together. • T he distance between the particles remains
the same.
Stage 3:
• Dihydrate crystals grow in size. • W
ater around the particles is replaced from
outside.
• W
ater around the particles is again decreased and • T he distance between the particles is further
particles more closely but contraction is opposed increased as the crystals grow.
by the outward thrust of growing crystals.
Stage 4:
The crystals become intermeshed and entangled. Thus Crystals grow much more freely
the crystal growth is inhibited.
Stage 5:
The crystal growth is inhibited by lack of excess water Water added during setting expansion provides
so the crystal grows and expands to a limit more room for longer crystal growth. Therefore,
greater setting expansion.
the water. The mixing is continued until all the Composition

mixture is smooth and homogeneous in texture.
Mixing time approximately 1 minute with the • CaSO 4 β-hemihydrate: Main reactive
rate of spatulation has been approximately 2 ingredient.
revolutions per second. The mix is then vibrated • Accelerator (K2SO4): 4% increases the rate of
until no more air bubbles came to the surface. setting reaction.
• Borax: 0.04% retarder (to counteract the
accelerator).
Construction of Cast • Alizarin: 0.04% color pigment (to distinguish
In one method, strips of a soft wax called boxing impression plaster and model plaster).
wax are wrapped around the impression to form • Potato starch: To render them soluble in
a mold or container for the gypsum material. water and permits rapid separation of the
Generally, the wax is extended approximately cast from the impression material.
½ inch beyond the tissue side of the impression • Flavoring agent: To offset the bad taste of
to provide a base for the model or cast. This plaster.
process is called boxing. The mixture of stone Accelerator, borax, and alizarin dissolved in
or plaster and water is then allowed to run water and form a solution, called as antiexpansion
into the impression under vibration, in such a solution.
manner that it pushes ahead itself as it fills the Due to the addition of potato starch in plaster
impressions of the teeth and other irregularities. it is also called as soluble plaster. The starch
The cast should not be separated unless it has softens and swells in hot water and impression
thoroughly hardened (45–60 minutes). The disintegrates, and its removal from the cast is
completed cast should be smooth, neat and facilitated.
accurate in every detail.
Setting Reaction
Precautions
• Instruments should be clean.
• Proper w/p ratio of the material should be
followed. Properties
• Do the enough vibration to eliminate the air
bubbles. W/P ratio: 0.60–0.70
• Impression should be properly washed to Setting time: 4 ± 1 minutes.
remove blood or saliva. Otherwise it will Setting expansion: Maximum 0.15%
interfere with the setting reaction. Wet strength: 6 MPa
• Cast should be removed after 45–60 minutes.
Manipulation
The impression plaster should be mixed with
IMPRESSION PLASTER (TYPE – I)
water or an anti-expansion solution in the ratio of
Uses 100 g to 60–70 ml. A thin layer of mix of impression
plaster is placed in the special tray and then
1. Used for corrective wash or secondary placed in the mouth for recording the impression.
impression of the edentulous arches. After the material has set it is removed from the
2. It is primarily used when excess saliva mouth, washed free of saliva and then the surface
produced by the accessory palatine gland. of the impression is painted with a separating
Impression plaster, to which modifiers have medium (e.g. alcoholic solutions of varnish).
been added to regulate the setting time and to Failure to do so results in bonding the cast to the
control the setting expansion. surface of the impression material.
Advantages Wet compressive strength: 9 MPa

Dry compressive strength: 25 MPa
• It reproduces good surface detail.
Surface hardness: 60 RHN
• Rate of set is under the control of operator
(4 ± 1 minutes).
• The amount of setting expansion is also less. Advantages
Dimensionally stable and accurate if used • Very easy to trim the models.
with antiexpansion solution. • Least expensive of the gypsum materials.
• Compatible with all materials commonly
used for making casts. Uses
• Stable on storage over long time if it is kept
in a sealed condition. • Used for pouring cast of oral structures when
• Relatively inexpensive and easy to mani- high strength and high abrasion resistance
pulate. is not required and dimensional accuracy is
not typical.
Drawbacks • Used for filling a flask in denture construction.
• Used for mounting stone models in the
• Set impression is brittle and may fracture articulators.
when removed from undercut areas.
• Bad taste and rough feel.
Synthetic Plaster
• Water absorbing nature of these materials
often causes patients to complain about a Plaster manufactured from the byproducts or
very dry sensation after impression has been waste products of the manufacture of phosphoric
recorded. acid. The synthetic product is much more
• Exothermic heat is disliked by many patients. expensive than that made from natural gypsum.
• Requires a separator before pouring the cast
in the lab, this may cause surface inaccuracy. TYPE – III (CLASS – I STONE/
• It cannot be used for compressing the soft HYDROCAL/DENTAL STONE)
tissues.
Dental stone is manufactured by heating
the gypsum in an autoclave with steam at a
MODEL PLASTER OR DENTAL temperature of about 120–130°C.
PLASTER (TYPE – II) Dental stone is composed of calcium sulfate
Dental plaster is manufactured by heating the a-hemihydrate, accelerators, retarders and color
gypsum in an open vessel at a temperature pigments.
about 110–120°C. Dental plaster contains
calcium sulfate β-hemihydrate, accelerators Balanced Stone
and retarders.
A stone with a setting time established by the
proper additions of both accelerators and
Setting Reaction retarders is said to be balanced stone, which
regulates setting time and reduces setting
expansion.
Properties Setting Reaction

W/P ratio: 0.45–0.50 g/ml
Setting time: 12 ± 4 minutes.
Setting expansion: Maximum 0.30%
Properties • Should have the ability to reproduce the fine

detail and sharp margins of impressions.
W/P ratio: 0.35–0.40 • Should remain dimensionally stable under
Setting time: 12 ± 4 minutes. normal conditions of use and storage.
Setting expansion: Maximum 0.20% (Contraction should be zero).
Wet compressive strength: 21 MPa • Should give good color contrast with various
Dry compressive strength: 64 MPa waxes, which are often used to produce wax
Surface hardness: 82 RHN patterns.
• Should be compatible with other materials
Advantages with which it comes into contact.
• It is inexpensive and easy to manipulate. • Should be relatively inexpensive.
• Dimensional stability and accuracy are good. • Should be easy to manipulate.
• Ability to reproduce fine details and sharp • Should have good shelf-life.
margins of impressions.
Types of Die Materials
Drawbacks 1. Type IV and V gypsum products.
• Mechanical properties are not ideal. 2. Zinc-silico phosphate cement.
• Fracture of teeth from stone casts can occur 3. Silver amalgam.
with careless handling. 4. Epoxy resins, polyesters, epimines, etc.
• Low abrasion resistance. 5. Metal sprayed dies (e.g. bismuth and tin alloy)
6. Electroformed dies/metal plated dies.
Uses
Type IV and V Gypsum Products
• Used to pour the workable casts in the
fabrication of complete dentures. • Type IV: Die stone with high strength.
• Used to process the denture because the • Type V: Die stone with high strength and high
stone has adequate strength for that purpose setting expansion.
and the denture is easy to remove after Manufacturing and setting reactions are
process. described earlier in the same chapter. Properties
of type IV and V gypsum die materials are
DIE MATERIALS
Table 10.2: Properties of type IV and gypsum die
Die materials
The term die is normally used when referring to Property Type IV Type V
a positive replica of single tooth or reproductions W/P ratio 22–26 18–22
of multiple teeth with prepared cavities used in Setting time 8-16 minutes 8-16 minutes
constructing restorations such as crowns, bridges
Setting expansion 0.10 0.26
inlays and onlays.
Wet compressive 58 MPa 76.4 MPa
strength
Requirements
Surface hardness 92 RHN 100 RHN
• Should have good abrasion resistance so that Dry strength 126.4 MPa 145.2 MPa
the surface will not be damaged during the
carving of a wax pattern. The greater setting expansion of type V
• Should have good strength to reduce the is used for compensation of relatively large
likelihood of accidental breakage. solidification shrinkage of base metal alloys.
Die stones have low abrasion resistance; Advantages
attempts have been made to increase the
hardness of gypsum products by the incor • Tough and good strength.
por ation of the set gypsum with methyl • Good abrasion resistance, which allows
methacrylate that is allowed to polymerize. satisfactory finishing and polishing of metal
Polymerization of the monomer produces a restorations on the die.
polymer phase, which occupies many of the • Dimensionally stable, i.e. no expansion or
porosities in set gypsum and increases strength contraction occurs in the electrodeposition
and hardness. of a metal.
Incorporating of wetting agents, “ligno- • Detailed reproduction of a line 4 µm or
sulfates” which can reduce the water requirement less in width is readily obtainable, when a
of a stone and enable production of harder, nonaqueous elastomeric impression is used.
stronger, denser set gypsum. Hydrophilic impression materials (hydro-
colloids and impression plaster) cannot be
electroplated because they imbibe electrolytic
Advantages solution and undergo dimensional changes.
• Have the ability to reproduce fine detail and Some impression materials can be electroplated,
sharp margins. e.g. impression compound, addition polysilicone,
• Compatible with all impression materials. can be copper plated and addition polysilicone
• Dimensional accuracy is considered to be and polysulfides can be silver-plated.
adequate. In a dental electroplating process the
• Relatively inexpensive. impression is made electrically conductive and
• Easy to manipulate. becomes cathode (-ve), and the metal which is
to be deposited is made as anode (+ve).
Disadvantages
Types
• Mechanical properties are not ideal.
• Susceptibility to abrasion during carving of 1. Copper (Cu) plated
the wax pattern. 2. Silver (Ag) plated.
Electroformed Dies Copper Plated Dies

Dies are made or formed by the electrodeposition Metallizing: A surface of the impression is
of metal (Fig. 10.3). rendered conductive by coating it with fine
Fig. 10.3 Electrodeposition of metal on the impression in electroplating bath

particles of copper or graphite (because Silver Amalgam Dies

impression material is nonconductive). This
process is called as “metallizing”. Silver-tin or copper amalgams may be packed into
rigid impression materials such as compound.
Selection of electrodes and type of battery: The The dimensional accuracy achieved depends
coated impression is made the cathode (–ve) upon the efficiency of condensation.
of plating bath with an anode of copper. The
electrolyte is an acid solution of CuSO4 together Disadvantages
with organic ingredients (phenol or alcohol),
which are believed to increase the hardness of • Condensation forces damage the thin
the deposited metal. The electric current may be sections of impression.
supplied by storage batteries of the dry cell type. • Longer setting time.
• Difficult to locate the dowel into amalgam.
Procedure: As current is passed causing slow • Health hazardous due to the presence of
dissolution of the anode and movement of mercury.
copper ions from anode to cathode so plating the
impression. A current of 5–50 milliampere/cm2 Metal-sprayed Dies
on cathode surface is applied for approximately
10 hours. The fine particles of molten metal or alloy can
Dental stone is then cast into the plated be sprayed on to many impressions without
impression when the stone has set the metal burning. Metals and alloys can be melted with
carved die can be removed from the impression. oxyacetylene or other flame.
The method is applicable to the elastomers
and with care to impression compound. Slow
Silver-plated Dies
spraying of molten metal or alloy can prevent
Metallizing: A surface of the impression is softening of the impression compound.
rendered conductive by coating it with fine
particles of silver or graphite. Advantages
Selection of electrodes and type of battery: The
• Good accuracy.
coated impression is made the cathode (–ve)
• Dies can be produced within one hour.
of plating bath with an anode of silver. The
electrolyte is an alkaline solution of AgCN
together with KCN, and K 2NO3. The electric Disadvantages
current may be supplied by storage batteries of • Difficult to spray into deep recesses.
the dry cell type. • Operator should wear the facemask to
Procedure: As current is passed causing slow prevent inhalation of the fine spray of metal.
dissolution of the anode and movement of • Special equipment is required.
silver ions from anode to cathode so plating the
impression. A current of 5–10 milliampere/cm2 Silicophosphate Cement Dies
on cathode surface is applied for approximately
10 hours. These cements may be used with all impression
Dental stone is then cast into the plated materials. They are vibrated and centrifuged into
impression when the stone has set the metal the impression.
carved die can be removed from the impression.
Precautions: If any acid comes into contact with Advantages
alkaline cyanide solution HCN gas will be raised, • Dies can be prepared within short period.
which is toxic and hazardous. Because of this • These cement dies are hard and strong.
raise, silver plating is not oftenly used. • Reproduce good surface details.
Disadvantages materials, type IV dental stones, and liquid

media. J Prosthet Dent. 1987;57:292-8.
• Brittleness. 4. Jack D Gerrow, Richard B. Price, comparison of
• Chances of drying out of the die (should be the surface detail reproduction of flexible die
stored in light oil). material systems. J Prosthet Dent. 1998;80:485-9.
• Dimensional instability. 5. Sarma AC, Neiman R. A study of the effect of
disinfectant chemicals on physical properties
of die stone. Quint Int. 1990; 21:53.
SUGGESTED READING 6. Schelb E, Cavazos E, Kaiser DA, Troendle K.
Compatibility of type IV dental stones with
1. Carlyle LW. Compatibility of irreversible polyether impression materials. J Prosthet Dent.
hydrocolloid impression material with dental 1988;60:540-2.
stones. J Prosthet Dent 1983; 49:434-7. 7. Schelb E, Mazzocco CV, Jones JD, Prihoda T.
2. Gerrow JD, Price RB. Comparison of the surface Compatibility of type IV dental stones with
detail reproduction of flexible die material polyvinyl siloxane impression materials. J
Prosthet Dent. 1987;58:19-22.
systems. J Prosthet Dent 1998;80:485-9.
8. Torrance A, Darvell BW. Effect of humidity on
3. Gerrow JD, Schneider RL. A comparison of
calcium sulphate hemihydrate. Aust Dent J.
the compatibility of elastomeric impression
1990;35:230.
Denture Base Resins
11
polystyrene, epoxy resins, nylon, vinyl styrene,
INTRODUCTION
polycarbonate, polysulfone—unsaturated
A complete denture may be defined as a polyesters, polyurethane, polyvinyl acetate—
removable dental prosthesis intended to replace ethylene hydrophilic polyacrylate, silicones,
the masticatory surface and associated structures light activated urethane dimethacrylate, rubber
of maxillary or mandibular arch such prosthesis reinforced acrylics, and butadiene reinforced
is composed of artificial teeth attached to a acrylics.
denture base. So many materials have been developed to
Denture base is the part of the denture construct the removable complete or partial
that retains artificial teeth and rests on the soft prosthesis. But PMMA remains the preferred
tissues of the mouth. The denture base derives material.
its support through intimate contact with
underlying oral tissues.
REQUIREMENTS OF DENTURE BASE
The materials used for the fabrication of
denture bases are called “denture base materials”. MATERIALS
The materials used in the construction of The ideal denture base material should possess
denture bases may be divided into metallic and several key physical attributes. Some of those
nonmetallic types. The non-metallic denture properties are as follows:
base materials are the polymer-based materials,
which are discussed in this chapter. In general, Biological Requirements
they display excellent mechanical properties, i. In mixed or uncured state the denture
and can be used in relatively thin sections. base material should not be harmful to the
However, it is cheaper to construct appliances. In technician involved in its handling.
addition, the color and texture of these materials ii. The denture base material should be
can be made to resemble natural gum tissue, nontoxic and non-irritant.
thus making the appliances less conspicuous in iii. Should not produce toxic fumes or dust
the mouth. The artificial teeth are constructed during handling and manipulation.
either of porcelain or acrylic resin tinted to iv. Should not support the growth of bacteria.
simulate the human teeth. v. Should not be carcinogenic.
Many different materials have been used
for denture bases. Historically, materials such
Chemical Requirements
as bone, wood, ivory, and vulcanized rubber
were utilized and in addition to these other A denture base material should chemically be
materials such as vulcanite, nitrocellulose, inert, in the sense; it should be/should have–
bakelite, vinyl plastics, porcelain, poly i. Insoluble in oral fluids or any other fluids
(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), vinyl acrylics, taken into the mouth.
Chapter 11 Denture Base Resins 249
ii. Impermeable and should not absorb Thermal Requirement
water since this may alter the mechanical
i. Should have high thermal conductivity
properties and cause the denture to become
to enable the denture wearer to maintain
unhygienic.
a healthy oral mucosa and retain a normal
iii. Good adhesion with artificial teeth and
reaction to hot and cold stimuli.
liners.
ii. COTE: Should match with that of artificial
tooth material.
Mechanical Requirements iiii. Should have high softening temperature
A denture base material should have– (Tg) to prevent softening and distortion
i. High modulus of elasticity– when hot foods taken into the mouth.
a. To be rigid against masticatory defor- a. Should ideally be above the temperature
ming forces of boiling water for purposes of
b. To achieve greater rigidity even in thin sterilization with evidence of wrapping.
sections.
ii. High PL and EL: So that denture will not Esthetic Requirements
undergo permanent deformation when A denture base material should be/should have–
stressed. i. Exhibit sufficient translucency so that it
iii. High compressive, tensile and transverse can be made to match the appearance of
or flexural strength. To resist biting and the oral tissues it is to replace.
chewing forces without fracture. ii. Capable of being tinted or pigmented.
iv. High impact strength. To resist fracture iii. No change in colors or appearance of the
under impact forces. material subsequent to its fabrication.
v. High fatigue strength–
a. To resist fracture under repeated cyclic Other Requirements
forces, which are common in the oral
A denture base material should be/ should have–
cavity.
i. Radiopaque: Be capable of detection using
b. To have a long shelf-life to service.
normal diagnostic radiographic technique
vi. High resilience: To protect soft tissues by
if accidentally swallowed.
absorbing masticatory forces.
ii. Relatively inexpensive
vii. High surface hardness–
iii. Tasteless and odorless
a. To prevent excessive wear of the material
iv. Long shelf-life
by abrasive denture cleanser or food
v. Easy to manipulation and fabricate without
stuff.
using expensive processing equipment.
b. Should take and retain a high polish.
vi. Possible to repair the resin easily and
viii. Low specific gravity–
efficiently in case of unavoidable breakage.
a. Denture should be as less weight as
vii. Easy to clean.
possible.
No known denture base material adequately
b. This reduces the gravitational forces,
fulfills all these requirements.
which may act on an upper denture.
ix. Low surface energy: To prevent the
deposition of food stuffs on the surface of CLASSIFICATION OF DENTURE BASE
denture. MATERIALS
x. Good dimensional stability
According to the Type of Materials
a. In order to that the shape of the denture
does not change over a period of time. All denture base materials can be broadly
b. Should neither expand nor contract classified into metallic and nonmetallic materials.
nor warp during processing or during Nonmetallic denture base materials are
subsequent normal use by the patient. widely used for the fabrication of dentures.
disadvantages of these materials include difficult

CLASSIFICATION OF DENTURE BASE
processing methods, lack of dimensional
RESINS stability, brittleness, discoloration and expensive,
According to Development of Materials recommended for suitable replacements. In
1937, Walter Wright introduced most useful resin
a. Formerly used to dentistry such as polymethyl methacrylate
Example: Vulcanite, bakelite, cellulose nitrate, (PMMA) material, which proved to be the most
nylon, polyvinyl chloride, polystyrene, satisfactory material tested up to that time. By
polycarbonates and epoxy resins. the middle of 1940’s almost all the dentures were
b. Most widely used materials fabricated with these acrylic resin materials.
Example: Poly (methyl methacrylate) heat- The popularity of PMMA materials is based
cure and self-cure. on its low cost, relative ease of use, and resilience
c. Recently developed on simple processing equipment. There are,
Example: Fiber reinforced acrylics, high however, significant differences in the chemistry
impact strength acrylics, vinyl acrylics, among denture materials based on PMMA
hydrophilic acrylics, fluid resins, radiopaque chemistry. Some materials are composed with
resins and light activated denture base resins. high levels of cross-link resin and heat activated
initiators to maximize the physical properties of
According to the Method of processed materials.
Polymerization These denture base materials are available,
which polymerize either with or without the
a. Addition polymers, e.g. poly (methyl application of external heat. The former materials
methacrylate), and polyvinyl chloride are called heat-cured polymethyl methacrylate
b. Condensation polymers, e.g. nylon, bakelite. and later is self-cured or chemically-cured
materials.
According to the Method of Activation
i. Thermal; e.g. poly (methyl methacrylate). HEAT ACTIVATED DENTURE
ii. Microwave; e.g. poly (methyl methacrylate). BASE ACRYLIC RESINS
iii. Catalyst; e.g. poly (methyl methacrylate).
iv. Visible light activated; e.g. poly (methyl These materials are widely used for the cons
methacrylate). truction of removable complete or partial
dentures. In the heat-cured materials, poly
According to the Dispensing System merization is started by free radicals released
from benzoyl peroxide.
a. Power and liquid system, e.g. heat-cure and
self-cure acrylic resins.
Dispension and Composition
b. Sheets and ropes: (Single component
system), e.g. light activated denture base Heat-cured materials are available in the form of
resins. finely divided prepolymerized polymer powder
c. Gel type, e.g. vinyl acrylics. and monomer liquid (Fig. 11.1).
Liquid is supplied in a dark brown colored
According to their Thermal Response bottle to avoid accidental polymerization when
exposed to visible or UV radiation during
a. Thermoplastic, e.g. polyvinyl acrylics and transport a storage. Bottle should be kept
polystyrene. closed to prevent evaporation and stored at the
b. Thermosetting, e.g. PMMA. specified temperature recommended by the
In the beginning of 1900’s polyvinyl manufacturer. Composition of heat-activated
chloride, vinyl acetate, modifications of bakelite, acrylic denture base materials is discussed in
and cellulose plastics were used. The main Table 11.1.
has the potential to elicit irritation, inflam-
mation and allergic response of the oral
mucosa. Further, residual monomer is capable
of producing both stomatitis and an angular
cheilitis.
Residual monomer present in heat-cure
acrylic resin is 0.2–0.5% and in self-cure acrylic
resin it is 2–5%.
Formaldehyde is another allergic agent
in acrylic dentures responsible for mucosal
injuries. Formaldehyde is formed as an oxidation
product of the residual MMA monomer in
inhibition layers and poorly polymerized
resins. Formaldehyde formation was suggested
to occur through the decomposition of the
Fig. 11.1 Heat-cure acrylic resin oxygen-methyl methacrylate copolymer or
by the oxidation of methyl methacrylate.
Formaldehyde is proved to be cytotoxic at much
Setting Reaction lower concentrations than methyl methacrylate.
Formaldehyde is also a strong irritant to the
Whenever powder is added to the liquid and mucous membranes even at low concentrations
cured, the free radicals on activation, initiates as low as 0.63 to 1.25 mg/m3.
polymer growth. In the presence of ethylene The allergic reaction occurs within a few to
glycol dimethacrylate, a cross-linking agent, a several hours after the mucosa is exposed to the
rigid cross-linked poly (methyl methacrylate) resin. When allergic reactions were noted, they
is formed. were described as white, necrotic lesions on the
mucosa; either as small, multiple lesions or as
Properties large ulcers mimicking allergic stomatitis.
Properties of Methyl Methacrylate Chemical Properties
Methyl methacrylate is a clear, transparent liquid Solubility: Acrylic resins are soluble in aromatic
at room temperature (Table 11.2). hydrocarbons, ketones and esters. The solubility
Volatile liquid with distinct odor exaggerated is around 0.04 mg/cm 2 . Alcohol will cause
by a relatively high vapor pressure at room crazing. Ethanol functions as a plasticizer and
temperature. can reduce the glass transition temperature.
Other properties of methyl methacrylate are Therefore, solutions containing alcohol should
given in Table 11.2. not be used for cleaning or storing the dentures.
The water solubility of heat-cure acrylic resins is
Properties of Poly (Methyl Methacrylate) 0.02 mg/cm2.
Poly (methyl methacrylate) is a transparent resin Water sorption: Water sorption of heat-cure
of remarkable clarity. It transmits light better acrylic resins is 0.69 mg/cm2. The sorption of
than glass. water changes the dimension of the denture
when alternatively soaked in water and dried.
This repeated drying and wetting incorporate
Biological Properties stresses in the denture resulting in crazing.
Acrylic resin dentures contain methyl metha Water absorption of heat-cured resins is
crylate as residual monomer. Residual monomer 1.08 × 10-12 m2/sec.
Table 11.1 Composition of heat-cure acrylic resin

Powder
Prepolymerized poly (methyl methacrylate) • Undergoes further polymerization.
• Reduces the polymerization shrinkage.
Copolymers of PMMA (5%) e.g. ethyl or butyl • Increase the solubility of polymer in the monomer.
methacrylates • To produce a polymer somewhat more resistant to
fracture by impact.
Initiator (0.2–1.5%) e.g. benzoyl peroxide or di-iso Initiates the polymerization of the monomer liquid
butyl azonitrile after being added to powder.
Plasticizer, e.g. Dibutyl phthalate • Increases the solubility of polymer in the
monomer.
• Produces softer and more resilient polymer.
Color pigments, e.g. Added to obtain the various tissue like shades.
Mercuric sulfide—Red
Cadmium sulfide—Yellow
Ferric oxide—Brown
Carbon black—Brown
Opacifiers, e.g. zinc or titanium oxides Provides opacity.
Dyed synthetic fibers made from nylon or acrylic To simulate the minute blood vessels in the
underlying oral mucosa.
Inorganic particles, e.g. glass fibers, zirconium • To improve the stiffness.
silicate, whiskers of alumina, SiC, boron nitride and • To decrease COTE.
carbon fibers.
Heavy metal compounds, e.g. barium, bismuth, etc. • Imparts radiopacity.
Liquid
Methyl methacrylate Undergoes polymerization to produce PMMA.
Comonomers Improves the properties of denture bases.
Inhibitor, e.g. Hydroquinone (0.003%–0.1%) Prevents premature polymerization and prolongs the
shelf-life of the liquid.
Plasticizers, e.g. butyl or octyl methacrylate and Producer softer and more resilient polymer.
dibutyl phthalate
Cross-linking agent, e.g. Ethylene glycol • Improves the physical properties of the denture.
dimethacrylate • Increases resistance to crazing.
Adhesion: Chemically bonds to the acrylic teeth

Table 11.2 Properties of methylmethacrylate
monomer but not with the porcelain teeth.
Property Values Mechanical Properties
Melting point -48°C
Modulus of elasticity: 3.8 × 103 Mpa.
Boiling point 100.8°C Proportional limit : 26 Mpa.
Density 0.945 g/cc at 20°C Compressive strength: 76 Mpa
Polymerization shrinkage 21% Tensile strength: 48–62 Mpa
Percentage of elongation: 1–2%
Heat of polymerization 12,900 cal/mole
Impact strength: 0.98–1.27 J
Impact strength is very low. So dentures may fabricated. Dental flask has three parts such as
break if dropped on a hard surface accidentally. lower half, upper half and lid.
Surface hardness: 18–20 KHN Procedure: Flasking is the process of investing
Density: 1.16–1.18 g/cc the cast with waxed denture in a flask to make
Fatigue strength: 1.5 × 106 cycles at 17.2 MPa.
Flow chart 11.1 Preliminary steps in compression
Thermal Properties molding technique
Thermal conductivity: The thermal conductivity

of these resins is low, 5.7 × 10 -4 °C/cm, this
results in plastic denture bases serving as an
insulator between the oral tissues and hot or cold
materials taken into the mouth. In other words,
patient will not feel the hot or cold sensation
immediately.
Coefficient of thermal expansion: 81 × 10-6 /°C.
Heat distortion temperature: 71–91 /°C.
Glass transition temperature: 125°C.
Depolymerization temperature: 450°C.
Compression Molding Technique for

the Fabrication of Complete Denture
The following are the steps involved in the
fabrication of complete dentures using
compression-molding technique:
1. Preliminaries
2. Flasking
3. Dewaxing
4. Separating medium
5. Proportioning and mixing
6. Trial closure
7. Final closure
8. Bench curing
9. Curing cycle
10. Bench cooling
11. Deflasking
12. Finishing and polishing.
Preliminaries: These are the steps involved from
the making of preliminary impression to the
arrangement of teeth in the occlusal rims. Actual
steps involved are discussed in Flow chart 11.1.
Flasking
Dental flask is a device in which the wax denture
model is invested and in which the denture is
a sectional mold used to form acrylic resin subsequently coated with separator.
denture base. Remaining portion of the flask is filled
i. The lower half is filled with freshly mixed with the dental stone and lid of the flask
dental stone. Center the cast in the lower is tapped into place, and it is allowed to
half of the flask. Remove under cuts in the set (capping or multiple pour tech) this
investment to facilitate dewaxing, packing facilitates the deflasking procedure.
and deflasking procedure (Fig. 11.3A). v. Secure the flask in the clamp to ensure the
ii. On reaching its initial set, the stone is metal halves of the flask are in contact.
coated with a separator (liquid soap or
Vaseline or cold mold seal) to prevent the
Dewaxing
stone/plaster mix that is poured into the
upper half of the flask from adhering to that i. After flasking, place the flask in the boiling
in the lower half. water bath for 5–10 minutes. This will soften
iii. A surface tension reducing agent is applied the waxed denture base.
to exposed wax surface. Now place the ii. The flask is then removed from the water
upper half of the flask. bath and the appropriate segments are
iv. The upper half can be filled in two ways: separated (Fig. 11.4A).
1. It can be filled with one mix of plaster iii. The record base and softened wax remain
and the lid is placed as shown in Figure in the lower half of the flask while the
11.3B. prosthetic teeth remain firmly embedded
2. As shown in Figure 11.3C, a mix of dental in the top of the flask (Fig. 11.4B).
plaster is poured into the flask to cover iv. The record base and softened wax are
all the surfaces of tooth arrangement carefully removed from the surfaces of
and denture base but incisal and occlu the mold then flush the mold with clean
sal surfaces are minimally exposed. hot water to which a detergent is added to
The plaster permitted to set and remove residual wax.
Figs 11.2A to G (A) Preliminary impression; (B) Boxing of impression; (C) Border molding of special tray;
(D) Secondary impression; (E) Occlusal rims; (F) Sealing of occlusal rims; (G) Articulation of trial dentures
Figs 11.3A to C (A) Flasking; (B) After flasking; (C) Multiple-pour investing procedure
separating medium onto the walls of the mold

cavity. This medium must prevent direct contact
between the denture base resin and the mold
surface.
One of the first widely used materials
was tin foil. However, the process of the tin
foiling is time consuming and difficult process
causing dimensional inaccuracy and poor
reproduction of details. So tin foil substitutes
were developed, they include cellulose lacquers,
solutions containing alginate compounds, soaps,
evaporated milk and starch. The most popular
separating agents are water-soluble alginate
solutions. Composition of soluble alginate
solution was discussed in Table 11.3.
Setting reaction: Soluble alginate solutions when
applied to dental stone surfaces to produce a thin
film of calcium alginate gel, which is water and
organic solvent insoluble.
Kn alginate + n/2 CaSO4 → Can alginate gel +
n/2 K2SO4
Figs 11.4A and B (A) Immediately after removing from Table 11.3 Composition of separating medium
the boiling water bath; (B) After dewaxing – Incisal and (soluble alginate solution)
occlusal surfaces of acrylic teeth are firmly embedded Component Wt % Functions
in the stone/plaster
K or Na alginate 2 Main reactive ingredient.
Di or tri sodium 0.7 • Improves flow
v. It is then allowed to get dried. When it phosphate property.
is hot, it is applied with a thin coating of • Decreases viscosity.
separating medium without trapping air Glycerin 4
bubbles. Alcohol 7
Esters of 0.3 Preservative.
Separating Medium hydroxy
The next step in the denture base fabrication benzoic acid
involves the application of an appropriate Water 86
This film prevents direct contact of the Precautions

denture base resin and the surrounding dental i. Coating must be given only when the
stone. Therefore, undesirable interactions flask can be held comfortably in the hand.
between denture base resin and dental stone Otherwise continuity of the film can be
are eliminated. disrupted.
ii. De-waxing must be done thoroughly;
Functions
otherwise any residual wax remaining
i. To prevent the diffusion of water molecule
on the mold surfaces will not permit the
from the mold (dental stone) into the
solution to contact and react with invest
unpolymerized packed dough.
ment material. Thus, causing poor sepa
If the water is permitted to pass from the
ration between the denture base material
mold surface into the denture base resin, it
and the mold material.
may affect the polymerization rate as well
iii. Coating must be thin and continuous
as the optical and physical properties of the
without trapping air bubbles.
processed denture.
iv. Resin teeth surfaces should not be coated
The processed denture will craze readily
as it permits chemical bonding between
because of the stresses incorporated by the
the base material and the teeth.
evaporation of water during curing.
ii. To prevent the diffusion of monomer from
the unpolymerized packed dough in the Proportioning and Mixing
mold material. Polymer-monomer ratio: The main reason of
If dissolved polymer/monomer is adding polymer to monomer is to control the
permitted to soak into the mold surfaces, total quality of liquid monomer in a mix to be
portions of the investing medium may converted to polymer. If methyl methacrylate
become fused to the denture base, after monomer alone, when polymerized, it undergoes
polymerization it will be virtually impossible a volumetric contraction of 21%. This would
to separate the investing material from the create significant difficulties in denture base
resin denture base. It produces rough fabrication and service.
surfaces with adherent mold material. To minimize volumetric shrinkage, manu-
Application of separating medium: A small facturers pre-polymerize a significant fraction
amount of the separator is dispensed into a of the denture base material (preshrinking).
disposable container. A fine brush is used to This polymerized material when mixed with
spread the separating medium onto the exposed monomer in the ratio of 3:1 by volume, the
surfaces of a warm, clean stone mold (Figs 11.5A volumetric shrinkage may limit to 6% (0.5%
and B). linear shrinkage).
The amount of monomer in the mix must
be sufficient to soften all the available polymer
powder because it controls the workability of the
mix.
The polymer/monomer ratio is usually
3–3.5:1 by volume or 2.5:1 by wt. this amount
of monomer in the mix results in about 7% of
volumetric contraction.
I. If polymer/monomer ratio is too high:
(more polymer- less monomer)
a. Not all the polymer w ill wet by
monomers and the cured acrylic resin
Figs 11.5A and B (A) Separating medium will be granular.
(B) Application of separating medium b. Dough will be difficult to manage.
II. If polymer/monomer ratio is too low: (less evaporation of free monomer. Mix appears
polymer – more monomer) very dry and is resistant to mechanical
a. Polymerization shrinkage will be greater deformation.
than 7%
Dough forming time: The time required for the
b. Dough forming time will be prolonged.
resin mixture to reach dough-like stage is termed
c. There will be a tendency for porosity to
as the dough forming time.
occur in the denture.
ADA specification number 12 for denture
Polymer-monomer interaction: The liquid
base resins requires that this consistency be
monomer is first poured in a thick, clean glass
attained in less than 40 minutes from the start
jar and then the powder is added slowly to
of mixing process. Most resins reach dough-like
it. After all the powder has been added, the
consistency in less than 10 minutes.
mix is stirred and vibrated thoroughly so that
the mechanical mixed pigments and dyes are Factors affecting working and dough forming time
dispensed evenly throughout the material. On 1. Size of the polymer particle: The smaller the
completing of stirring, a light lid must be placed particle size; more rapid is the dissolution
on the glass jar to prevent evaporation of the and dough formation.
monomer. The polymer will slowly dissolve in 2. Molecular weight of polymer: Lower the
monomer, and the following physical changes molecular weight, faster the dough forming
could be observed: time.
1. Wet standy stage: At this stage the polymer 3. Plasticizers: Plasticizers increase the solubility
settles in the monomer and forms a very of the polymer in monomer thereby decrease
liquid, incoherent uncontrolla ble mass. the working time.
During this, little or no interactions occur 4. Polymer-monomer ratio: Higher the polymer-
on a molecule level. Polymer beads remain monomer ratio within the optimum limit,
unaltered and the consistency of the mixture shorter is the dough forming time.
may be described as coarse or grainy. 5. Temperature: Higher the temperature,
2. Stringy stage: The monomer attacks the shorter will be the dough forming time.
polymer. Monomer penetrates the polymer The mixing jar can be placed on warm
chains and softens. It is the polymer begins to water bath (not above 50°C) to decrease
dissolve in the monomer. This increases the the dough forming time. Similarly, the
viscosity of the mix. The stage is characteri mixing jar can be kept in refrigerator to
zed by stringiness stickiness or adhesiveness increase the dough forming time. When the
when the material is touched or pulled apart. mix is placed in the refrigerator, moisture
3. Dough or gel stage: As the monomer diffuses contamination may be avoided by storing
into the polymer and the mass becomes the resin in an airtight container. After
more saturated with polymer in solution, removal from the refrigerator, the container
it becomes smooth and dough like. It is no should not be opened until it reaches room
longer tacky, and it does not adhere to the temperature.
walls of the mixing jar. When the mixture is
in this stage, it is packed into the mold. Packing
4. Rubbery or elastic stage: Monomer is Introduction of denture base resin into the mold
dissipated by evaporation and by further cavity is termed packing (Fig. 11.6). It is essential
penetration into remaining polymer beads. that the mold cavity be properly filled at the time
The mass loses its plasticity and becomes of polymerization.
rubbery and is no longer suitable for molding.
The mass rebounds when compressed or Over packing: Introduction of too much material
stretched. leads to a denture base that exhibits excessive
5. Stiff stage: On standing for an extending thickness and resultant mall positioning of
period, the mixture becomes stiff due to the prosthetic teeth.
Trial Closure
The resin dough from the mixing jar is rolled
into a rope-like form, bent into a horseshoe
shape and placed in the upper half (containing
artificial teeth) of the flask (Fig. 11.6). A damp
cellophane or polyethylene sheet is placed over
the resin to prevent the adhesion of the resin to
the lower mold surface when two halves of the
flask is pressed together and to allow for easy
separation of the flask halves during trial closure.
The flask is closed and the assembly is placed
into a specially designed press (clamp) (Fig.
11.7A) and pressure is applied slowly to–
• Permit the resin dough to flow evenly
throughout the mold space.
• Permit the excess or flash to flow out between
the two halves of the flask.
• Remove air, which is incorporated within the
dough during mixing.
Pressure is applied until the major portions
of the flask closely approximate one another.
Then the flask is opened, excess resin found on
the relatively flat areas surrounding the mold
called flash, is removed using a gently rounded
instrument (Figs 11.7A and B).
A fresh polyethylene sheet is placed between
the major portions of the flask and another trial
closure is made. This trial packing procedure is
Fig. 11.6 Packing of acrylic dough into the mold repeated until the mold is filled and no flash is
formed.
Under packing: Introduction too little material Final closure: During final closure, polyethylene
leads to noticeable denture base porosity. sheet is removed and discarded. A mold-
To reduce the likelihood of over packing separating medium is applied to the surface of
or under packing the mold cavity is packed in the investment and cast in the lower half of the
several steps. The powder-liquid mixture should flask. The flask is now closed in a clamp under
be packed at the dough stage. pressure, which is maintained until the denture
Too early packing: If it is packed at the sandy has been processed.
or stringy stage the material will be of too low
viscosity to pack well and will flow out of the Bench Curing
flask too easily. It may also result in porosity in Properly packed flasks should be allowed to
the final denture base. stand for 30–60 minutes before beginning the
Delayed packing: If it is packed at the rubbery curing cycle. This allows the monomer liquid to
or stiff stage, the mix will be too viscous to flow penetrate the powder thoroughly and uniformly.
under pressure and metal-to-metal contact of the Otherwise, the sites containing more monomer
flask halves will not be obtained. This may also will undergo more shrinkage and it will cause
result in loss of detail in the denture movement irregular voids in the processed denture base. It
or fracture of the teeth. also provides longer flow period for the dough,
Figs 11.7A and B (A) Hydraulic bench press used for removal of excess flash;
(B) Excess flash during trial closures
thus equalizing the pressure throughout the of surrounding materials and may increase to a
mold. value even up to about 120°C–130°C (Fig. 11.9A).
This temperature is greater than the boiling
Curing point of monomer such as 100.8°C. So at these
temperatures, residual monomer will boil and
After bench curing, the flask is placed in a the monomer vapor enclosed by hard polymer
cold-water bath. It is then heated slowly. As the and a porous structure will be created. This type
temperature of the water bath increases heat of porosity will not be seen at the surface of
starts to conduct inside. When the temperature denture base because exothermic heat can be
of acrylic dough reaches about 60°C, benzoyl conducted away from the surface of the denture
peroxide (initiator) is decomposed to produce into the investing medium and the temperature
two free radicals. Each free radical rapidly reacts in thin region is not likely to rise above the
with an available monomer molecule to initiate boiling point of the monomer. These do not
polymerization. show gaseous porosity but their heat of reaction
The polymerization reaction propagates with is passed onto the interior portions of dough.
the liberation of heat (12.9 kcal/mole) because It is here the gaseous porosity is seen. In other
the polymerization reaction is exothermic. If words, it occurs away from the source of heat, i.e.
further heat is being added from the outside of at the center of a thick portion of denture when
the flask by conduction through plaster mold, heat cannot be conducted away with sufficient
the two sources of heat are complementary. The rapidity and the temperature of the resin is likely
consequent rapid rise in temperature causes and to cross 100.8°C (Fig. 11.9A). The porosity can be
further increases in the rate of polymerization, seen in:
which again liberates more heat.
Since the acrylic resin and stone are poor Lower denture: Lingual aspect in the premolar
thermal conductors of heat, the heat of reaction region (Fig. 11.8B).
cannot be dissipated. Therefore, the temperature Upper denture: Around the sloping sides of the
of the resin increases well above the temperatures palate (Fig. 11.8A).
Curing Cycle
The curing cycle is the technical name for the
heating process employed to control the initial
propagation of polymerization in the denture
mold.
Or
The heating process used to control poly
merization is termed as polymerization cycle or Figs 11.8A and B Porosity in (A) Maxillary denture
curing cycle. around the slopes of the palate; (B) Mandibular denture
Or at the lingual aspects of pre molars
It is the procedure of polymerizing the acrylic
resin dough by slowly raising the temperature
until the curing starts, then by maintaining the
temperature until the curing completes and then
by slow cooling to room temperature.
For heat cure acrylic resins, the curing cycle
used is of great importance in the quality of the
final denture since the polymerization reaction
is strongly exothermic. Ideally, this process
should be well-controlled to avoid the effects of
uncontrolled temperature rise such as boiling
of monomer and denture base porosity. The
following two methods have been suggested to
obtain non-porous denture:
1. Slow curing cycle.
2. Fast curing cycle.
1. Slow curing cycle
It involves processing of denture base resin
in a constant temperature water bath at 74°C
for 8 hours or longer with no terminal boiling
treatment.
• Lower the constant temperature, longer the
time is needed for curing.
• If the bulk of the acrylic is more, better to
cure at low temperature and longer time is
required for curing.
• Slowly raise the temperature of water bath
to about 74°C in about half an hour and Figs 11.9A to C (A) Normal curing in boiling water;
maintain the temperature constant for 8 (B) Slow curing cycle; (C) Fast curing cycle
hours or more (Fig. 11.9B).
2. Fast curing cycle
Invo l ve s h e at i ng t h e re s i n at 7 4 ° C f o r During this time, more than 95% of monomer
approximately 1½ to 2 hours and then increasing is converted to polymer. In order to reduce the
the temperature of the water bath to 100°C and amount of residual monomer or to ensure the
processing for one hour or more (Fig. 11.9C). complete polymerization, the water in the bath
Slowly raise the temperature of the water can be boiled for about 1 hour. This technique
bath to about 74°C in about half-an-hour and enables a denture to be fabricated in a shorter
maintain the temperature constant for 1½ hours. time (Fig. 11.9C).
Bench Cooling On completion of the finishing operation,

the denture is stored in water to avoid drying
Following the completion of curing cycle, and crazing until it is delivered to the patient.
the denture flask should be cooled slowly to
room temperature. During cooling process Injection molding technique for the fabrication
thermal shrinkage takes place due to the of complete dentures In addition to commonly
large COTE of acrylics. The magnitude of this employed compression molding technique,
shrinkage depends on the difference between denture bases also may be fabricated via
the temperature at which the acrylic hardens injection molding.
and room temperature. Rapid cooling may result In this technique mold space is filled by
in warpage or distortion of the denture base injecting the resin under pressure before it
because of differences in thermal contraction of hardens. To accomplish this, a specially designed
acrylic resin and investing stone. Slow and even flask is used.
cooling of these materials minimizes potential One half of the flask is filled with freshly
difficulties. Hence, the flask should be removed mixed dental stone, and the master cast is settled
from the water bath and bench cooled for 30 into the stone. The dental stone is contoured
minutes. Subsequently, the flask should be and permitted to set. Subsequently, sprues are
immersed in cool tap water for 15 minutes. attached to the wax denture base (Fig. 11.11A).
The remaining portion of the flask is positioned
Deflasking and the investm ent process is completed.
Wax elimination is performed and the flask is
After cooling completely, the flask is carefully reassembled (Fig. 11.11B). Afterwards, the flask
opened and the denture is recovered by fracturing is placed into a carrier that maintains pressure
the plaster carefully. Otherwise, localized forces on the assembly during resin introduction.
may fracture denture. The stone section is easily Acrylic resin is mixed and introduced into
separated in one piece from the plaster, which is the mold via injection at room temperature.
the cut away from the denture with knife. (The denture mold is connected to the injection
cylinder by a sprue opening). The flask is
Finishing and Polishing placed into a water bath for polymerization of
The sticking plaster is removed and the thin the denture base (Fig. 11.11C). As the material
excess projections are trimmed. It can be polymerizes, additional resin is introduced
finished first with sand paper and then polished into the mold cavity, to compensate for the
with pumice powder. Final glossy surface is polymerization shrinkage. On completion the
obtained by polishing with French chalk using denture is recovered, adjusted, finished and
a cotton buff. The finished denture will have polished.
a smooth and shiny surface as shown in the In case of polystyrene resin, thermoplastic
Figure 11.10. polymer is softened using heat and introduced
into the mold while it is hot. Subsequently,
the resin is permitted to cool and solidify. An
advantage of this method is the reduced risk of
monomer vapor inhalation.
Advantages
• Elimination of trial closures.
• Compensation for curing shrinkage.
• Control of pressure during polymerization,
thus preserving the proper vertical dimen
Fig. 11.10 Finished complete dentures sions.
Figs 11.12 Self-cure acrylic resin
• Equipment cost.
• Injector is difficult to clean after dough has
hardened.
CHEMICALLY ACTIVATED
DENTURE BASE RESINS
The resin materials which polymerize without the
application of heat or light are called chemically
cured resins, i.e. polymerization reaction is
initiated by a chemical (N, N– di methyl para
toluidine) ingredient and the polymerization
reaction completes at room temperature.
Dispension
These resins first used for dental purposes in
Germany during World War-II and are known
variously as self-cure or cold-cure or auto
polymerizing resins. These are supplied as
powder and liquid form (Fig. 11.12).
Composition
Figs 11.11A to C (A) Flasking (B) After dewaxing
(C) Placing the flask in curing vessel
Powder
• Poly (Methyl methacrylate) or Copolymer
beads.
• Control of heat to minimize porosity in thick
• Benzoyl peroxide (maximum – 2.0%) –
sections.
Initiator.
Drawbacks • Pigments
• Inadequate spacing will lead to under filled • Colored fibers (Nylon/acrylic) – added for
molds. esthetic effect.
Liquid type. 3–5% of self-curing resin is composed of

free monomer. Free monomer may be released
• Monomer – Methyl methacrylate. from the denture and irritate the oral tissues
• Ethyl glycol dimethacrylate – cross-linking (potential irritant). Residual monomer will act
agent. as a plasticizer and make the resin weaker and
• Hydroquinone – inhibitor. more flexible (decreases transverse strength of
• Dibutyl phthalate. the denture base).
• Tertiary amine (Di Methyl Para Toluidine) – The degree of polymerization achieved using
Activator (max. – 0.75%). chemically activated resin is not as complete
as that achieved using heat activated systems.
Setting Reaction This indicates that there is a greater amount
of unreacted monomer in the denture bases
When polymer powder and monomer liquid
fabricated via chemical activation, hence inferior
are mixed together at room temperature, free
mechanical properties.
radicals are produced from benzoyl peroxide by
• Compressive strength – 65 MPa
a reaction with dimethyl para toluidine which
• Tensile strength – < 60 MPa
initiates the polymerization reaction. Chain
• Impact strength – 0.78 J
reaction propagates with the liberation of heat
• Surface hardness – 16–18 KHN
until it is terminated. Except for the initiation
• Water sorption – 0.5–0.7 mg/cm2
stage other stages of polymerization are similar
• Water solubility – 0.05 mg/cm2
to heat cure acrylics.
Chemically activated resins display slightly
The initiator is decomposed by incorporation
less shrinkage than their heat activated counter
of an activator in the form of a tertiary amine like
parts, because of a less complete polymerization.
N, N – dimethyl para toluidine.
This imparts greater dimensional accuracy to
The polymerization takes place at room
chemically activated resins.
temperature. The rate of polymerization is
The color stability of chemically activated
influenced by the particle size of the polymer,
resins generally is inferior to the color stability
i.e. the smaller the particle, the more rapid is the
of heat-activated resins. Tertiary amines present
polymerization.
in the resin are susceptible to oxidation and
Degree of polymerization is also less
accompanying color changes that may affect
influenced by the type and concentration of
the appearance of the resin. Discoloration of
both activator and initiator.
these resins may be minimized via the addition
The reaction is exothermic and polymerization
of stabilizing agents that prevent such oxidation,
still results in a volumetric shrinkage, but the
called amine discoloration. Activators like
acrylic resin does not reach as high a peak
organic acids produce products with improved
temperature, since less external heat is added
color stability, but the compounds are not
to the heat of polymerization.
chemically stable.
Comparison between heat cure and self-cure
The working time for chemically activated
is discussed in Table 11.4.
resin invariably is shorter than heat-cured
Properties materials. A lengthy initiation period is desirable,
because this provides adequate time for trial
The polymerization of self-curing resins is closures. The initiation period can be prolonged
never as complete as that of the heat curing by decreasing the temperature of the resin
Table 11.4 Comparison between heat-cure and self-cure acrylic resins

Heat-cure Self-cure
1. Method of curing
Heat activated polymerization reaction starts only Chemical or catalyst activated, starts soon after
when heated up to 60°C. mixing.
2. Composition
Monomer does not contain activator. Contains activator (N,N – dimethyl para toluidine).
3. Residual monomer
Less, i.e. 0.2–0.5%. High, i.e. 3–5% (can cause irritation and act as
plasticizer).
4. Degree of polymerization
Higher, average molecular weight and hence Lower, average molecular weight and hence inferior
better mechanical properties. mechanical properties.
• Compressive strength: 75 MPa • Compressive strength: 65 MPa
• Tensile strength: 60 MPa. • Tensile strength: < 60 MPa.
• Impact strength: 0.98–1.27 J. • Impact strength: 0.78 J.
• Surface hardness: 18–20 KHN. • Surface hardness: 16–18 KHN.
5. Dough forming and working time
Longer (only physical changes observed during Shorter due to simultaneous chemical and physical
mixing). 3 or 4 trial closures can be made. changes occurring in the mix. Only 1 or 2 trial
closures can be made.
6. Color stability
Good color stability Not good due to subsequent oxidation of tertiary
amine to form colored products.
7. Water sorption – 0.6 mg/cm2 0.7 mg/cm2
Water solubility – 0.02 mg/cm2 0.05 mg/cm2
8. Dimensional accuracy and stability Greater dimensional accuracy due to less complete
Good but affected by thermal shrinkage, polymerization, thermal contraction, and hence
polymerization shrinkage, incorporation of better fit.
processing stresses.
9. Internal porosity
• Curing is to be done in water bath at temperature • Curing is to be done at room temperature under
70–80°C. pressure.
• Peak temperature may rise about 120°C if curing is • Peak temperature may rise up to about 70°C (in
not done properly. thick regions due to the lack of conduction).
• Chances of getting porosity due to boiling • Due to less peak temperature, chances of getting
monomer are more. porosity due to boiling of monomer are less.
10. Uses To a limited extent for fabricating complete and
Most widely used for fabricating complete, removable partial dentures. Most widely used for
removable partial dentures, orthodontic preparing special trays, denture repair, relining,
appliances, to a limited extent for denture rebasing and removable orthodontic appliances. Can
repair, relining, rebasing, etc. also be used as tooth colored restorative material.
mass by refrigerating the liquid component or the resin mass remains in a dough-like stage
mixing vessel prior to the mixing process. When for an extended period, and the working time is
the powder and liquid are mixed, the rate of increased. Only one or two trial closures can be
polymerization process decreases. As a result, made.
Manipulation Fluid Resin Technique (Pour Type Resins)

Compression Molding Technique New innovations amongst chemically activated
resins, these resins have powder particles
The technique is similar to heat-cure acrylics, that are much smaller, and when they are
but after the final closure the dough is allowed mixed with monomer the resulting mix is very
to polymerize at room temperature rather than fluid. A very fluid mix results from a much
in a hot water bath. These materials start to higher monomer-polymer ratio of about 1:2.5.
polymerize as soon as the powder and liquid They have low impact and fatigue strength,
are mixed and proceed rapidly through the low transverse or bending strength, lower
various consistency stages than the heat-cure water sorption, higher solubility and higher
acrylics. residual monomer levels. Various steps involved
The average time needed to reach the in fluid resin technique have been given in
packing consistency is only 5 minutes. The Flow chart 11.2.
increase in viscosity is a combination of physical
and chemical changes occurring within mix. The Advantages
denture mold is packed when the mix reaches • Simplification of the flasking, deflasking and
the dough stage. Trial closures are made and finishing procedures.
the flash is removed. After final closure of the • Elimination of trial closures.
dental flask, pressure must be maintained • Smooth denture can be obtained.
throughout the polymerization process. Initial • Shorter curing time (30–45 minutes).
hardening of the resin generally occurs within 30 • Agar may be reused.
minutes of final flask closure. To ensure sufficient • Reduced material costs.
polymerization, the flask should be held under • Decreased probability of damage to artificial
pressure for a minimum of 3 hours. teeth and denture bases during deflasking.
• Improved adaptation to underlying soft
Advantages tissues.
• No porosity due to no boiling monomer is to
be expected in the processing of a denture Disadvantages
with the self-curing resins. • Shifting of prosthetic teeth during processing.
• Less thermal contraction, which results in • Air entrapment within the denture base
better fit. material.
• Self-cure resins do not require hot water bath • Poor bonding between the denture base
for curing since they can be cured at room material and acrylic resin teeth.
temperature. • Dentures fabricated in this manner exhibit
physical properties that are somewhat
Disadvantages
inferior to those of conventional heat-cured
• Low mechanical properties due to low degree
acrylic resins.
of polymerization.
• Residual monomer content is more which
can cause irritation to soft tissues. Polymerization by Microwaves
• Color instability due to the oxidation of
Poly (methyl methacrylate) resin also may be
tertiary amines to form colored products.
polymerized using microwave energy. This
Uses technique employs a specially formulated resin
• Quite oftenly used for fabricating complete and a nonmetallic flask because metallic objects
dentures. reflect microwaves. Fiber reinforced plastic flasks
• For the construction of special trays. must be employed and the use of the desiccated
• For denture repair, relining and rebasing. gypsum for the mold is recommended to
• For removable orthodontic appliances. minimize water content and volume.
Flow chart 11.2 Various steps involved in fluid resin technique
A conventional microwave oven used Advantages

to supply the thermal energy (heat source) • Short curing cycle (approximately 3 minutes).
required for polymerization. This requires • Have similar physical properties to con-
electromagnetically generated waves in the ventional cures.
mega hertz frequency range. Typically, 2,450 • Possess low residual monomer content and
MHz produces a wavelength of 120 nm. In greater dimens ional stability due to the
this situation, methyl methacrylate molecules excellent temperature control of the resin.
orient themselves in the direction of vibrating
electromagnetic field, resulting in directional
FABRICATION DEFECTS OF DENTURE
changes almost 5 billion times a second. Heat
is rapidly generated within the monomer due Rough/Irregular Surface
to numerous intermolecular collisions.
As the degree of polymerization increases, Various causes for rough/irregular surfaces in
the monomer content decreases proportionally, denture bases and their remedies to overcome
but the same quantity of energy is absorbed surface irregularities were discussed in Table 11.5.
by less monomer as the reaction proceeds,
thus increasing the activity of the remaining
Internal Porosity
monomer. Theoretically, this could result in Various types of internal porosity and causes
complete polymerization. for those internal porosities in denture bases
Table 11.5 Causes and remedies for rough/irregular surface in denture bases
Causes Remedies
Rough wax pattern. Before flasking, it should be well-smoothened.
Improper wetting of wax pattern by plaster mix. Should be polished with detergent to remove oily or
greasy material.
Dry mix of plaster/stone – not all the plaster powder Use correct W/P ratio.
particles are wetted by water. • Dental stone: 30–40%
• Dental plaster: 50–60%
Air bubbles trapped in the investing stone Should be removed by enough vibration.
(may collect on the wax surface).
Incomplete dewaxing (Residual wax prevents the Should be done thoroughly with boiling water so
reaction between separating medium and mould that there should not be any residual wax remaining
material). on the mold surface.
Insufficient coating of separating medium. Separating medium should be applied properly to
(Monomer diffuses into mold polymerizing there the mold surface to get plaster free smooth surface.
and producing rough surface) (Prevents diffusion of monomer into the mold).
Delayed packing (delayed evaporates). Packing should be done when mix reaches full
dough stage.
Lack of pressure and deficiency of material. Excess material to be taken during trial closures and
pressure should be applied and maintained until the
curing completes.
and their remedies to overcome porosities were get diffused inside which push the polymer chains
discussed in Table 11.6. resulting expansion of about 0.2%. The diffusion
rate is higher at higher temperatures. For each 1%
Dimensional Accuracy and Stability increase in the weight of the water absorbed, the
Dimensional stability of the denture during acrylic resin expands linearly 0.23%.
processing and in service is important in the fit This change in dimension with water absorp
of the denture and the satisfaction of the patient. tion is important in the storage of dentures.
In general, if the denture is properly processed, Intermittent diffusion of water into and out of the
the original fit and the dimensional stability of denture base could release some of the internal
the various denture base plastics are good. stresses resulting permanent warpage. Once the
Changes in dimensions result from several denture has been processed, it is recommended
conditions including coefficient of thermal that it is stored in water and not be allowed to
expansion, polymerization shrinkage, and water dry out.
sorption. According to ADA specification number
Greater the linear shrinkage, the greater is 12, water sorption of denture base materials
the discrepancy usually observed in the initial fit should not be more than 0.8 mg/cm2. Practically,
of the denture. Various causes for dimensional the water sorption of heat-cure acrylic is 0.6
accuracy in denture bases and their remedies to mg/cm 2 and for self-cure acrylic is around
maintain accurate dimensions were discussed in 0.5–0.7 mg/cm2.
Table 11.7. Water sorption can be determined by storing
a dried plastic disk in distilled water at 37°C for
Water Sorption 7 days and after which the increase in water
When denture is put in water, due to the polar is determined. (Dimensions of plastic disk are
water of polymers water can enter and gradually 50 mm in diameter and 0.5 mm in thick).
Table 11.6 Types of internal porosity, their causes and remedies

Type Causes Remedies
Shrinkage/under packing/contraction porosity:
• Arises as a result of the reduction in a. Inadequate pressure during • Sufficient pressure must be applied
volume of the dough which takes polymerization during trial and final closures and the
place on polymerization. b. Insufficient material pressure should be maintained until
• Appears as irregular voids throughout in the mold during the completion of curing.
and on the surface of the denture. polymerization. • Excess material is to be taken during
(Distributed uniformly throughout the trial closures so that the mold
material) contains definite amount of material
• This type of porosity causes the resin at the time of final closure and during
to appear white. A pigmented resin polymerization.
may appear lighter in color for reason.
Irregular voids
• It is possible that some regions of the a. Lack of homogeneity in Can be eliminated by ensuring the
resin mass will contain more monomer the dough at the time of greatest possible homogeneity of the
than others. polymerization. resin. Bench curing provides time for
During polymerization these regions b. Inadequate (in more uniform dispersion of monomer
shrink more than adjacent regions and homogeneous) mixing throughout the mass of dough. During
the liberated shrinkage tends to produce of polymer powder and this monomer diffuses uniformly forming
irregular voids. monomer liquid. homogeneous dough.
Monomer rich areas undergo Use proper polymer-monomer ratio
greater shrinkage during (2.5:1 parts by weight, and 3:1 by
polymerization) volume). Follow the well-controlled
c. Premature packing. mixing procedure.
The mix at the dough stage is more
homogeneous than at the earlier stringy
stage.
Gaseous or boiling monomer porosity
Too rapid rate of heating and exothermic Results from the vaporization Curing procedure should be well-
polymerization reaction. of unreacted monomer controlled to avoid the effects of
• Porosity occurs away from the source and low molecular weight uncontrolled temperature rise such as
of heat or will not present at the polymers, when the boiling of monomer and denture base
surface of denture. temperature of the resin porosity.
• At the center of thick portion of reaches or crosses the boiling Slow curing: Processing the denture
denture where heat cannot be point of the monomer. base resin at 74°C for 8 hours or longer
conducted away with sufficient a. Thicker sections of the with no boiling treatment.
rapidity. denture base generate more Fast curing: Processing the denture base
exothermic heat than the resin at 74°C for 1½ hours to 2 hours
thinner areas. and then rise the temperature of water
b. Lack of conduction of heat. bath to 100°C and processing for 1 hour
or more.
Subsurface porosity
• Can be seen in the center of a thick Due to the partial conduction Proper curing cycle should be followed,
portion when heat cannot be con- of heat from inside to outside. i.e. slow curing/fast curing.
ducted away with sufficient rapidity. Upper denture:
• Temperature is likely to cross the Running around the sloping
boiling point of the monomer and sides of the palate.
as a result spherical voids are formed Lower denture:
(below the surface) well inside the Thick lingual posterior area.
bulky portion of the denture.
Air bubbles
With fluid resins. If the air inclusions are Caused by air inclusions Careful mixing, spruing, and venting
not removed, voids may be produced in during mixing and pouring seem to help reduce the incidence of air
the resultant denture bases. procedures. inclusions.
Table 11.7 Causes and remedies for dimensional inaccuracy of denture bases
Causes Remedies
Curing/polymerization shrinkage: When methyl Can be minimized by–
methacrylate is polymerized the density changes • Adding prepolymerized poly (methyl methacrylate)
from 0.945 to 1.19 g/cc. This change in density powder to methyl methacrylate monomer (2.5:1
results in a volumetric shrinkage of 21% usually by weight, 3:1 by volume). This ratio reduces
called polymerization shrinkage. the volumetric shrinkage of the dough during
• Linear shrinkage: 2%.Curing shrinkage is large at polymerization to about 3%.
the bulkiest portion. This causes slight decrease in • Thermal expansion (81 ppm) of acrylic on heating
curvature of palatal region. is probably the main factor, which compensates for
the polymerization shrinkage.
• Inhibited to a large extent by friction within mold
walls.
• By the control of processing procedures such as–
a. Pressure on the dough during polymerization.
b. Flow of the resultant polymer at the curing
temperature.
Thermal contraction or thermal shrinkage
It is of about 0.4–0.5% occurs when fabricated May be reduced to some extent by–
denture cools from 80°C to 37°C due to large COTE • Curing the denture at low temperature as is
(81 ppm) reasonable.
Linear shrinkage: 0.44%. • Slow cooling which permits relief of these internal
The magnitude of the thermal shrinkage will depend stresses by plastic deformation.
on the difference between the temperature at which • Inhibited by mold walls.
acrylic hardens and the room temperature.
Total shrinkage: 2 + 0.44 = 2.44%
Processing (Internal) Stresses Crazing

Stresses are present within a polymer when the Crazing is the formation of very fine microcracks
macromolecules are subjected to forces other or flaws on the surface of a denture as shown
than those of simple molecular attraction. In in Figure 11.13. These cracks gradually become
a stressed material, the molecular chains are bigger and bigger (increase in depth, width and
uncomfortably arranged in relation to each other. length) and can be seen under a microscope.
Some degree of stress is always present in acrylic Later the surface becomes hazy or foggy
dentures. Whenever a natural dimensional appearance (transparent resin) and finally it
change is inhibited, the affected material con results in fracture.
tains stresses. It may arise from several causes Crazing is mainly due to the relaxation of
such as polymerization and thermal shrinkage, internal stresses. Crazing may result from stress
improper mixing and handling of the resin. The application or partial dissolution of a resin. It is
stresses present in the denture are related to believed that crazing is produced by mechanical
its shape and size, the pressure applied during separation of individual polymer chains on
curing, the curing cycle used and the rate of application of tensile stresses.
cooling after processing. The stresses remaining
with-in the denture are released at a later stage Site
with a consequent warpage of the denture. Crazing generally begins at the surface of a resin
Various causes for internal stresses in denture and is oriented at right angles to tensile forces.
bases and their remedies to overcome them were Microcracks formed in this manner subsequently
discussed in Table 11.8. progress internally.
Table 11.8 Causes and remedies for processing stresses occur in denture bases
Causes Remedies
Stresses due to differences in the COTE between • Slow cooling to be followed after curing.
porcelain teeth and acrylic denture base (1:10) • Use acrylic teeth for acrylic denture base.
(During the cooling process that follows
polymerization, denture resin shrinks more than
dental porcelain. As a result, axial/tangential tensile
stresses are generated within the resin).
Mechanical (tensile) stresses on repeated wetting Should be stored in water when not in use or service.
and drying of the dentures causing alternate
contraction and expansion.
Crazing due to solvent action when a denture is Development of improved acrylic resin teeth and
being repaired some monomers come in contact cross-linked denture base resins have resulted in a
with the resin and may cause crazing. Solvents decreased incidence of denture base crazing.
reduce the molecular attraction between polymer
chains and permit stress relief.
During polishing – If excessive heat is generated A wet polishing wheel and slurry of pumice and
during polishing which can cause polymerization water should be used to avoid excessive local
and produce sufficient surface, stresses in the temperatures.
denture cause crazing.
Minute cracks result from stresses produced by Mold surface should be lined with a thin layer of
evaporation of water within the mold during curing. separating medium to prevent the diffusion of water
from the mold into the packed acrylic dough.
Dissimilar COTE and contraction of dental stone Slow even cooling of these materials minimizes the
(investing medium) and acrylic denture base and effects of crazing.
plastic teeth. The stone with a different thermal
coefficient creates residual stresses in the acrylic as
it cools. These stresses may be released after the
processed denture is deflasked and deformation or
crazing (numerous small cracks) may result (sudden
cooling).
Effects Fracture
Crazing has a weakening effect on a denture. 1. Inadequate curing time—results in lowered
1. It reduces the strength (which can cause strength and rigidity.
fracture). 2. Excess grinding/polishing—heat may cause
2. Esthetic qualities of denture will be decreased. degradation of the resin.
3. Collects food debris and becomes unhygienic. Molecules/depolymerization of poly (methyl
methacrylate).
3. Chemically cured denture resins—undergo
lesser degree of polymerization than do heat-
cured types, and have lower strength values.
4. On impact forces—if dropped on hard
surface.
5. Due to fatigue—from repeated bending of
Fig. 11.13 Crazing in complete dentures the denture in service.
Discoloration methacrylate). (Better resistance to fracture

when they sustain a sudden blow).
Self-cure acrylic resins have a tendency to be less • Slightly stiffer than acrylic.
color stable than the heat-cured resins. Color
stability is related to oxidation of the chemical
activator (amine) left in the resin.
Hydrophilic Poly (Acrylates)
Poly (hydroxy ethyl methacrylate) has been used
MODIFIED ACRYLICS as a denture base material and a soft denture
liner. Hydroxy substituted acrylics increase the
Rubber Reinforced Acrylics/High Impact water sorption and wettability of the copoly-
Strength Materials mers by saliva, which enhances the denture
retention.
The impact strength of acrylic resins can be
significantly improved by the incorporation of
Rapid Heat Polymerized
elastomers/rubbers. The elastomer is able to
absorb energy on impact and thus protects the Acrylics/Hybrid Acrylics
acrylic from fracture. The hybrid acrylics can be polymerized in boiling
These materials are butadiene-styrene water immediately after being packed into a
rubber reinforced poly (methyl methacrylate). denture flask. After being placed into the boiling
The rubber particles are grafted to methyl water, the water is brought back to a full boil
methacrylate so that they will bond well to the for 20 minutes. After the usual bench cooling
heat polymerized matrix. These materials are to room temperature, the denture is deflasked,
supplied in a powder and liquid form and are trimmed and polished in the conventional
processed in the same way as heat-cured methyl manner.
methacrylate materials. The initiator is formulated from both
These materials are practically useful for chemical and heat activated initiators to allow
patients who have a history of breaking dentures rapid polymerization without the porosity that
during cleaning as a result of careless handling. one might expect.
Advantages
Fiber Reinforced Acrylic
• Better impact (2.1 J) and fatigue properties.
For example, Carbon fibers, ultra high modulus
• Greater resistance to crack propagation.
polyethylene, Kevlar (poly-P-phenylene tere-
• Small decrease in water sorption as a result
phthalamide), etc.
of the incorporation of rubber.
• They stiffen the denture base, reducing the
possibility of fatigue fracture.
Disadvantages • Increases the flexural strength.
• Expensive.
Disadvantages
Vinyl Acrylics • Must be placed in the part of the denture,
These materials supplied as powder and liquid. which is under a tensile stress (positioning
• Powder: Vinyl and acrylic monomers are is critical).
copolymerized resulting in a powder. • Bonding between the fibers and acrylic resin
• Liquid: Methyl methacrylate monomer. may be difficult to achieve (if no bonding is
present—fibers weaken the denture).
• Difficult to construct dentures.
Advantages • Appearance of the denture is adversely
• Impact strength for the polyvinyl acrylics affected because the carbon fibers are
is about tw ice that of poly (methyl black.
Light Activated Denture Base Resins the cast, finished and polished in a conventional
manner.
Dispensing
Single component system, supplied in sheet Radiopaque Denture Base Resins
and rope forms (having a clay-like consistency) Acrylic resin is radiolucent. Several experimental
packed in light proof pouches to prevent approaches have been tried to solve this problem.
accidental polymerization.
Examples for radiopaque additive–
i. Metal/powdered metals—may weaken base
Composition and appearance is poor.
Consists of urethane dimethacrylate matrix, ii. Inorganic salts such as BaSO4 –
microfine silica, high molecular weight acrylic • Low concentration—insufficient radio
resin monomers, and acrylic resin beads as pacity.
organic filler, camphorquinone, and visible light • High concentration—weaken the base.
initiator (camphorquinone). iii. Comonomers containing heavy metals—
polymers have poor mechanical properties,
Processing e.g. Barium acrylate
iv. Halogen containing comonomers or
Light activated resins cannot be flasked or additives, e.g. Tri- bromo phenyl metha-
invested in a conventional manner as it prevents crylate.
passage of light (Fig. 11.14). Instead, teeth are • Additives may act as plasticizers.
arranged and the denture base is molded on • Comonomers are expensive.
an accurate cast. Subsequently, the denture is
polymerized in a light chamber (curing unit)
with blue light of 400–500 nm. The denture is
DENTURE REPAIR RESINS
rotated on a table in the chamber to provide The repair materials are usually acrylic resins
uniform exposure to the light source. After of the powder-liquid type, similar to those used
polymerization, the denture is removed from for denture bases. It may be light activated, heat
activated or chemically activated. The material
of choice will depend on the following factors:
1. Length of time required for making the repair.
2. Transverse strength obtainable with the
repair of the materials.
3. Degree to which dimensional accuracy is
maintained during repair.
Method
• The parts of broken denture are held together
with sticky wax or wires.
• A stone cast is constructed in the denture
base.
• The denture is removed from the cast, the
wax is eliminated and the fractured joints are
trimmed and smoothened to provide bulk for
the repair resin.
Fig. 11.14 Light curing chamber • The cast is coated with a separating medium
for light activated resins to facilitate subsequent removal of the
repaired denture and the denture parts are Denture Rebasing and Relining
replaced (reassembled) on it.
Dentures sometimes require adjustment of their
• The fractured surfaces are first wetted
fitting surfaces to accommodate changes in the
with monomer using a brush. Increments
contour of soft tissues. Due to partial resorption
of powder and monomer then added
of underlying bone structure the denture may
immediately (fluid consistency). It is then
gradually lose retention. If the vertical dimension
allowed to cure in a pressure chamber. The
and occlusion of the denture have not been
processed repair is finished by conventional
greatly altered, the retention may be regained
procedures.
by rebasing or relining.
If a heat-cured acrylic resin is used, the
denture should be completely flasked and
curing should be carried out at temperatures Rebasing
not greater than 74° C for 8 hours or longer. This Rebasing involves replacement of entire denture
procedure minimizes the dimensional change of base. It is a process of refitting a denture by
the denture base after deflasking. the replacement of the denture base without
changing the occlusal relationships of the teeth.
Precautions
• The denture surfaces that are not directly Method
involved in the repaired area should not be
coated with monomer to prevent crazing. • An accurate impression of the soft tissues
• Joints with sharp angles should be avoided is obtained using the existing denture as
(V-shaped edges) to prevent concentration custom tray.
of stress. • A stone cast is fabricated in the impression.
• Cast and denture are mounted in a specially
designed device, reline jig, which will
Merits and Demerits of maintain the correct vertical and horizontal
Denture Repair Resins relationship between the cast and denture
Merits Demerits teeth.
• The teeth are set into plaster platform on
Self-cured acrylic resins
the lower member. This platform will act
• Dimensional accuracy is • Lower transverse as a reference into which the teeth may be
not maintained because strength in the
placed and in which they will maintain their
enough heat is present repaired area.
or liberated during
retention to the cast.
polymerization to cause • After the teeth are thus indented for position,
distortion from the the denture is removed and the teeth are
release of stresses. separated from the old denture base.
• Flasking is not required. • The teeth are then assembled in the indent
• Procedure is rapid and of the mounting device and held in their
may be done while the original relationship to the cast while they
patient waits.
are waxed to the new base plate.
Heat-cured acrylic repair resins • A new denture is constructed using the same
• Better transverse • Longer curing time. teeth as before.
strength (80% of that of • Curing temperature
the original plastic). must be properly
controlled. Relining
• Flask is required.
Relining involves replacement of tissue surface
• Tendency to distort
curing processing. of an existing denture. It refers to the process
of adding base material to the tissue surface of
the denture in a quantity to fill the space which Drawbacks

exists between the original dental contour and • Many of these materials generate
altered tissue contour. sufficient heat to injure oral tissue.
• Monomer can be leached out of the
Classification resin to irritate soft tissues. Direct reline
materials should be considered as only
a. Hard reline materials: To improve the fitting
a temporary measure.
surface of the denture.
2. Heat-cure acrylic resins: These materials are
b. Soft lining materials: Some patients are
not widely used because significant heat may
unable to tolerate a hard denture base and
be generated and distortion of the existing
must be provided with a permanent soft
denture base is more likely.
cushion on the fitting surface of the denture.
c. Tissue conditioners: To act as a cushion, Conclusion: From the standpoint of denture
which will enable traumatized soft tissues to stability, the rebasing process is preferred to the
recover before recording an impression for a relining technique. (There is a tendency for it to
new denture. distort or warp toward the relined side because
of the diffusion of the monomer from the reliner
Hard Reline Materials before curing).
These are used to improve the fitting surface of
the denture (to ensure proper fit and function).
Soft Lining Materials/Resilient Liners
Resilient liners are the soft cushions like liners
Method given to the denture base to absorb some of the
• An impression of the soft tissues is obtained energy produced by masticatory impact and to
using the existing denture as an impression distribute the forces of mastication more evenly.
tray. They do not reduce the transmitted force but
• A stone cast is constructed in the corrected result in a smaller displacement of the oral
denture. mucosa.
• Cast with the attached denture is invested in The stiffness of the soft lining material is less
a denture flask. than that of the oral mucosa and will absorb
• After waiting for about 20 minutes the flask more of the energy and deform more. As the liner
is opened and the impression material is returns to its predeformed shape the absorbed
removed from the denture. The tissue surface energy is more slowly released. Hence a soft liner
is cleaned to enhance bonding between the serves as a shock absorber between the occlusal
existing resin and the reline material. surfaces of a denture and the underlying oral
• Then, an appropriate resin is introduced into tissues. Such liners will protect the affected soft
the space left by the impression material tissues from impact energies of mastication.
and shaped using a compression molding Various soft lining materials were discussed in
technique. It is now allowed to polymerize. Table 11.9.
• The denture is subsequently recovered,
finished and polished. Indications
Materials These materials are suggested for use:
1. Self-cure acrylic resins • Patients who cannot tolerate a hard denture
• A specialized mounting assembly, a base. This problem generally arises if the
reline jig, may be used instead of flasking. patient has an irregular mandibular ridge
• Can be caused directly in the mouth. covered by a thin and relatively low residual
• Preferred because of low polymerization mucosa. In such cases soft lining on the
temperature which minimizes the denture will help to relieve the pain and
distortion of the remaining denture base. increase patient acceptance of the denture.
Table 11.9 Soft lining materials
Material Comments
1. Natural rubber (Cis 1, 4-polyisoprene cross-linked • High water uptake caused distortion.
with sulfur). • Very short intraoral life.
2. Vinyl resins plasticized poly (vinyl chloride) • Plasticizers may leach out and harden the denture.
polyvinyl acrylate • Not widely used.
3. Plasticized heat cure acrylic (P/L form) • Plasticizers are not bound within the mass and
Powder: Acrylic resin polymer and copolymer therefore may be leached out of soft liners. As this
(butyl methacrylate), initiator (Benzoyl peroxide), occurs, soft liners become progressively more rigid.
Liquid: Acrylic monomer and plasticizers (Di butyl • Adhere well to the denture base.
phthalate). • May be considered as long-term soft liners.
4. Self-curing (room temperature curing) acrylics – • Curing can result in a high level of free monomer
polymerized by peroxideamine system. remaining in the materials.
• The presence of free monomer can result in
inferior mechanical properties and reduced
biocompatibility.
5. Plasticized self-cure acrylics. • These liners are considered as short-term liners or
Powder: PMMA + PEMA (Fig. 11.15). tissue conditioners.
Liquid: 60–80% of plasticizer and ethylene glycol. • The distribution of larger plasticizer minimizes
Do not contain acrylic monomers. entanglement of polymer chains and they’re by
permits individual chains to slip past one another.
This slipping motion permits rapid changes in the
shape of the soft liner and provides a cushioning
effect for the underlying tissues.
6. Hydrophilic acrylic monomers. Supplied as a • Hard, brittle and becomes soft when exposed to
gel or powder and monomer of hydroxy ethyl saliva.
methacrylate (HEMA). • Dimensional instability due to rapid loss or gain
of water.
7. Room temperature silicone rubber materials (two • Retain elastic properties for prolonged periods.
component system). • Lack of bonding to the PMMA denture base.
Base: Hydroxyl terminated poly (dimethyl • Support the growth of Candida albicans.
siloxane) + filler. • Adversely affected by denture cleansers.
Reactor: Tetra ethyl ortho silicate + Tin octate.
8. Heat activated silicones (one component system)– • High modulus of resilience and permanent
Supplied as paste or gel. Poly (dimethyl siloxane) resilience.
polymer with pendant or terminal vinyl groups + • More resistant to aqueous environment (not
inert filler + peroxide initiator. affected by constituents of food and drinks).
Adhesive: Silicone polymer in a solvent • Adequate bond strength to acrylic.
• Provide good environment for the growth of the
Candida albicans.
• These adhesives serve as chemical intermediates
that bond to both soft liners and denture resins.
9. Polyurethane and polyphosphazine.
• Patients with irritation of denture bearing Ideal Properties

mucosa.
• Areas of severe undercuts or congenital or • Biocompatibility – Should be nontoxic,
acquired defects of the palate. nonirritant to the soft tissues.
2. Significant volume changes with the

gain and loss of water–silicone liners and
hydrophilic acrylics.
3. Hardening of liners due to the leaching of
plasticizers from these materials. Hardening
rates for these liners are associated with
initial plasticizer content. As the plasticizer
content increased, the probability for
leaching also is increased. Hence, materials
displaying high initial plasticizer content
Fig. 11.15 Soft-lining materials tend to harden rather rapidly.
4. Decrease in the denture base strength due to
reduction in base thickness, solvent action
• Should not support the growth of harmful of the silicone adhesive and the soft acrylic
bacteria or fungus. monomer (may cause partial dissolution
Candida albicans – This is common yeast of the accompanying denture base).
responsible for causing denture stomatitis, The resultant decrease in base strength may
a common occurrence in denture wearers. result in fracture during clinical service.
• Should be soft enough for the comfort of the 5. Some lining split under stress/pull away
patient (plasticizers should not be leached from the denture base.
out of the material). 6. Difficult in trimming, adjusting and
• Should be permanently resilient in order polishing of soft liners (specially for silicone
to give cushioning effect (high modulus surface due to its abrasive character).
of resilience) and prevent unacceptable 7. Difficulty in cleaning—both oxygenating
distortion during service. and hypochlorite type of denture cleansers
• Should adhere to the denture base and will damage soft liners specially for silicone
remain so in the mouth. types.
• Should have low water uptake—a similar 8. Support the growth of the fungus, e.g.:
level to that of the denture base is ideal Candida albicans specially for silicone
(2–3%). A high uptake will cause distortion rubbers—debris collected in the pores help
and may result in fouling of the lining due to myotic growth.
ingress of bacteria. 9. Disagreeable taste and odor.
• Should be wetted by saliva—a thin film of 10. There may be a change of color due to
saliva is necessary for the retention of the staining and deposits of calculus.
denture and to act as a lubricant to prevent
irritation of the mucosa. Tissue Conditioners
• S h o u l d h av e s u f f i c i e n t m e c h a n i c a l
properties—enough to withstand normal Tissue conditioners are soft liners used to treat
handling, brushing, etc. an irritated mucosa supporting a denture.
• Should be easy to clean—not adversely Tissue conditioning materials are soft, resilient
affected by denture cleansers, not stained temporary relining materials which by reducing
easy, etc. and evenly distributing stresses on the mucosa
• Should have good shelf-life. of the denture bearing area, have a rehabilitating
effect on unhealthy tissue and allow affected
Failures or problems with the use of soft lining tissues to return to normal status of health.
materials Relining the ill-fitting denture with a tissue
1. Inadequate bonding to the denture base, conditioner allows the tissues to return to normal
especially self-cure silicone rubbers. at which a new denture can be made.
Requirements period. Repeated application of the material

is therefore necessary to allow complete tissue
• Should have no irritant or toxic effect. recovery.
• Should massage the underlying tissue and
stimulate blood circulation.
Special Uses
• Should be resilient in order that masticatory
loads are absorbed without causing perma 1. It is also useful after surgical removal of
nent deformation of the lining. excess soft tissue over the denture bearing
• Should be remaining soft during use in order mucosa–the healthy areas should be covered
to maintain a good cushioning effect on the by a layer of soft material, which reduces the
underlying soft tissues. stress on it.
• Must undergo viscous flow under load so that 2. Functional impression material – One that
they change their form with the changing is applied to the fitting surface of a denture
contours of the soft tissue, which allows good in order to secure an impression under
adaptation to the irritated denture bearing functional stresses.
mucosa.
Problems of Leached Plasticizers
Materials 1. Can cause further irritation of traumatized
These materials are dispensed in the form of tissues, specially in the high ethanol content
powder and liquid. materials.
• Powder: Acrylic polymer/Copolymer. 2. Can also cause problems by plasticizing
• Liquid: Mixture of ethyl glycol + an aromatic adjacent denture base materials. This will
ester (butyl glycolate or Dibutyl phthalate) reduce rigidity and make the denture more
prone to fracture.
Manipulation
Factors Affecting Gelation Rate of Tissue
Both the powder and liquid are mixed, placed in Conditioner
the denture and seated in the patient’s mouth.
The ethanol swells the polymer beads and allows 1. Molecular weight and particle size of
penetration by the ester plasticizer. As a result a polymer powder.
gel is formed by polymer chain entanglement, 2. Amount of ethanol.
the gel being essentially a solution of the polymer 3. Type of plasticizer present.
in the plasticizer. The resulting gel is viscoelastic 4. Powder and liquid ratio.
in that it responds elastically to the rapid
dynamic loading associated with mastication Denture Cleansers
but will flow under constant loads. These are the agents used by the patients for
These materials will conform to the anatomy cleaning artificial dentures. These include
of the residual ridge, gel in that position and dentifrices, denture cleansers, soap and water,
continue to flow after application to fill the salt and soda, household cleansers, bleaches and
space between the denture base and the oral vinegar. Various denture cleansing materials are
tissues. Thus they change their form with the discussed in Table 11.10.
changing contour of the supporting tissue, so
that good adaptation of the denture to the tissue
Method
is maintained. In the mouth, first the ethanol and
then the plasticizer is lost, resulting in hardening Either daily or overnight immersion in the agent
of the material. It is necessary that it should be or more generally brushing of the denture with
replaced every 2–3 days during the treatment the cleanser.
Table 11.10 Denture cleansers
Material Ingredient Drawbacks

Oxygenating cleansers Alkaline perborate or • Do not easily remove hard deposits.
For example, Alkyl perborate, peroxide, e.g. Sodium • May be harmful to soft lining materials.
which is available in the form of perborate.
powder. This powder can dissolve (NaBO2. H2O2. 3H2O)
in water. Perborate decomposes
to form an alkaline peroxide
solution. This decomposes again
to liberate O2 to clean the debris.
Hypochlorite solutions (alkaline Dilute sodium hypochlorite • Can corrode stainless steel and Co – Cr
hypochlorite) alloys.
• May leave an odor on the dentures (only
for plastic dentures).
Dilute mineral acids HCl or H3PO4 May corrode some alloys.
Denture cleansing powders Abrasive agents (CaCO3) Can abrade denture base polymers and
(abrasive powder) plastic teeth
Denture cleansing paste Abrasive agents or acids • Can abrade polymeric material.
• It is difficult to remove paste completely
from the denture.
Requirements • Brushing with hard, stiff brushes should

be avoided because these bristles produce
• Should be nontoxic, easy to remove and scratches on the surface of the denture.
leaving no traces of irritant material. The light brushing of a denture surface
• Should not be harmful to eyes, skin or is an effective means of improving denture
clothing if accidentally splashed/spilled. cleanliness.
• Should be preferably bactericidal/fungicidal.
• Should attack/dissolve both the organic and
inorganic portions of denture deposits.
Maxillofacial Materials
Soft deposits – These are removed by light These are the materials used to correct facial
brushing followed by rinsing. defects (head and neck) resulting from cancer
Hard deposits – These are more difficult to surgery, trauma, or developmental deformities.
clean. The replacement of a lost ear, nose, eye,
• Should be harmless all materials used in the other part of the head and neck requires the
construction of dentures, including denture construction of a maxillofacial appliance,
base polymers, and alloys, acrylic and which allows the patients to lead a normal life.
porcelain teeth, and resilient lining materials. Various maxillofacial materials were discussed in
• Should have good shelf-life. Table 11.11.
Precautions Requirements
• Household cleansers should not be used • Should not irritate the tissues with which
because these cleansers produce abrasion it comes in contact and not produce any
and leave a very rough surface. Their allergic reactions.
prolonged use can lead to deterioration of • Should be soft, pliable and capable of
the fit and the esthetics of the appliance. adapting to facial movements.
Table 11.11 Maxillofacial materials
Material Merits Demerits

Latexes • Soft. • Finished products are weak.
• Inexpensive. • Degenerates with age.
• Easy to manipulate. • Color instability.
• Forms life-like prosthesis.
Synthetic latexes (Tri polymer More natural appearance. Durability is not good.
of butyl acrylate, MMA, Methyl
acrylamide).
Plasticized PVC
PVC + Plasticizer + Cross-linking Natural appearance. Become hard with age due
agent + UV stabilizers for color to leaching of plasticizers, UV
stability + color pigments. stabilizers have an adverse
effect.
Requires complicated equipments.
Poly (methyl methacrylate) Natural appearance when • Hard and heavy.
pigmented. • Does not move when the face
moves.
• Does not have the feel of skin.
Polyurethane Addition of di iso Life-like feel and appearance. • Di isocyanates are toxic.
cyanate + polyol in the presence • Susceptible to deterioration.
of initiator.
Room temperature vulcanizing
silicones
Hydroxyl terminated poly Can be easily fabricated with These are not stronger.
(dimethyl siloxane) + tetra ethyl simple equipment.
ortho silicate fused silica +
stannous octate.
Heat vulcanized silicones • Good strength. Fabrication is very tedious.
• Color stability.
• Should be light in weight so that it may be • Should be easy to manipulate and require
supported without fear of detachment during no complicated equipment.
use. • Should be easy to clean and manage by the
• Should be skin like in appearance, soft patient, good shelf-life, less expensive, easily
to touch with such desirable qualities as available, etc.
translucence, skin color and texture.
• Should have ability to incorporate different Method
color pigments to match skin color. An impression of the affected part is taken using
• Should be color stable as the finished elastic impression material. A stone cast is then
prosthesis is subjected to sunlight, UV light, fabricated. The artificial part is then carved in
heat and cold. wax on the master cast. It is then invested and
• Should be resilient and have high resistance dewaxed. The mold is now ready to make the
to tearing since edges of appliances are prosthesis.
generally thin. Suitable color pigments are added to the
• Should not become hard or rigid during use matrix. At this stage patient should be present,
by leaching of certain plasticizers. so that pigments may be added to the material to
give it a life like appearance and match the patient the artificial teeth should vary from the tip
skin color. When color matching is achieved, the of the crown to the gingival area.
material is compression molded and processed. • Should be a good attachment between the
It is then finished in the conventional manner. artificial teeth and the denture base.
Small holes or metal pins are incorporated
in the base of the porcelain teeth during their
ARTIFICIAL TEETH
production to give mechanical retention to
There are two types of teeth commonly used: the denture base.
1. Acrylic or plastic teeth. • Artificial teeth to be of low density in order
2. Porcelain teeth. that they do not increase the weight of the
denture.
Acrylic Teeth or Plastic Teeth • Should be strong and tough in order to resist
fracture.
Plastic teeth are made from acrylic and modified • Should be hard enough to resist abrasive
acrylic materials (Fig. 11.16). Different tooth forces in the mouth and during cleaning,
colored pigments are used to produce the but should allow grinding with a dental bur,
various tooth shades and a cross-linking agent is so that adjustments to the occlusion can be
added to make it more resistant to crazing. They made by the dentist at the chair side.
are produced in different shapes and sizes by Neither plastic nor porcelain is an ideal
either using compression molding or injection material for the fabrication of artificial teeth. The
molding technique. choice between plastic and porcelain teeth will
depend on the application.
Requirements
• Good appearance: Should ideally be
Precautions
indistinguishable from natural teeth in shape, • Acrylic teeth should not be flamed during
color and translucency. Good matching often the smoothening of the wax denture pattern
requires that the shade and translucency of because the resin teeth surfaces may be
melted or burned. The resultant surface
stresses induced during cooling may
contribute to crazing in service.
• Acrylic teeth surfaces should not be coated
with separating medium as it prevents
chemical bonding between denture base and
acrylic teeth.
Comparison of acrylic teeth with porcelain
teeth have been discussed in Table 11.12.
RESIN IMPRESSION TRAYS AND

TRAY MATERIALS
Resin impression trays are fabricated to fit
specific arches. As a result, resin impression trays
often are called custom trays.
Steps
• A preliminary impression is made using a
stock tray with an appropriate impression
Fig. 11.16 Artificial acrylic teeth material.
Table 11.12 Comparison of acrylic teeth with porcelain teeth
Acrylic teeth Porcelain teeth

Biocompatible, insoluble in oral fluids, not have Biocompatible, insoluble in oral fluids and more
much resistance to organic solvents such as ketones resistance to organic solvents.
and aromatic hydrocarbons which will attack
noncross-linked plastic teeth.
Retention to the denture base is by chemical Mechanical bonding by pins or under-cut holes.
bonding if proper manipulation is observed.
Mechanical properties
Not as brittle. Brittle
Compressive strength: 75 MPa. 330 MPa.
Tensile strength: 60 MPa. 25 MPa.
Shear strength: 122 MPa. 111 MPa.
Modulus of elasticity: 2500 MPa. 80,000 MPa.
Density: 1.19 g/cc 2.35 g/cc.
Proportional limit: 27 MPa. 250 Mpa.
Poor abrasion resistance. More resistant to abrasion.
Surface hardness: 18 KHN. Surface hardness: 460 KHN.
Minimum abrasion of opposing dentition. Abrades opposing natural teeth and gold surfaces.
Higher fracture toughness (soft but tough). Low fracture toughness (hard and brittle).
Exhibit permanent deformation or cold flow under Show no dimensional change when stored in water
stresses below their elastic limit and their elastic and exhibit no permanent deformation from forces
limit and their dimension may be altered during use. exerted on them in the mouth.
Dimensional change with water absorption.
Easy to grind and polish. More difficult to grind and difficult to polish.
Grinding removes the surface glaze, which is
impossible to regain.
More resistant to crazing if cross-linked. Susceptible to crazing by thermal shock.
Thermal conductivity: 0.0006 units. 0.0025 units.
Thermal expansion same as acrylic denture base (81 Much lower than acrylic causes stresses in acrylic
ppm/°C). denture base.
Low heat distortion temperature. High heat distortion temperature and are not
affected by heat. However, sudden temperature
changes may cause crazing or cracking of teeth.
Appearance: Can be excellent. Color slowly changes Can be excellent.
and difficult to match. Life like appearance and good color matching.
Natural feel. No clicking on contact with the Clicking occurs on contact with the opposing teeth.
opposing teeth (silent on contact). Sharp impact (click) sound.
In service considered transmitting less force to the Considered to transmit more forces to the mucosa.
mucosa.
Loss of vertical dimension. Stable.
Indications for plastic teeth Indications for porcelain teeth
• In low stress bearing areas. • When patients have good ridge support.
• To oppose natural teeth or to oppose gold occlusal • Adequate inter-arch distance.
surfaces. • In those with maxillary and mandibular dentures
• In patients with poor ridges and when limited oppose each other.
inter-arch distance exists.
• A gypsum cast is generated. steels represent the alloys used most extensively
• A suitable spacer is placed on the stone cast for dental appliances. The most common
to provide the desired relief. austenitic steel used in dentistry is 18 – 8 stainless
• A separating medium is painted onto steel.
exposed surfaces. The method used to form a stainless steel
• Resin dough is formed by mixing an inor- denture base is known as swaging technique.
ganically filled polymer and the appropriate
monomer. The dough is rolled into a sheet Method
approximately 2 mm thick, adapted to the
diagnostic cast and allowed to polymerize. A thin sheet of 18 – 8 stainless steel (approximately
• A resin impression tray may exhibit 0.2 mm thick) is pressed between a die and a
noticeable dimens ional changes for 24 counter die. Dies and counter dies are made of
hours after fabrication and should not low fusing alloys such as Zn, Cu – Mn – Al, Sn – Sb
be used during this period. At the end of – Cu, Pb – Sb – Sn and Pb – Bi – Sn. The method
the prescribed period, the fit of the tray of applying the pressure required for swaging
is evaluated intraorally and necessary may vary. Traditionally, a hydraulic press was
modifications are made. used but modern techniques involve the use of
• Finally, the spacer is removed and a master sudden pressure wave, which adapt the sheet of
impression is made using an appropriate alloy to the die very quickly.
elastomeric impression material. The pressure wave may be generated by using
controlled explosion (explosion forming) or a
Materials sudden controlled release of hydraulic pressure
(hydraulic forming).
Chemically activated poly (methyl methacrylate)
resin.
Advantages
Recently light activated urethane dimeth-
acrylate resins also have been used in tray fabri- • Very thin denture bases can be produced.
cation. Such resins are supplied in sheet and gel • Stainless steel is fracture resistant.
forms. Sheet forms are preferred for custom tray • The base is not heavy, because of the thinness
fabrication because of their favorable handling of the material.
characteristics. • Good corrosion resistance.
To facilitate tray fabrication, a diagnostic • Conducts heat rapidly, thereby ensuring that
cast is made and one or more layers of wax the patient retains a normal reflex reaction
relief spacer are placed. A separating medium to hot and cold stimuli.
is applied to exposed cast surfaces and a tray is
fashioned using urethane dimethacrylate sheet Disadvantages
material. The cast and the tray are placed in a
light chamber and the resin is polymerized. • Possible dimensional inaccuracy, particularly
Trays fabrication using urethane if the contraction of the die material or alloy
dimethacrylate resins are dimensionally stable is not matched by expansion of the model.
during polymerization stages. Nonetheless, these • Loss of fine detail, since many stages are
materials are brittle and release fine powder involved between recording the original
particles during grinding procedures. impression and obtaining the final product.
• Dies and counter dies can be damaged under
hydraulic pressure.
STAINLESS STEEL AS A DENTURE
• It was difficult to ensure a uniform thickness
BASE MATERIAL of the finished plate.
Stainless steel has been occasionally used as • Uneven pressure on the die and counter die
denture base material since 1921. The austenitic could cause wrinkling of the steel.
properties of denture base materials. Dent Mater.
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Dental Waxes
12
Waxes are one of the many essential materials
CLASSIFICATION
used in dentistry. Fabrication of artificial
restoration of soft and hard tissues of the oral
According to their Origin
cavity requires use of wax in one form or the
other. According to their origin waxes are classified as:
Waxes are organic polymers consisting of • Natural waxes (Table 12.1)
hydrocarbons and their derivatives. These are • Synthetic waxes
thermoplastic materials, which are normally • Other additives: Obtained as both natural
solid at room temperature but melt without materials and synthetic products.
decomposition to form mobile liquids. Average
molecular weight of waxes range from 400–4000.
Synthetic Waxes
A variety of natural resins and waxes have
been used in dentistry for specific and well- Synthetic wax is a man-made wax synthesized
defined purposes. In some instances, the most from appropriate monomers. The synthetic
favorable qualities can be obtained from a single waxes differ chemically from the natural waxes.
wax such as bees wax, but more often a blend The synthetic waxes have specific melting points
of several waxes is necessary to develop the and are blended with natural waxes. These
most desirable qualities. Waxes were first used are more often refined when compared to the
in dentistry for the purpose of recording the natural waxes.
impression of edentulous mouth. For example, polyethylene waxes, polyoxy
ethylene glycol waxes, halogenated hydrocarbon
APPLICATIONS waxes, complex N2 derivatives of higher fatty
acids, waxes derived from fatty acid ester of
• Used in the formation of an inlay pattern.
montan wax, a petroleum derivative.
• Used in the dental laboratory to box impres
sions prior to cast pouring with gypsum.
• Used as a base plate for the registration of According to the Application
jaw relationships. in Dentistry
• Used as a casting wax to establish minimum
thickness to certain areas. • Used in the formation of an inlay pattern.
• Used as a utility wax to prevent distortion of • Boxing wax: Used in the dental laboratory to
impression materials. box impressions prior to cast pouring with
• Used as a sticky wax to join fractured parts gypsum.
together. • Used as a base plate for the registration of
• Used as a corrective impression wax to jaw relationships.
contact and register the detail of soft tissues. • Used as a casting wax to establish minimum
• Used as a bite registration wax. thickness to certain areas.
Table 12.1 Natural waxes

Type Example Source Structure Properties
Mineral Paraffin wax Obtained during the Straight chained • Brittle at ambient temperature.
distillation of crude hydrocarbon. • Crystalline in the form of
petroleum. plates or needles.
• Softening temperature:
37–55°C
• Melting range: 40–71°C
Microcrystalline Obtained from Branched chain • Less brittle than paraffin wax
wax petroleum. hydrocarbon. due to their oil content.
• Melting range: 60–80°C
• Added to modify the softening
and melting ranges of wax
blends.
• Less volumetric change during
solidification
Ozokerite Contains both • It is earth wax.
straight chain and • Melting temperature: 65°C.
branched chain • It is similar to microcrystalline
hydrocarbons. wax.
Ceresin From natural and • Added to increase the melting
mineral petroleum. range of paraffin wax.
Montan wax Obtained by Mixtures of long • Melting temperature: 72–92°C.
extracting lignites. chain esters.
Plant Carnauba wax Composed of • Melting temperature: 84–91°C.
waxes straight chain esters, • Added to increase the melting
alcohols, acids and range and hardness of paraffin
hydrocarbons. wax.
Candelilla wax Consists of • Melting temperature: 68–75°C.
40–60% paraffin • Added to harden paraffin
hydrocarbons. waxes.
Japan wax • Tough malleable and sticky
material.
• Melts at 51°C.
• Added to improve tackiness
and emulsifying ability of
paraffin wax.
Cocoa butter • Brittle substance at room
temperature.
• Used as a protector against
dehydration of soft tissues.
Insect Bees wax • Primary insect wax.
waxes • Less brittle.
• Melting temperature: 63–70°C.
Animal Spermaceti Obtained from the • Used as a coating in the
waxes wax sperm of whale. manufacture of dental floss.
• Used as a utility wax to prevent distortion of • Used as a corrective impression wax to

impression materials. contact and register the detail of soft
• Used as a sticky wax to join fractured parts tissues.
together. • Used as a bite registration wax.
Chapter 12 Dental Waxes 287
Table 12.2 Composition of inlay wax
INLAY WAXES
Dental restorations such as inlays, crowns and
Paraffin wax 60% • Main ingredient.
bridges are formed by a casting process that • Used to establish
utilizes the lost wax pattern technique. The melting point.
type of wax used to fabricate the original of • It is likely to flake while
such restorations is known as inlay or casting trimming
waxes. • It does not give a glossy
In the lost wax pattern technique, a pattern surface and hence
of the desired dental restoration is first made or modifiers are added.
constructed by wax that duplicates the shape Carnauba 25% • Added to increase the
and contour of the desired restoration. The wax melting range, decrease
carved wax pattern is then embedded in a mix the flow at mouth
of investment material to form a mold with a temperature.
• Contribute to the
special channel for the entry of the molten metal glossiness of the wax
into the mold. surface.
Ceresin 5% Modifies the toughness
ADA Specification Number: 4 and the general working
and carving characteristics
Classification of wax.
According to ADA specification number 4, there Gum damar 3% • Added to enhance

resin smoothness of the
are two types of inlay waxes.
surface.
Type I Medium wax or hard wax employed in • Gives more resistance to
direct technique. flakiness or chipping.
• Improves toughness of
Type II Soft wax used for indirect technique for the wax.
inlays and crowns. Bees wax 5% • Added to reduce
the flow at mouth
Dispension temperature.
• Makes the wax less
Inlay waxes are manufactured in different color, brittle at mouth
size and shapes, e.g. deep blue, green or purple temperature.
in sticks 3 inches long and ¼ inch in diameter Synthetic 2% Helps in stable flow
and also dispensed in the form of small pellets resins properties.
or cones. Most common of all these is the stick Coloring Trace To impart the desired
form in purple color (Fig. 12.1). agents color.
Composition
Inlay waxes contain both natural and synthetic
Properties
waxes. The detailed composition of inlay waxes
is given in Table 12.2.
Flow
In some instances, Candelilla wax is also
added either partially or wholly to replace the One of the desirable properties of the type-I
carnauba wax. It provides the same qualities as inlay wax is that it exhibits a marked plasticity or
that of the carnauba wax but its melting point is flow at a temperature slightly above that of the
lower and it is less hard than carnauba wax. mouth. ADA specification number 4 provides
Table 12.3 Flow of inlay wax at various temperatures

as per ADA specification no. 4
Wax temperature
Type 30°C 37°C 40°C 45°C

of wax Max. Max. Max. Min. Max. Min.
Type I — 1.0% 20% 90% 70%
Type II 1% — 50% 90% 70%
an increase in temperature of 20°C and may

contract as much as 0.35% when it is cooled from
mouth temperature to room temperature. The
Fig. 12.1 Inlay casting wax
average linear COTE over such a temperature
range is 360 × 10–6/°C.
certain requirements for the flow properties of The inlay waxes have the highest thermal
inlay waxes at specific temperatures. expansion coefficient when compared to other
The flow is measured by subjecting cylin materials used in dentistry. According to ADA
dric al specimens to a load of 19.6 N for 10 Specification Number 4, for type-I inlay wax
minutes at specified temperature and mea the compensation for the shrinkage of about
suring the percent of reduction in length. The 0.4% that is experienced on cooling from mouth
maximum flow permitted for type-I waxes at temperature to room temperature in direct
37°C is 1%. The low flow at this temperature technique.
permits carving and removal of wax pattern For type-I wax, the maximum linear thermal
without distortion. In addition, both type-I and expansion allowed between 25–30°C is 0.2%
-II waxes must have a flow (minimal) of 70% at and 0.6% between 25–37°C range. However for
45°C and a maximal flow of 90%, at approximately type-II inlay waxes, thermal requirements are
this temperature the wax is inserted (Table 12.3). not specified.
Factors influencing co-efficient of thermal
Thermal Properties expansion
1. The amount thermal dimensional change
Thermal conductivity: Thermal conductivity of
may be affected by the previous treatment
waxes is very low and sufficient time must be
of wax.
allowed during softening or hardening of inlay
2. Pressure.
waxes for uniform softening and hardening
3. Glass transition temperature: The tempe
of the wax mass. Due to uneven cooling or
rature at which the change in rate occurs is
attempted manipulation in an inappropriately
known as the glass transition temperature.
softened stage or carving wax not completely
Some constituents of wax probably change
hardened, considerable amount of stresses may
their crystalline form, i.e. from plate-like to
be generated within the body of the wax pattern
needle-like at this temperature and the wax
with resulting distortion or warpage.
is more plastic at higher temperature. Not all
Coefficient of thermal expansion: The linear waxes exhibit transition temperatures.
coefficient of thermal expansion of waxes is 4. Temperature of the die.
defined as the change in length per unit °C rise 5. The method of applying pressure to the wax
in temperature of waxes. as it solidifies. However, these factors do
The inlay waxes have a very high COTE. The not pose a serious problem in the indirect
wax may expand as much as about 0.7% with technique.
Manipulation of Inlay Waxes

In the process of manipulating inlay wax, dry
heat is generally preferred to the use of water
bath. The use of water bath can result in:
• Inclusion of droplets of water that could
splatter on flaming.
• Distort the pattern during thermal changes.
• Leaching out of volatile, low melting point
components into the surrounding medium.
Each of the types of inlay wax has different
manipulating procedures involved that have to
be undertaken carefully.
Fig. 12.2 Preparation of wax pattern
by indirect technique
Direct Technique
• In the direct pattern forming procedure,
the stick of inlay wax (type-I hard) is held applied to the pattern in a film of minimal
well above the Bunsen flame and softened thickness. Any excess may prevent intimate
by heating and quickly rotated till the wax adaptation of the wax to the die.
becomes soft and plastic. • The melted wax may be then added in layers
• The wax should not be allowed to melt and with a wax spatula or an enamel hair brush
must be softened to a uniform degree. onto the die, as shown in Figure 12.2.
• Then the wax is kneaded thoroughly and • In the case of full cast or crown, the die may
inserted in the tooth cavity and held under be dipped repeatedly into the liquid wax.
pressure till it hardens. • The prepared cavity is over filled, and the wax
• In order for the wax to be condensed easily is then carved to the proper contour. When
and register accurate cavity details, the the margins are being carved, extreme care
temperature of the insertion should be more should be taken to avoid abrading of the die.
than 45°C to ensure adequate flow and the • A silk cloth may be used for final polishing
wax held under pressure as it hardens. of the pattern.
• Pressure may be applied either with finger
or by the patient biting the wax. It is not Precautions
necessary to chill the pattern with cold water.
• Then it should be carefully withdrawn along • The pattern should be touched as little as
the long axis of the preparation. possible with the hands as it introduces
• A cold carving instrument must be generally thermal changes and leading to distortion
used for direct patterns. or warpage.
• Wax pattern after removal should be checked
for any cracks, or lack of marginal continuity
Indirect Technique and then washed and cleaned for any
• Impression of the prepared cavity is taken separating medium or saliva of the patient
with a suitable impression material, usually present.
a rubber-based impression material. • Over building and under building of wax
• A die is prepared from that impression. must be avoided.
• The die is then coated with a lubricant in • For the best results, the pattern must be
order to minimize or prevent the wax from invested as soon as possible after it has been
sticking to the die. The lubricant should be removed from the mouth or the die.
Wax Distortion
Distortion is one of the most serious problems
faced when forming the pattern and removing
it from the mouth or die specially in the direct
technique.
Reasons for Distortion

• Thermal changes and from the release of Figs 12.3A and B Elastic memory of waxes
internal stresses sustained by it during
manipulation of the material. The stresses
are induced from the natural tendency • Distortion may also take place due to flow
of the wax to contract on cooling, from of wax under its own weight particularly at
occluded gas bubbles, change of shape a higher temperature.
during moulding and due to carving, etc. This
can be illustrated by an experiment, elastic CASTING WAXES
memory, as follows:
The pattern for the metallic framework of remov-
— A piece of inlay wax softened over a
able partial denture and other similar structure
flame, bent into a horseshoe shape and
is fabricated from the casting waxes.
chilled. It is then floated in a pan of water
at room temperature as shown in the
Figure 12.3A. If it is permitted to remain The Federal Specification: U–W–140
in the position for a long period under the
Dispension
same temperature the horseshoe shape
opens up reliving the internal stresses • Casting waxes are available in the form of
administered and thus distortion occurs sheets, usually of 28 and 30 gage (04 and
(Fig. 12.3B). This is called elastic memory 0.32 mm) thickness.
of waxes. • Readymade shapes and in bulk.
• According to the current theory of distortion, • Readymade shapes are supplied as round,
any method of manipulation that creates half round and half pear-shaped rods and
a structural integrity of the wax, involving wires of various gages of approximately 10
localized variations in the intermolecular cm in length.
distance, may result in distortion of the Although casting waxes serve the same
pattern. basic purpose as inlay waxes in the formation
Other factors which are under the control of of patterns for metallic castings their physical
operator, influence the distortion of the pattern properties differ slightly.
are as follows.
• Uniform temperature. Composition
• Uniform pressure. Paraffin wax – 60%
• If the wax has to be melted and added to the Carnauba wax – 25%
pattern in order to repair some parts that Ceresin – 10%
were not accurately obtained, the added wax Bees wax – 5%.
will introduce stress during cooling.
• Carving—During carving operation, some
Uses
molecules of wax will be disturbed and the
stresses will be introduced. • To establish minimum thickness in certain
• Time and temperature of storage before areas of the partial denture framework, such
investment may result in stress release. as the palatal and lingual bar.
• To produce the desired contour of the lingual
bar.
• For postdamming of complete maxillary
denture impressions.
• Used for checking high points of articulation.
• For producing over bites of cusp tips for the
articulation of the stone cast, etc.
Baseplate Wax/Modeling Wax

It derives its name from its use on the base plate Fig. 12.4 Modeling wax
tray to establish the vertical dimension, the plane
of occlusion and the initial arch form in the
complete denture restoration. Carnauba – 2.5%
Natural and synthetic resin – 3.0%
Microcrystalline or synthetic waxes – 2.5%.
Dispension
The base plate waxes normally supplied in sheets Classification
of dimension 7.6 × 15 × 0.13 cm in pink or red
color (Fig. 12.4). Type I: Soft
• Used in building contours and veneers.
Composition Type II: Medium
• Used to make patterns in mouth.
Base plate waxes may contain 70–80% paraffin
• Specially used in temperate weather condition.
base waxes or commercial ceresin, with small
quantities of other waxes, resins and additives Type III: Hard
to develop the specific qualities desired in wax. • Used to make patterns in mouth.
• Specially used in hot weather condition.
Typically the composition as follows:
Ceresin – 80% Properties Flow requirements of all three types
Bees wax – 12% of base plate waxes were given in Table 12.4.
Table 12.4 Requirements of base plate wax
Type Temperature Flow Practical requirements

Max. Min.
Type I 23°C — 1.0 Softened sheets shall cohere readily
37°C 45.0 85.0 without becoming flaky or adhering to
45°C — — fingers.

Type II 23°C — 0.6 • No irritation of tissues.
37°C — 2.5 • Trim easily with a sharp instrument at
45°C 5.0 90.0 28°C.

Type III 23°C — 0.2
37°C — 1.2
45°C 5.0 50.0
Uses
• Used on the base plate tray to establish the
vertical dimension, the plane of occlusion,
and the initial arch form in the technique
for the complete denture restoration.
• May also be used to form all or portion of the
tray itself.
• Serves as the material to produce the desired
contour of the denture after teeth are set in
position.
• Patterns for orthodontic appliances and
prosthesis other than complete dentures,
which are to be constructed of plastics, also
are made of base plate wax.
• Also used to check the various articulating
relations in the mouth and to transfer them
to mechanical articulators.
PROCESSING WAXES
There are different types of processing waxes
used in dentistry.
• Boxing wax
• Sticky wax
• Carding wax (Fig. 12.5B)
Figs 12.5A and B (A) Boxing of impression (B) Carding
• Block out wax: Used to fill voids, undercuts wax, arrangement of artificial teeth into carding wax
for removable partial denture fabrication.
• White wax: Used for making patterns to
stimulate a veneer facing. Boxing Process
• Utility wax.
The boxing operation usually consists of first
adapting a long narrow strip of wax around the
Boxing Wax impression below its peripheral height, followed
by a wide strip of wax, producing a form around
To form a plaster or stone cast from an impression the impression, as shown in Figure 12.5A.
of edentulous arch, it is necessary first to form
a wax box around the impression, into which Uses
the freshly mixed plaster or stone is poured and
• Used by the manufacturer to attach artificial
vibrated. This is important in order to develop
teeth to the mounts on which they are
a cast.
supplied.
The terms carding wax and boxing wax
• Also used in the dental laboratory to box in
appear to be interchangeably, although boxing
impression prior to casting up.
wax is more correct according to usage.
Utility Wax
Dispension
There are numerous instances in which an easily
They are available in green or black in color. workable, adhesive wax is desired. A standard
perforated tray for use with hydrocolloid for
example, may easily be brought to a more
desirable contour by such a wax. This is done
to prevent a sag and distortion of impression
material. A soft pliable adhesive wax may be
used on the lingual portion of a bridge pontic to
stabilize it while a labial plaster splint is poured.
Dispension
It is supplied in both stick and sheet form in a
dark red or orange color.
Composition Fig. 12.6 Sticky wax

It consists largely of bee’s wax, petrolatum of
other soft waxes in varying properties, exact In addition to the rosin and yellow bees wax,
composition is not known. which is major constituent, coloring agents and
other natural resins such as gum damar may be
present.
Uses
• Used with standard perforated tray for use Uses
with hydrocolloid.
• A soft, pliable, adhesive wax may be used • To seal a plaster split to a stone model in the
on the lingual portion of a bridge pontic process of forming porcelain facings.
to stabilize it while a labial plaster splint is • Used to seal broken denture fragments prior
poured. to denture repair.
• Used to join metal fragments prior to
soldering.
Sticky Wax
Sticky wax is also called as Model cement. A
IMPRESSION WAXES
suitable sticky wax for prosthetic dentistry is
formulated from a mixture of waxes and resins Impression waxes exhibit high flow and distort
or other additive ingredient such a material is on withdrawal from undercuts. Waxes used
sticky when melted and will adhere closely to for dental impression are limited to use in
the surfaces upon which it is applied. At room edentulous region of mouth.
temperature however the wax is firm and free
from tackiness and is brittle. Types
1. Corrective impression wax.
Dispension
2. Bite registration wax.
They are usually dispensed in the form of sticks
(Fig. 12.6). Corrective Impression Wax
It is claimed that this type of impression material
Composition
records the mucous membrane and underlying
It is mainly made of bee’s wax, which gives the tissues in a functional state in which movable
sticky property to the wax and some naturally tissues are displaced to such a degree that
occurring resins. There are a number of formulas functional contact with the base of the denture
representing both high and low resin content. is obtained.
Composition : They are formulated from

SUGGESTED READING
hydrocarbon waxes such as paraffin and ceresin
and may contain metal particles. 1. Farah JW, Powers JM. Bite registration materials.
Dent Advis. 1998;15(4):1.
Uses 2. Iglesias A, Powers JM, Pierpont HP. Accuracy of
• Used as a wax veneer over an original impres wax, autopolymerized, and light polymerized
sion to contact and register detail of the soft resin pattern materials. J Prosthet Dent.
mucosa. 1996;5:201.
3. Ito M, Yamagishi T, Oshida Y. Effect of selected
physical properties of waxes on investments and
Bite Registration Wax casting shrinkage. J Prosthet Dent. 1999;75:211.
They are the type of waxes, which distort if they 4. Martin JW, Jacob RF, King GE. Boxing the altered
are withdrawn from undercut areas and therefore cast impression for the dentate obturator by
limited use. using plaster and pumice. J Prosthet Dent.
1988;59:382-4.
Composition: They are frequently made from 28 5. Morrison JT, Duncanson MG Jr, Shillingburg
gage casting wax sheets or from hard base plate HT Jr. Wetting effects of surface treatments on
wax. But waxes identified as bite waxes appear inlay wax-investment combinations. J Dent Res.
to be formulated from bees wax or hydrocarbon 1981;60:1858.
6. Nagda SJ. Laboratory section: waxes in fixed
waxes such as paraffin or ceresin.
partial denture. The J Ind Prosthodont Soc.
Certain bite registration waxes contain
2003;3(1):39.
aluminum or copper particles. 7. Tan KM, Singer MT, Masri R, Driscoll CF.
Uses Modified fluid wax impression for a severely
• They are used in edentulous portion of resorbed edentulous mandibular ridge. J
Prosthet Dent. 2009;101:279-82.
mouth.
• Used to articulate accurately certain models
of opposing quadrants.
Investment Materials
13
When a restoration or appliance is being made • Should have high compressive strength to
by a “lost wax” process, the wax pattern is withstand impact forces of molten alloy.
embedded in an investment material. After the No single material is known that completely
investment material has set, the wax is removed fulfills all of these requirements.
by burn out process, that creates a space in
the investment called as mold space, which is
filled by the material of which the restoration or
GENERAL COMPOSITION
appliance is to be made. Generally an investment is a mixture of the
An investment material can be described as following materials:
a ceramic material that is suitable for forming a
mold into which a metal or alloy is cast.
Refractory Material
Refractory material is usually a form of silicon
IDEAL PROPERTIES REQUIRED
dioxide such as quartz, tridymite or cristobalite
FOR AN INVESTMENT or mixture of these.
• Should not react with wax and alloys. Contraction of gypsum during casting can
• Should be easily manipulated. be eliminated by using the proper form of silica
• The inner surface of the mold should not in the investment. Silica exists in four allotropic
breakdown at higher temperature. forms such as quartz, tridymite, cristobalite and
• At higher temperature, the investment must fused quartz. Among these quartz and tridymite
not decompose to give off gases that could are of dental interest.
corrode the surface of the alloy. On heating quartz (at 575°C), tridymite
• The investment should have enough (between 117°C and 163°C or cristobalite
expansion to compensate for shrinkage of (between 200°C and 270°C) change their
the wax pattern and the metal that takes crystalline structures from a-form to b-form. This
place during the casting procedure. change in crystalline structure results in decrease
• A dental casting investment should be porous in density and increase in volume that causes
enough to allow the air or other gases in rapid increase in linear expansion (Quartz-1.4%,
the mold cavity to escape easily during the tridymite-1.0% and cristobalite-1.8%), which
casting procedure. helps in compensating the casting shrinkage.
• The investment should produce a smooth The amount of expansion is more for cristobalite
surface and fine detail and margins on the and less for tridymite.
casting. Combinations of different types of silica can
• Should have long shelf life. also be used in dental investments (quartz or
• Should be inexpensive. cristobalite). As per the type of silica is present
in an investment it can be classified as “quartz

GYPSUM BONDED INVESTMENTS
or cristobalite investment”.
Fused quartz does not change its crystalline
Gypsum
for m below its fusion point. It can be
characterized as an amorphous and glass-like. Gypsum is a mineral that is mined in various
Fused quartz undergoes very little expansion so parts of the world. Chemically the gypsum that
its use is restricted in dental investments. is produced for dental purposes is nearly pure
calcium sulfate dihydrate.
Binder Material ADA spe cification no. 2 for casting
investments for dental gold alloys includes
Binder materials are used to form a coherent three types of investments. The types depend on
solid mass with refractory material. Most whether the appliance to be fabricated is fixed
commonly used binders in dental investments or removable.
are a-calcium sulfate hemihydrate, phosphate,
and ethyl silicate. Classification
Other Chemicals Type-I Investment

These are employed for the casting of inlays
These include sodium chloride, boric acid,
or crowns, when the alloy casting shrinkage
potassium sulfate, graphite, copper powder or/
compensation is accomplished principally by
and MgO; are added in a small quantity to modify
thermal expansion of the investment.
some physical and mechanical properties of the
investment.
In general, there are three types of invest Type-II Investment
ments. The choice of investment material on These are used for casting of inlays or crowns,
melting range of alloy and preference of clinician. but the major mode of compensation is by the
i. Gypsum bonded investment (for conven- hygroscopic expansion of the investment.
tional gold alloys)
ii. Phosphate bonded investment (for metal
Type-III Investment
ceramic restorations)
iii. Ethyl silicate bonded investment (for These are used for construction of partial
casting of RPD with base metal alloy). dentures with gold alloys.
CLASSIFICATION OF INVESTMENTS Composition

Essential ingredients of the dental inlay
1. Based on type of binder present: investment employed with the conventional
a. G ypsum bonded investment : CaSO 4 gold casting alloys are α-hemihydrate and a form
a-hemihydrate of silica. The detailed composition of gypsum
b. Phosphate bonded investment: Mono- bonded investments was given in Table 13.1.
ammonium phosphate
c. Silica bonded investment: Ethyl silicate.
2. Based on refractory material:
Setting Reaction
a. Quartz investments The most recognized theory of the mechanism of
b. Cristobalite investments setting is the crystalline theory given by Henry
3. Based on temperature of casting: Loui’s in 1887. The crystalline theory of CaSO4
a. Low temperature investments α-hemihydrate has been discussed in Gypsum
b. High temperature investments. Products chapter of this book.
Chapter 13 Investment Materials 297
Table 13.1 Composition of gypsum bonded investment
Calcium sulfate α-hemihydrate 25–45 • Acts as a binder.
• Improves strength.
Silica 55–75 • Refractory material and can withstand high
temperatures.
• Regulates the thermal expansion.
Modifiers Trace • Regulates the setting expansion and setting
E.g. Boric acid, NaCl, etc. time.
• Also prevents most of the shrinkage of
gypsum, when it is heated above 300°C.
Reducing agents Trace • To provide a nonoxidizing atmosphere in the
E.g. Carbon, powdered graphite or mold when the gold alloy is cast.
powdered copper
Coloring agents Trace Provides characteristic color.
Setting Time time, because the particles of refractory filler

interfere with the interlocking of growing
It is the time from the beginning of mixing gypsum crystals and making this less effective
until material hardens. According to ADA in developing a solid structure.
specificationn number 2, it ranges between 5–25
minutes.
Fineness
Factors Influencing Setting Time The finer the particle size of the hemihydrate, the
faster the mix hardens. (More number of gypsum
Theoretically, there are at least three methods by nuclei hence more rapid rate of crystals).
which such control can be achieved.
1. The solubility of hemihydrate can be
increased or decreased by addition of
Impurities
potassium sulfate (accelerator) or Borax If the calcination is not complete so that gypsum
(Retarder). particles remain, or if the manufacturer adds
2. The number of nuclei of crystallization can gypsum, the setting time will be shortened
be increased or decreased, i.e. the greater because of increase in potential nuclei of
the nuclei of crystallization, the faster the crystallization.
gypsum crystals form and the sooner the
hardening of mass will occur. Factors Controlled by Operator
3. If the rate of crystal growth can be increased
or decreased by addition of accelerator or In p ra c t i c e, t h e s e m e t h o d s have b e e n
retarder, the setting time can be accelerated incorporated into the commercial products
or retarded. available. The operator can vary the setting time
by altering w/p ratio and mixing speed.
Factors Controlled by Manufacturer
W/P Ratio
Effect of Varying the Composition
The more the water that is used for mixing, the
More amount of silica in the investment powder fewer nuclei are there per unit volume, i.e. setting
increases the manipulation time, initial setting time is prolonged.
Mixing of interlocking crystals, between which are

micropores and pores containing the excess
Within the practical limits, the longer and the water required for mixing. On drying, the excess
more rapidly the mixing is done, the shorter is water is lost and the void space is increased.
the setting time, i.e. some gypsum crystals form • A mixture of silica and hemihydrate results
immediately as it is brought into contact with in setting expansion greater than that of the
water. As the mixing begins, the formation of gypsum product when it is used alone. The
these crystals increases and at the same time silica particles interfere with the intermeshing
the crystals are broken up by the mixing spatula and interlocking of the crystals as they form.
and are distributed throughout the mixture Thus, the thrust of crystals is outward during
which results in formation of more nuclei of growth and they increase expansion.
crystallization, thus setting time is decreased. • The ADA specification no. 2 for type-I
investments permits a maximum setting
Effect of Temperature expansion ‘in air’ of only 0.6%. But the
The temperature of the water used for mixing as setting expansion of modern investments is
well as room temperature affects setting time. approximately 0.4%.
• Increased water temperature acts as an • The purpose of the setting expansion is to
accelerator. But temperature above 50°C has aid in enlarging of the mold to compensate
a reverse effect. partially for the casting shrinkage of the mold.
• A change in temperature results in variation
in the solubility of CaSO4 hemihydrate and Hygroscopic Setting Expansion (HSE)
dihydrate, which may change the rate of If the setting process is allowed to occur under
chemical reaction. water, the setting expansion may be more than
double in magnitude. The reason for the increase
Normal Setting Expansion (NSE) expansion when the hemihydrate is allowed to
react under water is related to the additional
The volumetric or linear increase in physical crystal growth permitted.
dimensions of an investment caused by chemical The hygroscopic setting expansion differs
reactions that occur during hardening to a rigid from the normal setting expansion in that it
structure is called normal setting expansion. occurs when the gypsum product is allowed
Regardless of the type of gypsum product to set under or in contact with water and that
used, an expansion of the mass can be detected it is greater in magnitude than normal setting
during the change from the hemihydrate to the expansion. The hygroscopic setting expansion
dihydrate. may be 6 or more times the NSE of a dental
As the amount of gypsum increases during investment. The HSE is one of the methods for
setting period, the mass thickens because expanding the casting mold to compensate for
of the formation of needle-like crystals. The the casting shrinkage of the gold alloy.
crystallization procedure is an outgrowth of ADA specification no. 2 for such type-
crystals from nuclei of crystallization. Crystals II investments requires a minimum setting
growing from the nuclei can intermesh with expansion in water of 1.2%, the maximum
and obstruct the growth of adjacent crystals. expansion permitted is 2.2%.
If this process is repeated by thousands of the
crystals during growth, an outward thrust or Factors Controlling the Hygroscopic
stress develops that produces an expansion of
the entire mass. Thus a setting expansion takes
Expansion
place, this crystal impingement and movement Effect of composition: The magnitude of the
results in the production of micropores. The hygroscopic setting expansion of a dental
structure immediately after setting is composed investment is generally proportional to the silica
content of the investment. The finer the particle The thermal expansion of quartz investment
size of silica the greater is the expansion. is influenced by—
• The particle size of the quartz.
Effect of w/p ratio: The higher the w/p ratio of the
• Type of gypsum binder
investment the lesser is the expansion.
• W/p ratio.
Effect of spatulation: With most investments, According to ADA specification no.2 for
as the mixing time is reduced, the hygroscopic type-I investment, which rely principally on
expansion is decreased. the thermal expansion for compensation, the
thermal expansion must be 1–1.6%.
Shelf-life of investment: The older the investment,
For type-II investment, which relies on
the lower the hygroscopic expansion.
hygroscopic expansion for compensation of
Effect of confinement : The confining effect the contraction of the gold alloy, the thermal
on the hygroscopic expansion is much more expansion is 0%–0.6% at 500°C.
pronounced than the similar effect on the An inlay investment undergoes maximum
normal setting expansion. Both the expansions thermal expansion at a temperature not higher
are confined by opposing forces, such as the than 700°C. Hence when a thermal expansion
walls of the container in which the investment is technique is employed, the maximum mold
placed or the walls of the wax pattern. Therefore, temperature for the casting of gold alloy should
the effective hygroscopic expansion is likely to be less than 700°C because gold alloy can
be less in proportion to the expected expansion become contaminated at a mold temperature
than is the normal expansion. higher than this.
Effect of the amount of added water: The
magnitude of the hygroscopic expansion is in
Factors Affecting Thermal Expansion
direct proportion to the amount of water added W/P ratio: The more the water used in mixing
during the setting period until a maximum the investment, the less is thermal expansion
expansion occurs. No further expansion is achieved during heating.
evident regardless of any amount of water added.
The walls of the ring restrict both the Effect of chemical modifiers: The addition of
expansions. Hygroscopic setting expansion is small amount of Na, K, or lithium chloride to the
particularly sensitive to any kind of restraining investment eliminates the contraction caused
effect. To counteract the effect of restraining by the gypsum and the expansion without the
action of the ring, disposable paper rings are presence of an excessive amount of silica. Boric
used for investing wax pattern to facilitate free acid also has similar effect.
expansion.
Thermal Contraction
Thermal Expansion On cooling from 700°C an investment can
Thermal expansion is the increase in dimension undergo contraction, which is less than its original
of a set investment due to temperature increase dimension. This contraction results in contraction
during burnout. of gypsum and not related to the amount and any
The expansion of a gypsum-bonded invest property of silica. On reheating it may expand,
ment is directly related to the amount of silica thermally to the same dimensions when it was
present and to the type of silica employed. A first heated. But reheating of investment is not
considerable amount of quartz is necessary to advisable as it develops internal cracks.
counterbalance the contraction of the gypsum
during heating. The contraction is entirely Strength
balanced when the quartz content is increased The strength of an investment increased rapidly
to 75%. as the material hardens after initial setting
time. However, the free water content of the Manipulation

set product definitely affects its strength.
Hence two strengths of a gypsum product are Selection of Materials
recognized.
1. Wet or green strength: Strength obtained Clean rubber bowl, plaster spatula, required
when the water in excess of that required amount of investment material and distilled water.
for the hydration of the hemihydrate is left
in the test specimen. Proportioning
2. Dry strength: When the specimen has been The water and powder should be measured by
dried of the excess water, the strength using an accurate graduated cylinder for the
obtained is dry strength. The dry strength is water volume (i.e. by use of scoop), as it does
2 or more times the wet strength. not pack uniformly. It may vary from product to
The strength of an investment must be product. If the container is shaken, the volume
adequate to prevent or chipping of the mold will increase as a result of entrapment of air.
during heating and casting of the gold alloy. The Preweighed envelopes are better as they promote
strength of an investment is measured in terms accuracy, reduce waste and save time.
of compressive strength.
• The compressive strength is increased Mixing
according to the type and amount of gypsum
binder present. Hand mixing: A measured amount of water is
• The use of chemical modifies also helps in placed in the bowl and the weighed powder
increasing the strength because more of is shifted in and the mixture is then vigorously
the binder can be used without a marked stirred with the periodic wiping of the inside of
reduction in thermal expansion. the bowl with the spatula to ensure the wetting
According to ADA specification no. 2, the of all of the powder and breaking up any
compressive strength for the inlay investment agglomerates or lumps. Entrapment of air in the
should not be less than 2.4 MPa (350 psi) when mix must be avoided to avoid porosity leading
tested 2 hrs after setting. to weak spots and surface inaccuracies. The use
of an automatic vibrator of high frequency and
of low amplitude can reduce the air entrapment.
Factors Affecting Strength
The mixing should continue until a smooth mix
W/P ratio: The greater the w/p ratio, the greater is obtained usually, within a minute.
will be porosity. The more the water is employed
Mechanical mixing: The preferred method
in mixing; the lower is the compressive strength
of mixing is to add the measured water first,
because the greater is the porosity, fewer crystals
followed by gradual addition of the preweighed
are available per unit volume for a given weight
powder. The powder is incorporated during
of hemihydrate.
approximate –15 seconds of mixing with a
Temperature: Heating the investment to 700°C hand spatula, followed by 20–30 seconds of
may increase or decrease the strength as much as mechanical mixing under vacuum by a mixture.
65%, depending on the composition, i.e. greatest The strength and hardness achieved by such
reduction with NaCl containing investment. mechanical mixing exceeds that obtained by one
1. After the investment has cooled to room minute of hand mixing.
temperature its strength decreases consider-
ably mainly because of fine cracks that form
PHOSPHATE BONDED INVESTMENTS
during cooling.
2. The addition of an accelerator or retarder The rapid growth of the use of metal ceramic
lowers both the wet and dry strength. restorations and the increased use of higher
melting alloys has resulted in an increased used The final product of the reaction is mono-
of phosphate bonded investments. ammonium diacid phosphate or magnesium
ammonium phosphate.
Classification
Type I—For crowns, inlays and other fixed Working and Setting Time
restoration. • Phosphate investments are affected by
Type II—For partial denture and other cast temperature. The warmer the mix, the
removable restorations. faster it sets. The setting reaction itself is
In case of silver-palladium or base metal exothermic, and this further accelerates the
alloys, it is believed that carbon embrittles the rate of setting.
alloys, even though the investment is heated • Increased mixing time and mixing efficiency,
to temperature that burns out the carbon. But results in a faster set and a greater rise in
latest evidences indicate that palladium reacts temperature.
with carbon at temperature above 1504°C. Thus • In general, the more efficient the mixing, the
if the casting temperature of a high palladium better the casting in terms of smoothness and
alloy exceeds this critical point, a phosphate accuracy.
investment without carbon should be used. Also, • Mechanical mixing under vacuum is
a carbon crucible should not be employed for preferred.
melting the alloy.
Setting and Thermal Expansion
Composition
In practice, setting reaction shows slight
Powder composition is given in Table 13.2.
expansion, and this expansion can be increased
by the use of a colloidal silica solution instead
Liquid
of water.
Colloidal silica liquid suspensions: Colloidal When phosphate investments are mixed
silica suspensions are used with the phosphate with water they exhibit shrinkage between the
investments in place of water as it requires greater temperatures of 200°–400°C. This contraction
expansion. Some phosphate investments are is practically eliminated by replacing the water
made to be used with water for the casting of with colloidal silica solution.
many alloys. For predominantly base metal alloys, For phosphate bonded material combined
a 33% dilution of the colloidal silica is required. setting and thermal expansion of around 2% is
normal, provided the special silica liquid is used
Setting Reactions with the investment.
The setting reaction for the binder system that
causes the investment to set and harden is Manipulation
generally written as follows: Required amount of powder and liquid are
NH4H2PO4 + MgO + 5H2O → NH4MgPO4.6H2O dispensed in vacuum mixer bowl and hand
Table 13.2 Composition of phosphate bonded investment
Powder
Binder 20 Increases strength, setting and thermal
E.g. Mixture of basic MgO and acidic (NH4H2PO4) expansions.
Refractory materials 80 • Withstand higher temperatures.
E.g. Quartz or cristobalite or mixture of both • Give large setting expansions.
Carbon Trace Acts as reducing agent.
spatulated for 30 seconds until the powder is • The powder consists of refractory particles
wetted by the liquid. Then the mixing bowl is of silica and glasses in various forms along
attached to the vacuum mixer and mechanically with MgO and some other oxides in minor
spatulated according to manufacturer ’s amount.
recommended mixing time. Then it is placed • The liquid that is used for the setting reaction
in a mechanical vibrator to remove air bubbles. may be supplied as a stabilized alcohol
Then the mix is poured in the casting ring. solution of silica gel or it may form from two
liquids that are supplied.
Advantages When the system uses two liquids then one
is ethyl silicate and the other may be an acidified
• They have the ability to withstand high
solution of denatured ethyl alcohol.
temperatures.
• They have sufficient green and fired strength.
• They can withstand the impact forces and Handling Technique
pressure of centrifugally cast molten alloy. The powder is added to the hydrolyzed ethyl
• They provide setting and thermal expansion silicate liquid, mixed quickly and vibrated into
high enough to compensate for the thermal a mold that has an extra collar to increase the
contraction of cast metal prosthesis or height. The mold is placed on a vibrator to settle
porcelain veneers during cooling. heavier particles quickly while the excess liquid
and some of the fine particles rise to the top. In
Disadvantages about 30 minutes, the accelerator in the powder
• Using the casting temperature greater than hardens the settled part and the top excess is
1375°C, results in mold breakdown and poured off. Thus the liquid: powder ratio in the
rougher surfaces of the castings. settled part is greatly reduced, and the setting
• The high strength of these investments shrinkage is decreased to 0.1%.
makes removal of the casting from the This type of investment can be heated
investment a difficult and tedious task. from 1090°C– 1180°C (2000°F–2150°F) and is
The higher strength of phosphate bonded compatible with higher fusing alloys. Its low
materials means that these products can be setting expansion minimizes distortion. The
used for casting all types of alloys, i.e. precious, expansion of the investment is mainly due to
semiprecious and base metal. The wax burn out thermal expansion. Thus distortion of the pattern
temperature is varied to suit the type of alloy is minimized. These investments are more suited
being cast. Typical burn out temperatures are for large precise castings.
as follows:
Gold alloys: 700–750°C Properties
Palladium-silver alloy: 730–815°C The green strength of these investments is low,
Base metal alloy: 815–900°C. and refractory models are best handled by
reinforcing them with a resin dip.
ETHYL SILICATE BONDED Compressive strength: 1.5 MPa.
INVESTMENTS Setting contraction: 0 – 0.4%.
Thermal expansion: About 1.5%–1.8% can
The ethyl silicate bonded investments require be attained between room temperature and
more complic ated and time-consuming 1000°C–1177°C (1800°F – 2150°F).
procedures. It is used in the construction of the
high fusing base metal partial denture alloys.
Advantages
It is supplied as a powder that requires
mixing with a liquid to bind the mixed mass via • These investments offer the ability to cast
setting reaction at room temperature. high temperature Co – Cr and Ni – Cr alloys.
• Good surface finish. for high fusing alloys, as used in metal ceramic
• Low distortion and high thermal expansion. restoration. It is a highly accurate technique for
• They are less dense (i.e. more permeable) use with conventional gold alloys.
than phosphate bonded investments and thin Divestment phosphate is a phosphate
sections with fine detail can be reproduced. bonded investment that is used in the same
• The low-fired strength makes removal of manner as divestment and is suitable for use
casting from investment easier than with with high fusing alloys.
phosphate bonded investment.
SUGGESTED READING
Disadvantages 1. Curtis RV. The suitability of dental investment
• Added processing attention and extra materials as dies for superplastic forming of
precaution needed in handling the low medical and dental prostheses. Mater Sci and Eng
strength fired molds. Tech (Superplastic Forming). 2008;39(4-5):322-6.
2. Canay S, Hersek N, Çiftçi Y, Akça K. Comparison
• The low strength and high thermal expansion
of diametral tensile strength of microvave and
requires a more precise burn out process and oven-dried investment materials. J Prosthet
firing schedule to avoid cracking. Dent. 1999;82(3):286-90.
The silica-bonded investments undergo 3. Eliopoulos D, Zinelis S, Papadopoulos T. The
slight contraction during setting and the early effect of investment material type on the
stages of heating. This is due to the nature of the contamination zone and mechanical proper
setting reaction and subsequent loss of water and ties of commercially pure titanium castings. J
alcohol from the material. Prosthet Dent. 2005;94(6):539-48.
Of the three main types of investment—the 4. Ito M, Yamagishi T, Oshida Y, Munoz CA. Effect
phosphate bonded products are becoming of selected physical properties of waxes on
investments and casting shrinkage. J Prosthet
popular. Silica bonded materials are rarely
Dent. 1996;75(2):211-6.
used nowadays due to the fact that they are
5. Low D, Swain MV. Mechanical properties
less convenient to use than the other products of dental investment materials. J Mater Sci:
and that ethanol produced in the liquid can Mater in Medicine. 2000;11(7):399-405, DOI:
spontaneously ignite or explode at elevated 10.1023/A:1008942223938.
temperature. 6. Nilner K, Owall B. Reproduction of details
using dental stones and investment material in
impressions of elastomers and waxes. Swed Dent
DIE STONE INVESTMENT J. 1982;6(6):249-55.
COMBINATION 7. Okabe T, Ohkubo C, Watanabe I, Okuno O,
Takada Y. The present status of dental titanium
In this method the die material and the investing
casting. J Minerals, Metals and Materials Soc.
medium have a comparable composition. A 1998;50(9):24-9, DOI: 10.1007/s11837-998-0410-7
commercial gypsum bonded material, called 8. Papadopoulos T, Axelsson M. Influence of
‘Divestment’ is mixed with colloidal silica heating rate in thermal expansion of dental
liquid. The die is made from this mix and the phosphate-bonded investment material. Eur J
wax pattern is constructed on it. Then the Oral Sci. 1990;98(1):60-5.
entire assembly (die and pattern) is invested 9. Papadopoulos T, Zinelis S, Vardavoulias M.
in a mixture of divestment and water, thereby A metallurgical study of the contamination
eliminating the possibility of distortion of the zone at the surface of dental Ti castings,
pattern on removal from the die or during the due to the phosphate-bonded investment
material: the protection efficacy of a ceramic
setting of the investment.
coating. J Mater Sci. 1999;34(15):3639-46, DOI:
The setting expansion of the material is 10.1023/A:1004639002688.
0.9% and thermal expansion is 0.6%, when it 10. Wang RR, Welsch GE, Castro-Cedeno M.
is heated to 677°C. Because divestment is a Interfacial reactions of cast titanium with mold
gypsum bonded material, it is not recommended materials. Int J Prosthodont. 1998; 11(1):33-43.
Dental Casting Alloys
(Casting Gold and Base
Metal Alloys)
14
HISTORY OF DENTAL CASTING their resistance to corrosion in the oral
ALLOYS cavity.
• Taggart was the first to describe the “lost Precious Metals

wax technique” in 1907. The existing jewelry
alloys were adapted for dental casting The term precious indicates the “intrinsic value”
purposes. These alloys can be strengthened of the metal.
by the addition of Cu, Ag and Pt. • All noble metals are precious but all precious
• By 1948, their composition had become metals are not noble metals.
diverse, palladium began to substitute • Of the eight noble metals, four of major
platinum. importance in dental casting alloys, they are
• In the 1950’s, metal-ceramic alloys were gold, platinum, palladium and silver.
introduced. • All four have FCC crystal structure and all
• Base metal removable partial denture alloys are white in color except gold.
were introduced in 1930’s. Due to their many
advantages over conventional gold alloys, Semiprecious Metals
they have become increasingly more popular.
There is no accepted composition, which
(Advantages of base metal alloys are their
differentiates precious from semiprecious. The
lighter weight and increased mechanical
term semiprecious should be avoided.
properties).
Base Metals
TERMINOLOGY These are non-noble metals. They are invalu
able compon ents of dental casting alloys
Noble Metals because of their influence on physical properties,
Gold, platinum, palladium, rhodium, ruthenium, control of the amount and type of oxidation
iridium, osmium, and silver are the eight or their strengthening effect. Such metals are
noble metals. They are less reactive in the oral reactive with their environment, and are referred
cavity and have high resistance to tarnish and to as “base metals”.
corrosion. Some of the base metals can be used to
• However, in the oral cavity, silver is more protect an alloy from corrosion by property
reactive and therefore is not considered as known as “Passivation”. Although they are
a noble metal. frequently referred as nonprecious. But the
• The noble metals have been the basis preferred term is base metal, e.g.: chromium,
of inlays, crowns and bridges because of cobalt, nickel, iron, copper, manganese, etc.
Chapter 14 Dental Casting Alloys (Casting Gold and Base Metal Alloys) 305
II. Medium (type – II): For restoration subject
IDEAL PROPERTIES OF to moderate stress such as onlays.
CASTING ALLOYS III. Hard (type – III): For high stress situations,
• Biological requirement: They should be including onlays, crowns, thick Veneer
biocompatible, that means, they should be crowns and short span fixed partial
nonallergic, nontoxic and noncarcinogenic dentures.
either during usage or fabrication. IV. Extra hard (type – IV): For extremely high
• Chemical requirement : They should be stress states, such as endodontic posts and
chemically inert, that means, they should cores, thin veneers crowns, long-span fixed
have a good tarnish and corrosion resistance. partial dentures and removable partial
• Physical/mechanical requirements– dentures.
— They should have high strength and wear
resistance to resist the forces in the oral Based on their New ADA Specification
cavity. or on their Nobility
— They should be sufficiently ductile and
resilient (otherwise it may fracture during I. High noble: With a noble metal content of
burnishing). greater than or equal to 60 wt% and gold
— They should have sufficient hardness for content of greater than or equal to 40%.
grinding and finishing of the alloy. II. Noble: With a noble metal content of
— The solidification shrinkage should be greater than or equal to 25 wt%.
minimum or zero. III. Predominantly base metals: With a noble
— They should have high fatigue strength. metal content of less than 25 wt%.
• Alloys should be inexpensive both in terms
of metal and laboratory expenses. Based on their Function
• They should have good fluidity when molten • In 1927, Bureau of Standards classified gold
and ease of melting and are easier to cast. casting alloys function as type I, II, III and
• They should have high sag resistance (metal IV. Hardness increases from type I–V.
– ceramic alloys). • Later in 1960, metal-ceramic alloys were
• Ease of soldering. introduced and added to the classification.
• They should fit accurately into the prepared Removable partial denture alloys were
cavity or onto the prepared tooth structure. also included, e.g. For metal-ceramic hard
• They should be amenable to heat treatment so and extra hard: For veneering with dental
that the physical properties cannot be altered. porcelain copings, hard type, for short span
bridges, and extra hard for long span bridges.
CLASSIFICATION OF DENTAL Removable partial denture alloys for RPD
CASTING ALLOYS frames and denture bases.
According to ADA Specification No. 5 Based on their Description

The ADA specification no.5 classified these alloys I. Crown and bridge alloys:
as type–I, type–II, type–III, and type–IV, with a. Noble metal alloys
the content of gold and platinum group metals E.g. Gold-based – type – III and type –
ranging from 83–75% respectively. IV and low gold alloys, nongold-based
silver, platinum alloys.
b. Base metal alloys:
Based on their Hardness
E.g. Ni-based and cobalt-based.
I. Soft (type – I): For restoration subject to II. Metal-ceramic alloys:
very slight stress such as inlays (VHN = a. Noble metal alloy for porcelain bonding
50–90) E.g. Gold, Pt and Pd
Gold, Pd and Ag • Endodontic post

Gold and Pd • Removable partial denture frameworks.
Pd and Ag
High palladium. Composition and Functions
b. Base metal alloys for porcelain bonding of Each Ingredient
E.g. Ni – Cr and
Co – Cr. Gold
III. Removable partial denture (RPD) alloys
a. Gold alloy – only type – IV is used • It is the principal ingredient of gold colored
(Note: Majority of the RPD frameworks alloys.
is made from base metal alloys) • It increases tarnish resistance of the final alloy.
b. Base metal alloys: • Provides ductility.
E.g. Co – Cr, Ni – Cr, Co – Cr – Ni. • Increases specific gravity and plays an
important role in its heat treatment process.
Based on the Color of the Alloy General composition of gold alloys
I. Yellow gold alloys Ingredients Weight %
Those with more than 60% gold and those
Gold 50–90
with low gold or economy gold with 42–55%
Platinum 0–20
gold has yellow color. Palladium 0–12
E.g. Noble, high noble, predominantly Copper 0–17
base metals and Japanese gold (also called Silver 0–20
technic alloy). Zinc 0–2
II. White gold alloys Indium, Iridium, Osmium,
Those with gold more than 50% but and Ruthenium 0–0.5
palladium give white color.
E.g. Ag – Pd with or without gold but of Traditionally, the gold content of a dental
mainly Ag gives white color. alloy has been specified in terms karat and
Pd – Ag with mainly Pd gives white color. fineness.
• “Karat” refers to the parts of pure gold in 24
parts of an alloy. For an example, 24 – karat
Dental Casting Gold gold is pure gold; whereas 22 – karat gold
is an alloy containing 22 parts pure gold and
Noble Metal Alloys 2 parts of other metal.
• “Fineness” describes gold alloys by the
Pure gold is a soft and ductile metal and so number of parts per 1000 of gold. For
is not used for casting dental restoration and example, pure gold has a fineness of 1000,
appliances. Dental casting golds are alloyed and 650 fine alloy has a gold content of 65%
commonly with copper, silver, platinum, thus, the fineness rating is 10 times the gold
palladium, nickel, and zinc. Alloying gold with percentage in an alloy.
these metals not only improves its physical and The terms karat and fineness are rarely used
mechanical properties but also reduces its cost. to describe the gold content of current alloys.
Applications Copper
• Inlays and onlays • Very active and red in color.
• Crowns and bridges • Copper and gold dissolves in all proportion
• Metal-ceramic bridges to form solid solutions. It reduces the melting
• Resin bonded bridges point of the alloy.
• Improves hardness and strength. • It decreases surface tension and increases
• It does not reduce the malleability and fluidity of the alloy.
ductility of gold but produces an alloy that
can be cold worked. Other Metals (Indium, Osmium, and
• It plays an important role in heat treatment. Ruthenium)
• It imparts reddish color to the gold.
• They refine grain size, when present only in
Silver small quantities.
• They lower the melting point.
• Active element and white in color • They reduce tarnish resistance but better
• Improves strength and hardness slightly by than zinc.
solution hardening. • Indium acts as deoxidizer, decreases surface
• It neutralizes the reddish color of copper (a tension and increases fluidity of the alloy.
small addition Ag makes the gold paler or
whitens). Properties of Gold Alloy
• It reduces the malleability and ductility very
slightly and lowers the melting point. Biological Property
• It reduces tarnish and corrosion resistance, as
it tarnishes readily in the presence of sulfides. Gold alloys are relatively biocompatible.
Platinum Chemical Properties

• It forms solid solutions with gold. Gold alloys have excellent tarnish and corrosion
• It increases the melting temperature and also resistance in oral cavity, due to their high noble
raises the recrystallization temperature. metal content.
• It is a noble metal, increases the corrosion
resistance. Physical and Mechanical Properties
• It is better hardener and strengthener than
copper. Density: Density of gold alloy is higher than base
• It whitens the color of alloy. metal alloys. The density of casting gold alloys
is around 15.2 gm/cm3 and base metal alloys
contains around 8.5 gm/cm3. The high density
Palladium of alloys has both advantages and disadvantages:
• It is similar to platinum in its effect. • Advantages: Alloys with a higher density have
• It hardens as well as whitens the alloy. a better castability than alloy with a lower
• It also raises the melting temperature to a density.
certain extent by sharply than by platinum. • Disadvantages
• Increases the resistance to tarnish and — High density improves gravitational
corrosion. forces. So, the problem arises when these
• It is less expensive than platinum, thus alloys are used for upper removable
reducing the cost of an alloy. partial dentures.
— Due to high density, it requires more
Zinc amount of material for casting.
• It acts as scavenger for oxygen. Without zinc Melting range:
the silver in the alloy causes absorption of • The melting range sets basis for the casting
oxygen during melting. Later during solidifi- temperature and the type of investment
cation, the oxygen is released producing gas material.
porosities in the casting. • Ideally type I–IV gold alloys should have a
• It lowers the melting point. lower fusion temperature if they are to be cast
Table 14.1 Melting range of casting gold alloys • Percentage elongation decreases from type
I–IV alloys.
Type Melting range (°C)
• Type–I alloys can be easily deformed even
Type I 943–960 under a low stress and they possess sufficient
Type II 924–960 ductility.
Type III 843–916 • Type–II alloys have a percentage elongation,
which is equal to that of type–I alloys
Type IV 921–943
indicating good ductility.
Metal-ceramic 1270–1304
Yield strength: Yield strength increases from
type I–IV alloys.
with conventional equipment and if gypsum
investment is to be used. Melting range of Hardness: Hardness also increases from type I–IV
all types of casting gold alloys is given in alloys so that they show high wear resistance
Table 14.1. from type I–IV alloys.
• Gypsum investments can withstand the The values of percent elongation, yield
temperature up to 1000°C. So, the gold strength and hardness of the gold alloy were
alloys can cast with gypsum investments. given in Table 14.2.
Beyond 1000°C gypsum bonded investments Casting shrinkage or dimensional changes:
undergo degradation. Most metals and alloys, including gold and the
Modulus of elasticity: The gold alloys have less noble metal alloys have the tendency to shrink
MOE, and they are more flexible than base metal or contract when they change from the liquid
alloys. The average value is approximately 90 × state to the solid state. The shrinkage occurs in
103 MPa. three stages.
Elongation: Elongation of the metal indicates I. The thermal contraction of the liquid metal
ductility. A reasonable amount is required between the temperature to which it is
specially if the alloy is to be deformed during heated and the liquidus temperature.
clinical use. II. The contraction of the metal inherent in its
change from the liquid to solid state.
For example: III. The thermal contraction of the solid metal
• Clasp adjustment for removable partial that occurs down to room temperatures.
dentures, margin adjustment and burnishing • The values of the casting shrinkage dif-
of crowns and onlays. fer for the various alloys presumably
Table 14.2 Mechanical properties of casting gold alloys
Type Yield strength Ultimate tensile Elongation Hardness

(MPa) strength (MPa) (%) (VHN)
Type-I 103 200 25-30 60-80
(High noble)
Type-II 186 345 38 101
(High noble)
Type-III 207 365 39 121
High noble H 275 H 19 H 182
Noble 241 30 138
Type-IV 275 445 35 149
High noble H 493 H7 H264
Noble 434 10 180
Where H – Age hardened conditions, other values are for the quenched (softened condition)
Table 14.3 Casting shrinkage (%) of casting gold investments and up to 871°C for phosphate
base metal alloys bonded investments).
Alloy Casting shrinkage (%)
Casting shrinkage and method of compensa-
tion can be summarized as shown in Table 14.4.
Type I, gold based 1.56
Despite these stated differences, the overall
Type II, gold based 1.37 procedures involved in investing and casting
Type III, gold based 1.42 are quite similar and, therefore, are descri
Base metal alloys
bed simultaneously. For better results, the
manufacturer’s recommendations for the
Ni – Cr – Mo – Be 2.3
specific alloy used should be followed.
Co – Cr – Mo 2.3
Ringless Casting System
because of differences in their composi-
tion (Table 14.3). To provide maximum expansion of investment,
• Platinum, palladium and copper a ringless system is available, commercially is
are effective in reducing the casting called as “power cast ringless system”, consists
shrinkage of an alloy. This is one of the of three sizes of rings and formers, preformed
reasons that the gold alloys show less wax sprues and shapes, investment powder, and
casting shrinkage than base metal alloys a special investment liquid.
(Table 14.4). The tapered plastic rings allow for removal of
• The value for the casting shrinkage of the investment mold after the material has set.
pure gold closely approaches that of its This system is suited for the casting of alloys that
maximal linear thermal contraction. require greater mold expansion than traditional
gold-based alloys.
Compensation for Solidification
Shrinkage Heat Treatment of High Noble and
Noble Metal Alloys
Either one or both of the following two methods
may obtain the compensation for the shrinkages Gold alloys can be significantly hardened if the
inherent in the dental casting procedure. alloy contains a sufficient amount of copper.
1. Setting or hygroscopic expansion of the Type–I and–II alloys usually do not harden or
investment. they harden to a lesser degree than do the type–
2. Thermal expansion of the investment. III and type–IV alloys. The actual mechanism
Both techniques are currently in use and are of hardening is probably the result of several
commonly termed the “hygroscopic expansion different solid-state transformations. The
(low-heat)” and the “Thermal expansion purpose of heat treatment may be:
(high-heat)”methods. The high-heat method a. To soften the alloy—so that having the alloy
requires thermal expansion of the investment in a softened state may facilitate shaping and
to increase from room temperature to a high working of the appliance in the laboratory.
temperature (650°C–700°C for gypsum-bonded This is called “softening heat treatment”.
Table 14.4 Casting shrinkage and methods of compensation
Wax shrinkage + Alloy shrinkage = Total shrinkage = Setting + Thermal

expansion expansion
(0.3%) (1.4%) (1.7%) NSE 0.4% 1.3% For high heat technique
NSE 1.0% 0.7% For low heat technique
b. To harden the alloy—so that the mechanical ture depends upon the alloy composition but is
properties are improved to withstand the generally between 200°C to 450°C. Manufacturer
constant oral stresses to a greater degree, specifies the proper time and temperature.
when the appliance is finally fitted to the This hardening heat treatment makes an alloy
mouth. This is called “hardening heat strong and hard. But reduces ductility. This type
treatment”. of hardening is done to metallic partial dentures
and bridges but not to inlays. Such age hardened
Softening Heat Treatment appliance will not deform in the mouth easily
but, if at all deformed, will break easily because
It is also called as “solution heat treatment”. of its reduced ductility.
This is done before an appliance is grinded,
adjusted, or in any other way could work outside
the mouth. Alloys for Metal-ceramic Restorations
Mechanism: The casting is placed in an electric Because of the poor tensile and shear strength,
furnace for 10 minutes at a temperature of 700°C all porcelain restorations are weak and brittle
and then it is quenched in water. During this and so break easily. But porcelain is necessary for
period, all intermediate phases are changed to a esthetics. This problem can be solved by making
disordered solid solution, and the rapid quench the restoration in metal and applying porcelain
ing prevents ordering that occurs during cooling. to labial or buccal areas of the appliance or cast
This results in reduction of tensile strength, in thin layer (veneer) for esthetics. Thus both
proportional limit and hardness, but the ductility strength and appearance are met in restoration.
is increased. Alloys used for metal ceramics can be clas-
The appliance in the soft condition can sified as:
easily be adjusted and grinded in the laboratory. 1. High noble alloys—with high gold
But it cannot be fitted into the mouth having 2. Noble alloys—with low gold or gold free
such reduced physical properties. Therefore, 3. Base metal alloys (discussed in the Base
the appliance or cast is now subjected to Metal Casting Alloys topic).
“hardening” or “age hardening heat treatment”.
Ideal Requirements of Alloys for Metal
Hardening Heat Treatment Ceramics
It is also known as “age hardening”. This is done
1. Should be rigid and strong.
after the try in stage of the cast, during which
2. The coefficient of thermal expansion should
adjustments are made, while the appliance is
be similar to that of porcelain.
soft. The arrangement of atoms in space lattices
3. Should have high proportional limit.
is disordered after softening heat treatment.
4. Should have high MOE.
Cast is strain hardened or cold worked due
5. Should be resistant to tarnish and corrosion.
to adjustments, grindings, etc. Ideally all the
6. Should have high melting temperature to
effects of strain hardening must be removed by
withstand the high temperature of porcelain
softening heat treatment. Therefore, the cast is
firing procedure.
once again subjected to softening heat treatment,
7. Should have sag-resistance to prevent
to cause ordered arrangements of atom in space
sagging under its own weight because of high
lattice before age hardening.
temperature involved in porcelain baking.
Mechanism: The casting is “soaked” or “aged” at 8. Should be hard.
a specific temperature for about 15–30 minutes, 9. Should have capacity to bond to dental
before it is water quenched. The aging tempera- porcelain.
High Noble Alloys 3. Palladium-cobalt alloys: Pd – 78%, Co – 10%

4. Palladium-gallium-silver-gold: Pd – 75%, Ga
Composition
– 6%, Ag – 6%, and Au – 6%.
Ingredient Wt % Functions All these combinations, contain a small
Gold 82 Main ingredient percentage of tin and indium as bond forming
elements between metal and porcelain.
Platinum 12 Increases the melting
temperatures
Palladium 4 Reduces COTE Base Metal Alloys
Silver 2 Strengthens the alloy
Alloys, which contain little or no noble metals are
Indium 1
known as base metal alloys (contains <25 weight
Iridium 0.3 Refines the grain structure percent of noble metals. These metal alloys are
Zinc 1 introduced to overcome the drawbacks of noble
Tin 0.2 Produces thin oxide film on metal alloys such as higher density, low modulus
the surface of the alloy. of elasticity and expensive.
These base metal alloys can be used as
Copper 2
casting metal alloys or as wrought alloys for
orthodontic treatment and dental instruments.
Other Combinations of High Noble Alloys The first base metal alloys were cobalt-
1. Au – 87, Pd – 6, Pt – 5, Ag – 1 chromium alloys primarily used for removable
2. Au – 77, Pd – 10, Pt – 3, Ag – 9 partial denture framework. The latest base metal
3. Au – 52, Pd – 39, Ga – 2. alloys are titanium alloys. Commonly used base
metal alloys are Ni-Cr-Mo, Ni-Cr-Be, Ni-Ti, Co-
Noble Alloys Cr-W, pure titanium and Ti-Al-V.
Classification of Base Metal Alloys
These are gold-free alloys and are mainly 1. Based on composition:
palladium-based alloys. These alloys stand i. Cobalt-based alloys:
between high noble and base metals alloys with For example, Co-Cr-W, Co-Ni-Cr, and
respect to price and they are more popular than Co-Cr-Mo
high gold alloys. ii. Nickel-based alloys:
Composition For example, Ni-Cr-Mo, Ni-Ti, and Ni-
1. Palladium-silver alloys: Pd – 60%, Ag – 28% Cr-Be.
Disadvantage: Discoloration of porcelain due iii. Titanium-based alloys:
to Ag, i.e. green-yellow in color and therefore For example, pure titanium, Ti-Al-V, and
was described as “greening effect”. Ni-Ti.
2. Palladium-copper alloys: Pd – 74%, Cu – 15%, iv. Aluminum bronzes.
Ga – 9% 2. Based on applications (Fig. 14.1).
Fig. 14.1 Application of base metal alloys

Properties of Alloying Elements Iridium, Ruthenium

• Grain refiner and hardeners.
Cobalt
• Melting point: 1495°C. Carbon
• Density: 8.9 gm/cc. • It increases strength, hardness, and ductility
• Imparts hardness, strength, and rigidity to when added in small amounts.
the alloy. • Excess carbon increases brittleness.
• Decreases tarnish and corrosion.
• Decreases ductility and malleability. Boron
• Acts as a deoxidizer.
Chromium • Also used as hardener.
• Melting point: 1875°C • It reduces ductility.
• Density: 7.6 gm/cc.
• Very good corrosion resistance by forming
Nickel-Based Alloys
Cr2O3 film. According to ADA specification no. 14, base
• It helps in attaining maximum mechanical metal alloys should contain more than 85% by
properties. weight major elements (Co, Ni, Cr). Nickel-based
• More amount of chromium causes brittleness alloys mainly used in metal-ceramic fabrications.
to the alloy. E.g. Ni-Cr-Mo: Commercial name – Neptune
Ni-Cr: Commercial name – Ticonium.
Nickel Ni-Cr-Mo-Be: Commercial name: Rexillium.
• Melting point: 1453°C. General Composition of Nickel-Based Alloys

• Density: 8.9 gm/cc.
Ingredients Weight %
• Decreases strength, hardness, and modulus
of elasticity. Ni 61–81
• Decreases fusion temperature. Cr 11–27
• Increases ductility. Mo 2–9
• Nickel vapor inhalation causes lung cancer.
Be 0.5–2
Molybdenum or Tungsten (Mo or W) Al 0.2–4.2

Fe 0.1–0.5
• Increases mechanical properties specially
hardness. Cu 0.1–1.6
• It is used for grain refinement. Mn 0.1–3.0
Sn 1.25
Iron, Copper, Beryllium (Fe, Cu, Be)
Nickel-based alloys are the cheapest of all
• Used as hardeners.
alloys.
• Reduces fusion temperature and grain size.
• Beryllium dust causes health hazards – Properties
dermatitis.
Biological properties: Nickel may produce aller
gic reaction and also inhalation of toxic vapor
Manganese, Silicon, Zinc (Mn, Si, Zn)
or dust causes lung cancer. Beryllium may
• Used as oxide scavengers to prevent oxidation cause dermatitis and inhalation of dust causes
of other elements during melting. berylliosis (flue-like symptoms and granulomata
• Also used as hardeners. of the lungs).
Precautions: The work area should be well- Disadvantages
ventilated and good exhaust system should be
installed to remove the fumes and dust during • Nickel vapor inhalation causes lung cancer.
melting. • Beryllium vapor inhalation causes berylliosis.
• High fusion temperature.
Chemical properties: Decreases tarnish and • High hardness.
corrosion because of the passivating effect.
Passivation: It is the formation of an impervious Uses
layer (Cr 2O 3) on the surface, when the base • Used mainly for metal-ceramic crowns and
metal alloys containing Cr, Ti, or Al are exposed bridges.
to atmospheric oxygen. This layer protects alloy
from tarnish and corrosion.
Cobalt Based Alloys
Thermal properties
Cobalt based alloys have bright lustrous, hard,
• Melting range: 1155–1304°C.
strong, and non-corrosion and tarnishing
• COTE nearly mismatches with ceramics.
qualities.
Physical properties E.g. Co-Cr: Commercial name – Vitallium.
Density: 7.8–8.4 gm/cc. Co-Cr-Ni: Commercial name – Ultra 100
• Hardness: High hardness, 175–360 VHN, (Unitec)
makes them very difficult to cut, grind and Co-Cr-Ru: Commercial name – Genesis II
polish. Co-Cr-W-Ru: Commercial name – Novarex.
• Yield strength: 310–828 MPa.
• Modulus of elasticity: 150–210 GPa. These Composition
are very stiff materials thus thickness of
copings can be reduced to 0.3 mm. Ingredients Weight %
• Sag resistance: Higher sag resistance. So these Co 35 – 65
alloys are more stable at porcelain firing Cr 23 – 30
temperature.
Ni 0 – 20
• Casting shrinkage: Since melting point
of these alloys is high, it undergoes more Mo 0 – 70
casting shrinkage. So greater mold expansion Fe 0–5
is needed to compensate this. C 0.4
• Porcelain bonding: These alloys form an
Mn, Bi, Pt Trace
adequate oxide layer because of the presence
of passivating elements, such as Cr, Ti, and
Al, which is essential for successful porcelain Properties
bonding. The bonding mechanisms between
metal and ceramic have been discussed in Biological properties: These are highly biocom-
the Dental Ceramic chapter of this book. patible, non-toxic and nonirritant alloys.
Chemical properties: High tarnish and corrosion
Advantages resistance when compared to nickel-based alloys
because of the presence of chromium as basic
• Less expensive.
element.
• Resistance to tarnish and corrosion.
• Low density (lighter in weight). Mechanical properties
• Greater ductility and percent elongation. • Density: 8–9 gm/cc.
• Less brittle than Co-Cr alloys. • Fusion temperature: 1250°C–1480°C.
• Yield strength: 700–800 MPa.

• Modulus of elasticity: 200–250 GPa.
• Hardness: 300–432 VHN. Hardness is very
high so cutting, grinding and polishing is
difficult.
• Casting shrinkage: Due to high fusion tem-
perature casting shrinkage is high so more
mold expansion is needed to compensate
this.
Advantages
• Lighter in weight.
• Good mechanical properties.
• Good tarnish and corrosion resistance.
• Good biocompatibility.
• Less expensive.
Disadvantages
• More casting shrinkage.
• High hardness.
• Low ductile and malleability and more brittle Fig. 14.2 Casting machine for titanium alloys
in nature.
• High fusion temperature.
Uses Allotropic forms: Titanium undergoes allotropic
• Mainly used for cast removable partial changes from HCP (a–Titanium) martensitic
denture frameworks. form to BCC (b–Titanium) austenitic form when
• Denture bases. heated above 883°C.
• Crown and bridges.
• Bar connectors. Properties
• Excellent biocompatibility.
• Good tarnish and corrosion resistance
Titanium Alloys because of the presence of passivating
Titanium and its alloys have been adopted elements.
in dentistry because of its light weight, good • Melting point: 1668°C.
strength and ability to passivated (Fig. 14.2). • Density: 4.1 gm/cc.
They are mainly used in: • Yield strength: 340 MPa.
• Metal-ceramic restorations. • Ultimate tensile strength: 345 MPa.
• Partial denture frameworks. • Hardness: 210 VHN
• Crown and bridges. • COTE: 8.4 × 10–6 /°C.
• Implants. Advantages
• Excellent biocompatibility.
Pure Titanium or CPTi (Commercially Pure • Good resistance to tarnish and corrosion.
Titanium) • Good mechanical properties.
Composition Disadvantages
Pure titanium: 100 Wt%. • High melting point.
Trace amounts of oxygen (0.18%) and iron • Highly active at higher temperatures.
(0.20–0.05). • Poor fit.
Titanium Alloys Disadvantages

• Expensive.
Alloying other metals with titanium enables • Oxygen sensitivity (special investment is
attainment of the benefits of lower melting point required).
and casting temperature and also it provides • High fusion temperature (tungsten arc or
a means to stabilize or expand either the induction melting is needed).
α–phase or b–phase.
E.g. Ti-30Pd, Ti-20Cu, Ti-15V, Ti-6Al-4V. Uses
More frequently used alloy is Ti-6Al-4V, • Metal-ceramic restorations.
which has α + b structure and has better • Dental implants.
mechanical properties for casting purpose. • Partial denture framework.
• Complete denture base.
Composition
• Bar connectors.
Ti-30Pd Ti-6Al-4V
Ti – 70% Ti – 90% Aluminum Bronze (Cu-Zn-Al)
Pd – 30% Al – 6% Common name is Japanese gold and these alloys
Trace elements V – 4% are copper rich alloys.
Trace elements
Composition
Properties
• Excellent biocompatibility. Copper: 54 wt%
• Good tarnish and corrosion resistance Zinc: 34 wt%
because of the presence of passivating metal. Aluminum: 12 wt%.
• The reaction of the tissues that contacts
titanium and its alloys are extremely mild Properties
and direct in bone growth or osseointegration • Low tarnish and corrosion resistance (forma-
does occur. tion of copper sulfide gives the dark color).
• Yield strength: 870 MPa. • Low density: 8–8.2 gm/cc.
• Ultimate tensile strength: 925 MPa. • Low fusion temperature: 750–850°C.
• Hardness: 320 VHN. Gypsum-bonded investment material and
• Modulus of elasticity: 117 GPa. ordinary gas torch flame is needed for
• Melting temperature: 1440°C. melting of an alloy.
• Very low density: 4.5 gm/cc. • Mechanical properties are similar to type–II
Casting procedure: Because of very high melting and type–III dental casting gold alloys.
point and oxygen sensitivity, phosphate bonded • Gold-like appearance hence the name
investment with Al2O3, ZrO2, and MgO refractory “Japanese gold”.
material is needed for the investment.
Electric tungsten arc or induction melting in Advantages
vacuum, or inert argon gas atmosphere is required
because of high fusion temperature. Modified • Less expensive
casting machines with added compression as • Low density
well as vacuum suction techniques are required. • Low fusion temperature.
Advantages
• Low density.
Disadvantages
• Excellent biocompatibility. • Low tarnish and corrosion resistance.
• Good tarnish and corrosion resistance. • Mechanical properties are inferior to other
• Good mechanical properties. base metal alloys.
Table 14.5 Comparison of selected indirect restorative dental materials
Factors Ceramic Metal-Ceramic Cast-Gold Base metal alloys

(High Noble) Alloys (Non-Noble)
General description Porcelain, ceramic Ceramic is fused Alloy of gold, Alloys of non-
or glass-like fillings to an underlying copper and other noble metals with
and crowns. metal structure to metals resulting in silver appearance
provide strength to a strong, effective resulting in high-
a filling, crown or filling, crown or strength crowns
bridge. bridge. and bridges.
Principal uses Inlays, onlays, Crowns and fixed Inlays, onlays, Crowns, fixed
crowns and esthetic bridges. crowns and fixed bridges and partial
veneers. bridges. dentures.
Leakage and Sealing ability The commonly used methods used for placement provide a
recurrent decay depends on good seal against leakage.
materials, The incidence of recurrent decays is similar to other restorative
underlying tooth procedures.
structure and
procedure used for
placement.
Durability Brittle material, Very strong and High corrosion resistance prevents
may fracture durable. tarnishing; high strength and toughness
under heavy biting resist fracture and wear.
loads. Strength
depends greatly on
quality of bond to
underlying tooth
structure.
Cavity preparation Because strength Including both The relative high strength of metals in
considerations depends on ceramic and metal this section requires the least amount of
adequate ceramic creates a stronger healthy tooth structure removal.
thickness, it restoration than
requires more ceramic alone;
aggressive tooth moderately
reduction during aggressive tooth
preparation. reduction is
required.
Clinical These are multiple-step procedures requiring highly accurate clinical and laboratory
considerations processing. Most restorations require multiple appointments and laboratory
fabrication.
Resistance to wear Highly resistant to Highly resistant to Resistant to wear and gentle to opposing
wear, but ceramic wear, but ceramic teeth.
can rapidly wear can rapidly wear
opposing teeth if opposing teeth if
its surface becomes its surface becomes
rough. rough.
Resistance to Prone to fracture Ceramic is prone Highly resistant to fracture.
fracture when placed under to impact fracture;
tension or on the metal has high
impact. strength.
Contd…
Contd…
Factors Ceramic Metal-Ceramic Cast-Gold Base metal alloys

(High Noble) Alloys (Non-Noble)
Biocompatibility Well-tolerated. Well-tolerated, but Well-tolerated. Well tolerated, but
some patients may some patients may
show allergenic show allergenic
sensitivity to base sensitivity to base
metals. metals.
Post-placement Sensitivity, if present, is usually not material-specific.
sensitivity Low thermal High thermal conductivity may result in early post-placement
conductivity discomfort from hot and cold.
reduces the
likelihood of
discomfort from
hot and cold.
Esthetics Color and Ceramic can Metal colors do not mimic natural teeth.
translucency mimic mimic natural
natural tooth tooth appearance,
appearance. but metal limits
translucency.
Relative cost to Higher; requires Higher; requires at least two office visits and laboratory services.
patient at least two
office visits and
laboratory services.
Average number of Minimum of two; Minimum of two; Minimum of two.
visits to complete matching esthetics matching esthetics
of teeth may of teeth may
require more visits. require more visits.
Uses 5. Gülþen Can, Gül Akpýnar, Ahmet Aydýn. The

release of elements from dental casting alloy
• Crown and bridges. into cell-culture medium and artificial saliva.
Comparison of selected indirect restorations Eur J Dent. 2007;1:86-90.
was given in Table 14.5. 6. Iijima M, Yuasa T, Endo K, Muguruma T, Ohno
H, Mizoguchi I. Corrosion behavior of ion
implanted nickel-titanium orthodontic wire in
SUGGESTED READING fluoride mouth rinse solutions. Dent Mater J.
1. Baran GR. The metallurgy of Ni-Cr alloys for fixed 2010;29(1): 53-8.
prosthodontics. J Prosthet Dent. 1983;50:639. 7. Kikuchi M. Dental alloy sorting by the
2. Clark GCF, Williams DF. The effects of proteins thermoelectric method. Eur J Dent. 2010;4:66-70.
on metallic corrosion. J Biomed Mater Res. 8. Leinfelder KF. An evaluation of casting alloys
1982;16:125. used for restorative procedures. J Am Dent
3. Geis-Gerstofer J, Passler K. Studies of the Assoc. 1997;128:37.
influence of the content on corrosion behaviour 9. Lucas LC, Lemons JE. Biodegradation of resto
and mechanical properties of Ni25Cr10Mo rative metal systems. Adv Dent Res. 1992;65:
alloys. Dent Mater. 1993; 9: 177. 32.
4. German RM, Wright DC, Gallant RF. In vitro 10. Malhotra ML. Dental gold casting alloys:
tarnish measurements on fixed prosthodontics a review. Trends Tech Contemp Dent Lab.
alloys. J Prosthet Dent. 1982;47: 399. 1991;8:73.
11. Malhotra ML. New generation of palladium- on the fit of high-precious alloy restorations in
indium-silver dental cast alloys: a review. Trends patients. J Dent. 2005;33:611-8.
Tech Contemp Dent Lab. 1992;9: 65. 15. Wostmann B, Blober T, Gouentenoudis M,
12. Pekkan G, Pekkan K, Hatipoglu MG, Tuna SH. Markus Balkenhol. Paul Ferger. Influence of
Comparative radiopacity of ceramics and metals margin design on the fit of high-precious alloy
with human and bovine dental tissues. J Prosthet restorations in patients. J Dent. 2005;33:611-8.
Dent. 2011;106:109-17. 16. Yong T, De Long B, Goodkind RJ, et al.
13. Vallittu PK, Kokkonen M. Deflection fatigue of Leaching of Ni, Cr and Be ions from base
cobalt-chromium, titanium and gold alloy cast metal alloys in an artificial environment.
denture clasps. J Prosthet Dent. 1995; 74:412. J Prosthet Dent. 1992;68:692.
14. Wostmann B, Blober T, Gouentenoudis M,
Balkenhol M, Ferger P. Influence of margin design
Casting Procedure for
Dental Alloys 15
Many dental restorations such as inlays, crowns, 3. Preparation of die.
RPD frameworks. etc. are made by casting. 4. Preparation of a wax pattern.
Casting can be defined as the act of forming an 5. Sprue the wax pattern.
object in a mold. The fundamental principles are 6. Invest the wax pattern.
same, regardless of the size of the casting; the 7. Burn out procedure.
techniques differ only in sprue design, type of 8. Casting.
investment method of melting the alloy. 9. Recovery.
10. Finishing and polishing.
11. Cementation on the prepared tooth.
CLINICAL EVALUATION OF CASTING FIT
The objective of the casting procedure is to Tooth Preparation
provide a metallic duplication of missing tooth
structure with as much accuracy as possible. The operation field should be isolated using a
Casting fit mainly depends on the solubility rubber dam. A cavity is then prepared on the
and disintegration of the dental cement or tooth or teeth without any under cuts. Diamond
luting agent used for cementation. If the luting burs are used to cut the enamel on occlusal
agent is highly soluble in oral fluids that reduces surface. A proper finish line should be there in
the quality of fit of casting and also leads to the preparation to which the pattern preparation
the marginal leakage and secondary caries. will be done.
The marginal adaptation also depends on the
differences in COTE of tooth and the casting. Impression Making
An impression of the prepared tooth or teeth
CASTING TECHNIQUE is recorded with a suitable impression material
The objective of casting procedure is to provide followed by cast pouring.
a metallic duplication of missing tooth structure
with as much accuracy as possible. The lost
Preparation of Master Die
wax casting process, through one of the oldest After recording the impression of patients
existing technologies, is still the preferred and prepared teeth, a positive replica of that is
most commonly used method for casting dental prepared on which the subsequent procedures
restorations. will be done. This is called as die.
The following are the steps involved in the To pour a die, a set of materials are available
casting procedure: which are different from normal materials are
1. Preparation of tooth or teeth to receive a used for the preparation of casts. The various die
cast restoration. materials have been discussed in die materials
2. Make an impression of the prepared tooth. chapter of this book.
In conclusion, there are varieties of die 2. Indirect technique: Pattern is prepared on

materials that can be used. Although they may the die, which is positive replica of prepared
be harder and stronger than die stone but it is tooth, outside the mouth.
difficult to prepare such dies. So usually die stone
will be prepared in the laboratory. Wax Addition Procedure
Waxing Wax is uniformly softened and melted. The
melted wax may be added in layers with spatula
Wax is applied over dies that will be replaced or a waxing instrument or it may be painted
by molten metal in lost wax technique. For with a brush. The prepared cavity is over-filled
the casting of noble metal alloys the choice and the wax is then carved to the proper contour.
of material is inlay wax, which is of two types When margins are being carved, extreme care
according to ADA specification no. 4, type–I should be taken to avoid abrading any surface
medium for direct technique and type–II for of stone die. A silk cloth may be used for a final
indirect technique (soft). Both the types have polishing pattern rubbing towards the margins.
a flow of 70–90% above 45°C.With 20°C rise the Prepared pattern should be invested as early as
wax will expand as much as 0.7% and contraction possible.
will be about 0.35%.
During adding stresses may incorporate Spruing
which may distort the pattern later. It is poor
conductor of heat so time is required for Purpose of Spruing
uniform softening and cooling of the wax.
To avoid distortion it is advised to invest the • To form and mount for the wax pattern and
pattern as early as possible. fix the pattern in sprue so that a mold can be
The requirements and selection criteria of made.
inlay casting wax to prepare the wax patterns • To create a channel for elimination of wax
have been discussed in Dental Waxes chapter during burn out procedure.
of this book. • To form a channel for the ingress of molten
alloy during casting.
• To compensate for alloy shrinkage during
Technique of Waxing solidification.
The first step is to use a sharp black or red pencil
and precisely survey all margins. This is valuable Sprue Size and Design
when trying to locate them after the wax has The sprue must be large enough so that it
been applied. remains open until the casting solidifies, and
Next a die lubricant must be applied to the short enough to allow rapid filling of the mold
die. This is light oil like film (µ - film, a colloidal cavity. Large and small inlays require a sprue that
suspension of wax), otherwise it becomes is one µ-gauge (4–5 mm long) and 16 gauge (3–4
impossible to remove the wax pattern from mm long) respectively. Long and small crowns
the die as a single unit. The lubricant must be require 10 and 12 gauges respectively with an
very thin to avoid any discrepancy between the average sprue length of 4–5 mm.
pattern and die. It must be necessary to apply
largely more than one coat as the stone usually
largely absorbs the first coat. Two types of waxing
Point of Attachment
techniques can be used. The bulkiest part of the pattern is the best
1. Direct technique: In this type–I wax is location for attaching the sprue. This will
softened and forced into the prepared tooth usually be on the mesial or distal part of the
cavity and is directly carved in the mouth. pattern. When the pattern has more than one
Chapter 15 Casting Procedure for Dental Alloys 321
surface the sprue will be angled at near 45°
to horizontal plane, to facilitate metal flow.
If two bulky positions are separated by a thin
cross-section a y-shaped sprue must be added.
Various types of sprues and their attachment to
the wax pattern are shown in Figure 15.1A.
Sprue Selection
The wax sprue is the most commonly used. A
hallow metal pin is preferable to a solid metal
pin because of its stronger attachment. Sticky
wax must be used to fill the hallow sprue cone
before use. Plastic sprues (Fig. 15.1B) are not
recomm end ed because of their higher flow
temperatures and thermal expansion charac
teristics, which make it difficult to eliminate
the sprue.
Patterns may be sprued either directly or
indirectly. The sprue former provides a direct
connection between the pattern area and the
sprue base or crucible former area in the former,
whereas in latter a connector or reservoir bar
is positioned between the pattern and crucible
former. For multiple single units in fixed partial
dentures it is common to use indirect spruing.
A reservoir should be added to a spruing
network to prevent localized shrinkage porosity
when the molten alloy fills the heated casting
ring; the pattern area should solidify first and the
reservoir last. Because of its large mass of alloy
and position in the heat center of the ring, the
reservoir remains molten to furnish liquid alloy
into the mold as it solidifies.
The space between the wax pattern and the
end of casting ring should be 6 mm as shown in
Figures 15.3A and B.
If the pattern is less than 6 mm from the
end of the casting ring, there will not be enough Figs 15.1A and B (A) Different types of sprues and
their attachments (B) Plastic sprues
thickness of investment to keep the molten alloy
from breaking through. If there is more than
6 mm of space, the alloy will solidify before the line with its path of withdrawal from the die.
the entrapped air can escape resulting in back Teasing wax pattern should be avoided during
pressure porosity. removal.
Wax Pattern Removal Casting Ring Liners

The sprue former should be attached to the wax The most casting techniques the investment
pattern. The pattern can be removed directly in mold sets and is heated in a casting ring made
Figs 15.2A to C (A) Metal casting ring (B) Casting ring and liner (C) Sprue base and casting ring with liner
Figs 15.3A and B (A) Wax pattern in casting ring prior to investing
(B) Wax pattern in casting ring after investing
of heat resisting alloy. Souder, who advocated because this leads to variable amounts of water
the use of asbestos tape to provide the necessary removal and uneven expansion.
cushioning, first recognized the need for a soft Recently attention has been drawn to the
ring liner to eliminate or at least reduce restraint danger that asbestos fibers in casting ring
to investment expansion by the ring. Since liners could cause asbestosis. It is claimed that
asbestos readily absorbs water, the liner was acceptable threshold limit for asbestos fibers in
prewetted to prevent its absorbing water from air can be considerable exceeded when casting
the unset investment mix. are removed from asbestos lined castings.
The technique of lining a casting ring with For this reason, because of the increasing
asbestos was first described by “Taylor and unavailability asbestos products, two alternate
coworkers” and from the use of wet asbestos materials such as ceramic and cellulose liners
was a standard procedure. This makes additional have replaced asbestos as a ring liner.
water available to the setting investment and 1. Ceramic materials based on the alumino
causes an increased setting expansion. silicate fibers, which at atmospheric
To ensure uniform expansion, the liner is cut pressure will not absorb water and are
to fit the inside diameter of the casting ring with normally used dry. The aluminosilicate
no overlap as shown in Figures 15.2A to C. The ceramic materials are highly heat resistant.
dry liner is tacked in position with sticky wax and Although ceramic liners do not absorb
then is used either dry or wet. With a water liner water under atmospheric conditions they
technique, the lined ring is immersed in water readily absorb large amount of water when
for some time, and then the excess water shaken vacuum investing techniques are used. This
away. Squeezing the liner should be avoided markedly lowers the water/powder ratio of
the investment mix, reducing its working Phosphate and silica bonded investments
time and more importantly increasing both are used for high fusing alloys and a good fit
the setting and thermal expansion to an restorations can be obtained. These materials
uncontrolled extent. can also be used for gold casting alloys but
2. Cellulose, which readily absorbs water and usually gypsum bonded is preferred for gold
like asbestos must be prewetted. Cellulose alloys.
liners, being paper products, are burned
away during the burn out procedure. So Investing Procedure
a technique must be found to secure the
investment in the ring. The proper and correct water/powder ratios
of the investment mix, a required number of
The designed length of the liner remains a
spatulation turns and a proper investing techni
matter of controversy. If the length of the liner
que are essential to obtain acceptable casting
is shorter than the ring itself the investment is
results. There are two different methods of
confined at one or both ends of the ring. The
investing the wax pattern:
expansion of the investment is always greater
1. Hand investing
the unrestricted longitudinal direction than
2. Vacuum investing.
in the lateral direction, i.e. towards the ring
itself. Therefore, it is desirable to reduce the Hand investing: The correct amount of water
expansion in the longitudinal direction. The ring or special liquid is measured and placed in a
liner should be placed some short (3.25 mm) of rubber-mixing bowl and the investment powder
ends of the casting ring as shown in Figures 15.3A is added to the water or special liquid in the
and B; to produce more uniform expansion; bowl. The powder and liquid are mixed briefly
thus, there is less chance for distortion of the with a plaster spatula until all the powder is
wax pattern and mold. wetted and then the mix is spatulated. During
spatulation, one should follow the manu
Investing facturer’s recommendations carefully; because
setting expansion is critically depending on the
After the wax pattern has been prepared and
number of spatulation turns.
sprued, a surface tension reducing agent is
After the spatulation, the mixing bowl is
applied; it then should be invested promptly.
placed on vibrator to remove air bubbles and
To invest the prepared wax pattern three types
also to collect the mix from the sides of the bowl.
of investment materials are available such as
Then paint the wax pattern with investment mix
gypsum bonded, phosphate bonded and silica
by using a camel hairbrush. During this, the
bonded investments. Former one is used for
sprue base should be held firmly in a hand to
gold casting alloys and later two are used for
prevent distortion of wax pattern. Use vibratory
high fusing alloys. Usually these materials are
forces to prevent air entrapment. Then inlay ring
supplied as powder and liquid. They contain,
is placed over the sprue base and filled. The ring
in general, a binder, refractory and modifiers.
is filled by holding it with slight angle so that the
Refractory materials are used to withstand
investment will flow slowly down its side to fill
high temperat ure and to provide thermal
the bottom to the top. The filled ring is then set
expansions to compensate for the solidification
aside for the investment to set completely, which
shrinkage of alloys.
usually requires 45–60 minutes.
Gypsum bonded investments cannot be
used for high fusing alloys because at tempe Vacuum investing procedure: The powder and
ratures above 1100°C decomposition of invest water or special liquid are mixed in a specially
ment occurs, that will spoil the casting. But it designed vacuum investing equipment (Fig.
is ideally suited for gold casting, which melts 15.4) under vacuum and the mixed investment
at around 700°C. is permitted to flow into the ring around the
therefore, becomes an actual part of the mold

cavity. The basic nature of divestment material
is not unlike that of silica and gypsum products
except in the liquid, which is an aqueous mixture
of 30% ethyl silicate. It differs from conventional
investment in setting and thermal expansion.
It has a large setting expansion with a small
thermal expansion.
Wax Elimination or Burn Out

Once the investment is set for an appropriate
period approximately 1 hour for most gypsum
and phosphate bonded investments, it is ready
for burn out. The procedures for two types of
investments are similar. The crucible former and
any metal sprue former are carefully removed.
Any debris from the in gate area is cleaned with
a camel hair brush. If the burn out procedure
Fig. 15.4 Vacuum investing machine does not immediately follow the investing, the
investing ring is placed in a humidor at 100%
wax pattern with the vacuum present. Although humidity. If at all possible, the investment should
vacuum does not remove all the air from the not be permitted to dry out. Rehydration of set
investment and the inlay ring, the incorporation investment that has been stored for an extended
of air usually is reduced to such a degree that period may not replenish all of the lost water.
a smooth adoption of the investment to the The invested rings are placed in a room
pattern can be obtained in this manner. Vacuum temperature furnace and heated to a prescribed
investing often yields casting with improved maximum temperature. For gypsum bonded
surfaces when compared to castings produced investments that temperature can be either
from patterns that are hand invested. The degree 468°C for the hygroscopic or 650°C for the
of difference between the two procedures thermal expansion technique and for phosphate
depends to a great extent on the care used in bonded investments, the maximum temperature
hand investing. setting may range from 700°C–870°C depending
Whether hand or vacuum investing proce on the type of alloy selected. See the Figures from
dures employed in filling the casting ring, the 15.5A to D for steps involved in burnout process.
investment should be allowed to harden in air if During burn out, the ingredients of inlay
the thermal expansion technique is to be used, wax is composed of C, H and N will decompose
on the other hand, if the hygroscopic water and form CO2, water and NO, all of which are in
immersion technique is to be employed. The gaseous form and can be easily eliminated. The
casting ring containing the investment should formation of these gases however depends on
be placed immediately in a water bath at 37°C the pressure of a sufficient supply of oxygen, the
and the investment is allowed to harden under relatively high temperature of oven and adequate
water. time of heating of the ring.
During burn out, some of the melted wax is
Divestment Technique absorbed by the investment and residual carbon
produced by ignition of the liquid wax becomes
An optional modality to casting fabrication is trapped in the porous investment. It is advisable
the divestment technique. Briefly it involves to begin the burn out procedure while the
investing of the die and pattern together. The die, mold is still wet. Water trapped in pores of the
Fig. 15.6 Casting crucibles
Clay crucibles are appropriate for many of

crown and bridge alloys such as high noble and
Figs 15.5A to D (A) Before wax burnout, (B) Placing the noble types.
casting ring in burnout furnace, (C) During burn out and Carbon crucibles can be used not only for
(D) After wax elimination high noble crown and bridge alloys but also
for the higher fusing gold based metal ceramic
alloys.
investments reduces the absorption of wax from
Quartz crucibles are recommended for high
the mold. This process is facilitated by placing
fusing alloys of any type. They are specially suited
the ring with the sprue hole down over slot in a
for alloys that have a high melting range and are
ceramic tray in the burn out furnace.
sensitive to carbon contamination. For example,
nickel based, cobalt based and Pd-Ag alloy.
Ringless Casting
To save more time, the use of a ring and a liner Methods of Melting Alloys
is eliminated, the metal ring being replaced with Torch Melting
a plastic ring that is tapered so that once the
investment has set it can be pushed out of the The most common method of heating gold alloys
ring, held for a specified time to complete setting for full cast metal restorations have been by the
use of a gas-air blow torch. The main objective
and then placed directly into the hot furnace.
of melting procedure is to develop the most
Obviously, the expansion on setting is different
efficient gas-air flame that will quickly yet clearly
(more) when a lined ring is used so that the
melt the metal. The relative proportions of gas
changes in overall fit must be considered. The
and air influence the temperature of the flame.
required expansion may be adjusted by varying
The properly adjusted flame contains well-
the liquid concentration. The system is called
defined component parts as shown in Figure
the power cast ringless system, consists of three 15.7. The most part of the flame can be identified
sizes of rings and a special investment liquid. by the conical areas. (1) The inner-most, conical
This system is suited for the casting of alloys that portion of the gas flame has no heat content and
require greater mold expansion than traditional is only gas and air (or oxygen) mixture. (2) Next
gold-based alloys. outer green colored cone is the combustion zone,
can not be used. (3) Next outer, pale blue colored
Casting Crucibles zone, is the reducing flame, which is the hottest
Generally, three types of casting crucibles part and should be used for alloy melting. (4)
are available such as clay, carbon and quartz The outer most yellow colored oxidising zone
(including zircon-alumina) (Fig. 15.6). also should never be used.
Casting
Time Allowable for Casting
The burn out oven and the casting machine must
Fig. 15.7 Different zones of flame
be convenient to each other to avoid any time
loss during the actual casting process. To prevent
any noticeable contraction in the investment as
the temperature drops, the casting should be
made within one minute upon removal from
the furnace.
A cool or cold mold is not indicated for any
casting technique. Although mold temperatures
in the low heat technique is low, an accurate
casting will result when the mold temperature
is maintained and metal solidification will not
be premature.
Casting Machines
Fig. 15.8 Molten alloy in the crucible These are the devices, which force the molten
alloy into the investment mold required for
casting.
Air/acetylene and oxygen/acetylene generate Alloys are melted in one of three following
much higher temperatures with later providing ways, depending on the available types of casting
the hottest flame. Though the air or oxygen/ machines.
acetylene flame have the advantage of melting 1. The alloy is melted in a separate crucible by
alloys faster than the gas/air or oxygen modes. a torch flame and the metal is cast into the
The alloy first appears spongy and then small mold by centrifugal force.
globules of fused metal appear, following which 2. The alloy is melted electrically by a resistance
the bulk of the alloy assumes an spheroidal or induction furnace, then the casting into
shape and begin to slide down to the bottom of the mold centrifugally by motor or spring
the crucible (Fig. 15.8). If this is to be cast by a action.
centrifugal machine, bring the casting ring out 3. The alloy is melted as in the first two ways,
the burn out oven and place it securely in the but it is cast by air pressure, a vacuum or
casting cradle as the metal begins to liquefy. both.
Electrical Melting
Centrifugal Casting Machine
Electrical mode of melting includes electric
resistance melting, which is suitable for all The metal is melted by a torch flame in a glazed
gold alloys, as well as induction melting and ceramic crucible and attach the crucible to the
electric arch melting, which are capable of broken arm of the casting machine (Fig. 15.9A).
melting the Co-Cr and titanium alloys. Gold and The broken arm feature accelerates the initial
palladium alloys require a reducing atmosphere rotational speed of this crucible and casting ring.
as supplied by the use of the middle cone of Thus increasing the linear speed of the liquid
the torch, with flux being added to the melt. casting alloy as it moves into and through the
A greater convenience is approached by the mold. Once the metal has reached the casting
electrical furnace, which uses a carbon (rather temperature and the heated casting ring is in
than ceramic) crucible thus providing a reducing position, the machine is released and the spring
environment throughout the melting regime. triggers the rotational motion (Fig. 15.9B).
Fig. 15.10 Electrical resistance casting machine
Figs 15.9A and B (A) Spring driven centrifugal casting

machine (B) Motor driven centrifugal casting machine Fig. 15.11 Induction casting machine
Electrical Resistance-Heated Casting Machine become popular for base metal alloys and noble
alloy castings.
In this instance there is an automatic melting of
the metal in a graphite crucible within a furnace Recovery and Cleaning the Cast
rather than by use of a torch flame (Fig. 15.10).
After the casting is completed, the molten alloy
Advantages appears like a red button in the investment as
• Solidification can be delayed, since sprue shown in Figure 15.12A. Then the ring is removed
former contains molten alloy. and quenched in water. The Figure 15.12B shows
• Proper adjustment of temperature of the the casting after cooling to room temperature.
alloy. Advantages of quenching:
1. The noble metal alloy is left in an annealed
Induction Casting Machine condition for burnishing and polishing and
With this unit, an induction field that develops similar procedures.
within a crucible surrounded by water-cooled 2. When the water contacts the hot investment,
metal tubing melts the metal. Once the metal the investment becomes soft and granular
reaches the casting temperature, it is forced into and the casting is more easily cleaned.
the mold by air pressure, vacuum or both, at the After quenching, the casting is retrieved
other end of the ring (Fig. 15.11). The device has by careful breaking the investment. Some
Figs 15.12A to D (A) Immediately after casting—molten metal can be seen in the casting investment (B)
Cooling to room temperature (C) Sand blaster (D) Metal casting after recovery
investment may be sticking to the casting and that small rubber wheels. Additional polishing may
can be removed by a process called sand blasting. also be done by use of a wheel brush with a
Sand blasting apparatus can be seen in Figure polishing agent such as “Tripoli”, lightly over the
15.12C and the casting after sand blasting is done metal surfaces but be careful that the polishing
as shown in Figure 15.12D. material is not lodged in the internal portion of
The dark surface of the alloy due to oxidation the casting.
and tarnish can be removed by a process known After blocking the drain in the sink scrub the
as “pickling”, which consists of heating the casting with soap and water using a toothbrush
discolored casting in an acid. Commonly used and then place the casting in the ultrasonic
acids for picking are 50% HCl ‘or’ H2SO4. In cleaner, following which it should be ready for
pickling, costing is placed in a test tube or dish cementation (Figs 15.12A to D).
and acid is poured and heated to 50°C–70°C.
Boiling should be avoided as it releases fumes, Cementation
they may corrode laboratory furnishings. The final link to a successful cast restoration is
Pickling removes oxide layer and also dependent upon the care taken during cemen
residual investment. tation. The process requires hard intermediate
Ultrasonic devices are also available for cementing materials placed between the casting
cleaning the casting as one commercial pickling and the tooth for the purpose of immobilizing
solution made of acid salts. the restoration.
The purpose of the cement is to fill the
Finishing irregularities on the preparation and those
on the casting surface to provide a rigid core
After the casting has been pickled and thoroughly
mechanically lodged in the surface irregularities,
washed, it must be carefully examined to deter
resulting in a secure restoration.
mine if any imperfections are present. These
Usually for final cementation Zn phosphate,
include incomplete margins or small nodules on
polycarboxylate and GIC are used.
the casting. The nodules are removed by using
inverted cone bur.
If the casting is satisfactory, it is separated
from the sprue and button by using carborundum
Defects in Casting
disk. The precision casting should have an exact
When the proximal contours and occlusal shape, size and fitting. If suitable precautions
contacts are satisfactory the final finishing are not taken during casting procedure, there
should be done prior to cementation. may be chance of casting defects in various steps.
After occlusal adjustment in the casting it The various casting defects can be classified
may be smoothened to final contours using as follows:
small round finishing burs, small peter disks, i. Distortion.
Table 15.1 Causes and remedies for distortion of casting
Causes Remedies
Careless removal of the wax pattern from the die Apply lubricant and remove the wax pattern carefully
from the die
Release of stresses during manipulation • Manipulation of wax pattern at high temperature
• Invest the wax pattern within one hour
• Apply uniform pressure during manipulation
Casting too large— excessive expansion. • Controlled setting and thermal expansion
Casting too small—less expansion • 3 mm gap, free of ring liner at the end restricts the
expansion
ii. Surface roughness and irregularities. ROUGH SURFACE AND

iii. Porosity. SURFACE IRREGULARITIES
iv. Incomplete or missing details.
Surface of the dental casting should be an
DISTORTION accurate reproduction of the surface of the wax
pattern from which it is made. Rough surfaces can
Distortion results in the misfit of the prosthesis.
be removed by additional finishing and polishing
Dimensional errors also result in the distortion
otherwise it affects the esthetic qualities and
of the prosthesis. Various causes for distortion in
also leads to corrosion. Irregularities prevent
casting and remedies to prevent the distortion
a proper seating of the casting or prosthesis.
were discussed in Table 15.1.
Various causes for surface irregularities in casting
Table 15.2 Causes and remedies for surface roughness and irregularities of casting
Causes for surface roughness and surface Remedies
irregularities
Rough wax pattern Wax pattern should be polished well to remove any
irregularities
High W/P ratio and large particle size of the Using correct W/P ratio and select investment of
investment correct particle size
Improper mixing of the investment Homogeneous mixing of investment
Insufficient wetting of the wax pattern Apply surfactants and vacuum mixing of investment
Air bubbles collection on the wax pattern Apply surfactants and vacuum mixing of investment
Thin water film on the surface of the wax pattern Apply surfactants and vacuum mixing of investment
Incomplete dewaxing Should not be left any wax residue in the mold cavity
Impact of the molten alloy—molten alloy should not Proper spruing can eliminate this problem
strike a weak portion of the mold surface. Molten
alloy may fracture or abrade mold surface results in
rough surface
Temperature of the alloy too high—attacks the Use gas air torch
surface of the mold and results in rough surface
Too high pressure during casting results in rough A gauge pressure of 0.10–0.14 MPa in an air pressure
surface casting machine
Figs 15.14A to C (A) Localized shrinkage porosity;

Figs 15.13A and B (A) Rough surface (B) Nodules (B) Micro-porosity; (C) Hot-spot/suck back porosity
and remedies to prevent them were discussed Classification of Porosity

in Table 15.2.
Rough surface can be defined as finely a. Solidification defects
spaced surface imperfections, characterize the i. Localized shrinkage porosity.
total surface area. Irregularities refer to isolated ii. Microporosity.
imperfections such as nodules that do not iii. Hot spot or suck back porosity.
characterize the total surface area (Figs 15.13A b. Trapped gases
and B). i. Pin hole porosity.
ii. Gas inclusions.
POROSITY iii. Subsurface porosities.
iv. Back pressure porosity.
Porosity may occur both within the interior
region of the casting and on the external surface. Solidification Defects
External surface porosities lead to rough surface.
Internal porosities will lead to weakening of During solidification, almost all metal alloys
the casting and also sometimes it may lead to contract and result in some amount of defects
secondary caries (Tables 15.3 and 15.4). and these defects will be irregular in shape.
Table 15.3 Causes and remedies for solidification defects (porosity) of casting
Types of defect Causes Remedies
Localized shrinkage porosity Incomplete feeding of the molten • Using sprue of correct thickness
These are the large irregular metal during solidification • Attach sprue to the thickest
voids and formed close to portion of the wax pattern
the sprue attachment at the • Placing the reservoir close to the
bulkiest portion (Fig. 15.14A) wax pattern
Microporosity Rapid solidification or when the Temperature of the casting liquid
These are fine small irregular mold or casting temperature is too should be higher
voids, formed throughout the low
casting (Fig. 15.14B)
Hot spot or suck back porosity Molten metal alloy impinging on • Flaring of te point of sprue
This occurs at the occlusal line the mold wall near the sprue, the attachment
angle that is not well-rounded hot spot cause in this region and • By reducing the temperature
(Fig. 15.14C) freezes last. Since the sprue has difference between the mold
already solidified, no more molten and the molten alloy
alloy available and the resulting
shrinkage causes suck back porosity
Table 15.4 Types of causes and remedies for trapped gas porosity in casting
Type of defect Causes Remedies

Pinhole porosity These Entrapment of gas during solidification, • Molten metal should not be kept for
are small spherical e.g. Cu and Ag dissolve oxygen in the longer time and temperature should
pinhole like porosities liquid state, on solidification absorbed not be low
occur throughout the gas expelled and porosity results • Investment should be porous
casting (Fig. 15.15A)
Gas inclusion porosity • Entrapment of the gas that is • Investment should be porous
These are larger spheri mechanically trapped by the
cal voids (Fig. 15.15B) molten metal in the mold or that
is incorporated during casting
procedure
• Using the oxidizing zone of the flame • Proper adjusting and positioning of
instead of reducing zone the torch flame
Subsurface porosity Simultaneous nucleation of solid grains Temperature of the molten metal should
These are regular small and gas bubbles below the surface of be high
air bubble voids (Fig. casting
15.15C)
Back pressure porosity Inability of the air trapped in the mold • Casting and mold temperature
These are seen at the to escape through the pores in the should not be low
inner surface of the investment (insufficient venting), which • Proper burn out
casting (Fig. 15.15D) exerts the back-pressure preventing the • Proper W/P ratio of the investment
liquid alloy to occupy the entire mold • Thickness of the investment
surface between the tip of the pattern and
the end of the ring should not be
greater than 6 mm
• The extra vent sprue former to the
wax pattern
Figs 15.15A to D (A) Pinhole porosity (B) Gas inclusion porosity (C) Subsurface porosity
(D) Back pressure porosity
Trapped Gas Porosities INCOMPLETE CASTING

Air and gases like H 2 , N, etc. get absorbed
Molten alloy is prevented in some manner from
during casting procedure are released during
complete filling of the mold results in incomplete
solidification result in voids. These defects will
casting (Fig. 15.16) (Table 15.5).
be regular in shape.
Table 15.6 Causes and remedies for fins in casting
Causes Remedies
Produced by the • Use proper W/P ratio
molten alloy enters the of investment
cracks formed in the • Take precautions
fractured investment during wax burn out
that may produce by • Use proper heating
the overheating of the technique.
Fig. 15.16 Incomplete casting investment.
Table 15.5 Causes and remedies for incomplete

casting Black Casting
Causes Remedies This is the discoloration of the casting
Insufficient venting of I nvestment should be (Table 15.7).
the mold porous.
Additional venting sprues
should be provided. Table 15.7 Causes and remedies for discoloration in
casting
High viscosity of the Temperature of the molten
molten metal alloy should be high so Causes Remedies
that viscosity and surface Overheating of the investment Pickling removes
tension lowered, prevents results in decomposition of this discoloration
premature solidification. material releases sulfur dioxide.
Incomplete dewaxing Complete dewaxing. This combines with the alloy
that blocks the sprue and discoloration occurs
Carbonized wax residue sticks It can be removed
to the surface of the casting by heating over
OTHER DEFECTS leads to discoloration the flame
FINS
These are the feathers like extensions on the SUGGESTED READING
casting surface (Fig. 15.17) (Table 15.6).
1. Anusavice KJ. Philips’ Science of dental materials,
ed 11, St Louis, Saunders, 2003.
2. Dootz ER. Technology of casting and soldering
alloys for metal-ceramic applications. Ceramic
Eng Sci Proc. 1985;6:84.
3. Ito M, Yamagishi T, Oshida Y. Effect of selected
physical properties of waxes on investments and
casting shrinkage. J Prosthet Dent. 1999;75:211.
4. Mackert JR. An expert system for analysis of
casting failures. Int J Prosthodont. 1988;1:268.
5. Powers JM, Sakaguchi RL. Craig’s restorative
Fig. 15.17 Fins dental materials. ed 12, St Louis, Elsevier, 2006.
Dental Ceramics
16
The word ‘ceramic’ is derived from the Greek 3. Based on processing methods:
word “Keramikos”, which literally means ‘burnt a. Condensation and sintering
stuff ’, but which has come to mean more b. Pressure molding and sintering
specifically a material produced by burning or c. Casting and ceramming
firing. Ceramic is a compound of metallic and d. Slip casting
non-metallic elements. Metals are aluminum, e. Sintering and glass infiltration
calcium, lithium, magnesium, potassium, f. Machining (milling by computer control)
sodium, tin, titanium and zirconium. Nonmetals – CAD-CAM ceramics.
are silicon, boron fluorine, and oxygen. 4. By type:
Ceramics are characterized by their refractory a. Feldspathic porcelain
nature, hardness, and chemical inertness and b. Leucite reinforced
susceptible to brittle fracture. Ceramics are used c. Aluminous porcelain
for pottery, porcelain glasses, refractory and d. Alumina
abrasives. e. Glass infiltrated porcelain
Porcelain is defined as a white translucent f. Glass infiltrated alumina porcelain
ceramic that is fired to glazed state. All porcelains g. Glass ceramic
and glass ceramics are ceramics but not all h. CAD – CAM ceramics
ceramics are porcelains or glass ceramics. 5. By substructure or core material:
a. Cast metal
b. Swaged metal
CLASSIFICATION OF DENTAL CERAMICS
c. Glass ceramic
1. Based on fusion temperature: d. CAD – CAM ceramic
a. High fusing porcelain—1300–1400°C e. Sintered ceramic core.
b. Medium fusing porcelain—1100–1300°C
c. Low fusing porcelain—850–1100°C CLASSIFICATION OF PORCELAIN
d. Ultra-low fusing porcelain—less than CROWN
850°C.
2. Based on its use: According to composition the porcelain crown
Used for– is divided into all-ceramic crowns and porcelain
a. Artificial or denture teeth – mainly made fused to metal (PFM).
from high fusing porcelain All-ceramic crowns
b. Jacket crowns, bridges, inlays – medium • Feldspar ceramic
fusing porcelain • Cast glass ceramics
c. Veneers over cast metal crowns (metal • Core reinforced
ceramics) – low fusing ceramics. — Aluminous
d. Used for titanium and titanium alloys – — Injection – molded
ultralow fusing. — Magnesia high expansion.
Porcelain Fused Metal (PFM) are blended with-pigmented powder frit to

• Cast alloy produce the proper use and shade.
• Wrought alloy.
STRUCTURE OF PORCELAIN
DISPENSION The various components of the porcelain
Ceramics are supplied in powder form, which is blended together by the manufacturers, results
mixed with water. in two principal phases:
1. Vitreous (glass) phase.
Composition 2. Crystalline (mineral) phase.
The detailed composition of dental ceramics is
Vitreous (Glass) Phase
Glass is considered to be a noncrystalline solid.
Stains The ordered arrangement of glass is more or
less localized with a considerable number of
These are supplied in kits and are made in the disordered units between them. Since such an
same way as the concentrated color frits. Stains arrangement may be considered typical of liquid
are often made from low porcelain glasses that structure and such solids are sometimes called as
they can be applied at temperature below the ‘super cooled liquids’. Such a structure is called
maturing temperature of the restoration. “vitreous” and the process of formation is known
These stains are employed as surface as ‘vitrification’.
colorants or to replicate the enamel check lines, In ceramic term, vitrification is the develop
hypo-calcification areas or other defects in the ment of the liquid phase by the reaction or
body of porcelain. melting, which on cooling, produces the glass
phase. The glass phase formed during the firing
MANUFACTURING OF PORCELAIN process has properties typical of glass such as
brittlen ess, nondirectional fracture pattern,
POWDER
flow under stress and high surface tension in
Manufactured by mixing the components, fusing the fluid state. Devitrification is nothing but
them in a furnace and quenching the fused crystallization of glass. It is not good for glass.
mass into water. Quenching results in internal
stresses that produce considerable cracking and Crystalline (Mineral) Phase
fracturing throughout the glass, this process is The crystalline phase includes silica and metal
known as ‘fritting’ and the product is called oxides as coloring agents or opacifiers. Dental
‘frit’. The resultant brittle structure can then be porcelain uses SiO4 network as the glass-forming
grounded to fine powder to use. matrix.
During the prefusing of porcelain, the flux
reacts with the outer layer of grains of silica, PROPERTIES
kaolin (pyrochemical reaction) and partly
combines them together. • Excellent biocompatibility.
During subsequent firing in the dental lab, • Chemically inert in oral cavity.
the powder is fused to form the restoration. • Esthetics of porcelain are excellent.
The structure of porcelain restoration is
probably most important mechanical property.
Color Frits
The structure of porcelain depends upon its
Color frits are produced by fusing metallic oxides composition, surface integrity and presence
together with fine glass and feldspar and then of voids. The strength is also reduced by the
regrinding to a powder. These various powders presence of surface ingredients.
Table 16.1 Composition of dental ceramics
Component % Functions
1. Feldspar (naturally occurring minerals composed of potash 75–85 It is the lowest fusing component, which melts first and flows during firing,
[K2O], soda [Na2O], alumina and silica). Mixture of K2O. initiating these components into a solid mass.
Al2O3.6 SiO2 Na2O Al2O3.6 SiO2
2. Silica (Quartz) 12–22 1. Strengthens the fired porcelain restoration
2, Remains unchanged at the temperature normally used in firing
porcelain and thus contribute stability to the mass during heating by
providing framework for the other ingredients.
3. Kaolin (Al2O3. 2SiO2 . 2H2O) (Hydrated aluminosilicates) 4 1. Used as a binder
2. Increases moldability of the unfired porcelain
3, Imparts opacity to the finished porcelain product
4. Glass modifiers, e.g. K, Na, or Ca oxides or basic oxides Minute They interrupt the integrity of silica network and act as flux.
1. Added to provide porcelain at different firing temperatures.
2. Responsible for lowering the softening temperature of glass and
increase fluidity.
5. Color pigments or frits, e.g. Fe/Ni oxide–brown, Cu oxide– Trace To obtain the delicate shade necessary to simulate the natural teeth.
green, MgO - lavender, TiO2–yellowish brown, Co oxide
– blue.
6. Zr/Ce/Sn oxides Trace To develop the appropriate opacity.
7. Uranium oxide Trace Acts as opacifier.
Chapter 16 Dental Ceramics
335
• Compressive strength – 330 MPa. Methods used to overcome the deficiencies of

• Diametral tensile strength – 34 MPa – low ceramics fall into two categories (Flow chart
because of surface defects. 16.1).
• Transverse strength – 62 to 90 MPa. 1. Methods of strengthening brittle materials—
• Shear strength – 110 MPa – low due to brittle occurs through one or both of the two
nature or lack of ductility. mechanisms.
• MOE – 69 GPa a. Development of residual compressive
• Surface hardness – 460 KHN – high abrasion stress within the surface of the material.
resistance. i. Chemical binding
• Specific gravity – 2.2–2.3 gm/cm3 ii. Thermal tempering
• Good insulator. iii. Thermal compatibility
— Thermal conductivity – 0.0030. b. Interruption of crack propagation
— Thermal diffusivity – 0.64 mm2/sec. through the material.
• COTE – 12 × 10-6/°C. i. Dispersion of crystalline phases
• Dimensional changes (shrinkage on ii. Transformation toughening
firing): During firing any residual water is 2. Methods of designing components to
lost from the material accompanied by loss of minimize stress concentration and tensile
any binders that results in volume shrinkage stress.
of about 30–40%, due to elimination of voids
during sintering. Therefore, a precise control Methods of Strengthening Brittle
of the condensation and firing technique is Materials (Flow Chart 16.1)
required to compensate for such shrinkage
value during the construction of porcelain Development of Residual Compressive
restoration. Stresses within the Surface of the Material
In this method, residual compressive stresses
METHODS OF STRENGTHENING are introduced within the surface of glass and
ceramic objects. Strengthening is gained by
CERAMICS
virtue of the fact that developing of tensile
The major drawbacks of ceramics are brittleness, stresses before any net tensile stress develops
low fracture toughness and low tensile strength. must first negate these residual stresses.
Flow chart 16.1 Strengthening methods of ceramics

Chapter 16 Dental Ceramics 337
i. Chemical tempering or ion exchange: It material, is reinforced into the glasses or
is one of the most effective methods of ceramics to strengthen them. Two different
introducing residual compressive stresses types of dispersions are used to interrupt crack
into the ceramic. In this process the larger propagation.
K+ ions exchange the smaller Na+ ions (a i. Dispersion of crystalline phase (Alumina–
common constituent of variety of glasses). Al2O3) or Aluminous porcelain: Al2O3 is
When dental porcelain possessing sufficient added to glasses as a dispersed phase to
soda (Na2O) is immersed in a KNO3 salt strengthen them. Al2O3 is a tough crystal
bath at 400°C for 4 hours, K + ions will line material, which can prevent the
replace or exchange some of the Na+ ions crack propagation through them and
located close to the surface layers. The K+ strengthen the glass. The technique has
ions are 35% larger than the Na+ ions, create found application in dentistry in the
larger residual compressive stresses (700 development of aluminous porcelain for
MPa) in the surface of the glass subjected PJC.
to this treatment. This surface compression ii. Transformation toughening: A crystalline
results in increased strength of porcelain. material such as ‘Partially Stabilized
ii. Thermal tempering: On rapid cooling the Zirconia’ (PSZ) is incorporated into glasses
surface of the object from the molten or ceramics. PSZ is capable of undergoing
state can introduce residual compressive change in crystal structure when placed
stresses. The rapid cooling produces skin under stress and can improve the strength.
of glass surrounding soft (molten) core. As the refractive index of PSZ is much
During solidification, the molten core tends higher than that of surrounding glass
to shrink, but the outer skin remains rigid. matrix results in scattering of light as it
This shrinkage in molten core creates the passes through the bulk of porcelain, and
residual tensile stress in core and residual this scattering produces an opacifying
compressive stresses within the outer effect that may not be esthetic in most
surface. restorations.
iii. Thermal compatibility: This method
applies to porcelain fused metals. The Design of Dental Restoration
metal and porcelain should be created involving Ceramics
with slight mismatch in their thermal
a. Minimizing tensile stresses: The design
contraction coefficient. Typically por
of ceramic should avoid exposure of the
celains have COTE 13.0–14.0 × 10 –6/°C
ceramic to high tensile stress.
and metals have between 13.5–14.5 ×
b. Reducing stress raisers: The design should
10–6/°C. The difference of 0.5 × 10–6/°C in
also avoid stress concentrations at sharp
thermal expansion between metals and
angles or marked changes in thickness.
porcelain causes the metal to contract
slightly more than does the ceramic during
cooling after firing the porcelain. This MANIPULATION
condition puts the ceramic under slight Fabrication Porcelain Jacket Crown
residual compression, which makes it (PJC) or all Ceramic Restorations
less sensitive to tensile stresses. These are
General techniques for the construction of
known as thermally compatible system.
porcelain jacket crown are as follows:
1. Tooth preparation
Interruption of Crack Propagation
2. An impression is taken with an elastomeric
through the Material
impression material
A dispersed phase, which is capable of obs 3. Preparation of die
tructing the crack propagation through the 4. Adaptation of thin sheet of platinum foil
5. Condensation Brush technique or capillary action: It consists

6. Firing of adding paste to the matrix and dry powder is
7. Cooling sprinkled onto the wet surfaces. The dry powder
8. Staining removes the excess water by capillary action from
9. Glazing the mixture already applied. The particles move
10. Removal of platinum foil close together as the water is withdrawn.
11. Cementation.
Whipping: After the paste has been applied to
After tooth preparation, an impression of the matrix, it may be whipped with brush. The
prepared tooth is made with an elastomeric water is thus brought to the surface and it is
impression material and a die is formed by a removed.
suitable die material. Now the portions of the
die is carefully covered with the thin layer of
Factors Affecting Condensation
platinum foil approximately 0.025 mm thick. The
platinum matrix retains the porcelain mix in the The success of condensation depends on skills
shape during firing and determines to a greater of operator and the range of size of the particles.
extent the fit of the restoration. • If the particles are of same size, 45% of a given
A proper shade of powder is mixed with volume will consist of voids.
water to a consistency and then applied to the • If a number of particles are blended with
platinum foil matrix in several increments. larger ones, void or space is considerably
reduced.
Condensation • If three or more particle sizes are used
that will achieve an even greater degree of
Condensation is the process of particle packing compaction. Powder consisting of mixtures
together and of removing the water. of particle sizes compact more easily than
Objectives those with particles of one size.
A well-compacted crown reduces firing
• To adapt the material to the requisite shape.
shrinkage and show regular contraction over
• To remove as much water as possible.
the entire surface. Thus maintaining the original
The more water is removed, the less is the
form on a slightly reduced space.
contraction.
• To produce desired strong porcelain. Firing
Methods of Condensation Firing is the process of heating closely packed
particle to achieve interparticular bonding and
Condensation can be achieved by several sufficient diffusion to decrease the surface area
methods: or increase the density of the structure.
Vibration: It consists of applying the wet porce Purpose of firing is to sinter the particle of
lain to the platinum matrix and then vibrating powder together properly to form restoration.
the die in which the matrix rests. As the particles
condense, the water rises to the surface. The Procedure
excess water is then blotted with a clean tissue After the condensation has completed, the
paper or an absorbent medium. condensed mass is placed in front or below the
Spatulation: The wet porcelain is applied with a muffle of a preheated furnace (approximately
spatula and then the surface is smoothened with 650°C). A porcelain furnace (Fig. 16.1) consists of
instrument. This will distribute the particle and an electrically heated muffle with a pyrometer,
cause them to become more closely packed. The which indicates the temperature in the part of the
water rises to the surface and it is removed with muffle where condensed mass is placed. Most
a lined cloth or blotting paper. modern porcelain furnaces allow firing under
c. The glazing stage is reached in the last firing
and is held only through a glossy surface to
form.
Stages of Firing
Low bisque: As the temperature increases,
particles soften and started to flow between
particles. Fired articles exhibit rigidity. There
is no contraction or volume shrinkage and no
cohesion between the particles.
Medium bisque: Powder particles exhibit
complete cohesion. There is slight contraction
or shrinkage.
High bisque: Shrinkage is complete and mass
exhibits smoother surface. A very slight amount
of porosity may be visible, but the body does not
exhibit a glazed appearance.
Firing of Porcelain Jacket Crown

In the first firing, the dentin portion which is
formed approximately 30% oversized is fired.
The temperature is approximately 56°C below the
fusion temperature of porcelain. After cooling,
the enamel portion is added is also oversized
when the second firing is made. After the firing
process, the structure is cooled slowly. At this
stage the matrix may not be distributed properly.
Then if it is necessary stains are applied, it is
returned to the furnace for initial firing. As it
Fig. 16.1 Ceramic firing furnace is held at correct firing temperature, complete
fusion takes place and a thin glaze is formed
onto the surface. After being annealed by careful
vacuum. Another method of firing apart from slow cooling, the platinum matrix removed
vacuum firing is firing under highly diffusible and the completed restoration is prepared for
gas and pressure cooling process. cementation.
During firing porcelain undergoes many
changes, they are as follows:
a. The first change involves the loss of water,
Precautions of Firing
which was added to the powder to form a • The condensed porcelain should be placed
workable mass. on a fine clay tray and not be permitted to
b. The second change occurs as the temperature come into contact with the floor or wall of
is raised and the particles of porcelain fuse furnace. The initial rate of heating should
together by sintering. Sintering is a process be slow otherwise water will be converted to
responsible for the fusion of the particles to strain so rapidly that unfired porcelain may
form a condensed or dense mass. As a result be crumbled. So it is better to place it in a
of sintering porcelain shrinks. preheated tray for the elimination of water.
• Uniform heating is desirable to give sufficient

time for the interior of the porcelain to heat
up.
• Initially the furnace door should be left open
for the steam to escape.
Cooling
The proper cooling of porcelain forms its firing
temperature to room temperature is the subject
of considerable controversy. Cooling should
be done slowly and uniform after firing. Rapid
cooling results in brittle fracture.
Glazing
Porcelain for PJC’s may be characterized with
stains and glazes to provide a more life-like
appearance.
Purpose of Glazing
The surface of the crown should be smooth when
the restoration is placed in the mouth, otherwise
food and other debris may cling to it. The rough
surfaces can be removed by glazing the body
using glazes (Fig. 16.2).
Glazes Fig. 16.2 Glazing of ceramic crown
A glaze is a ceramic veneer, which may be added

to the porcelain restoration after it has been fired.
A glaze for the dental purpose is generally a Self-glazing: The finished article is kept in the
transparent glass with a fusing temperature lower muffle chamber of the furnace and temperature
than that of the porcelain body. is lowered very quickly to melt the surface
A glaze is applied as a paste and the crown particle. A thin layer of glossy material is formed
is again fired to the fusion temperature of the during this self-glazing firing procedure at a
glaze. The resulting glossy or semiglossy surface temperature and time that causes localized
is completely nonporous. softening of the glass phase and setting of
The most important requirement of glaze is crystalline particles within the surface region.
its COTE should be equal to that of porcelain This self-glaze ensures adequate chemical
body to which it is applied. High COTE results durability.
in crazing (tension) and low COTE results in Add-on glazing: A glaze porcelain mix having a
compressive stress may develop cracks in the low fusion temperature is applied as a thin coating
glazing known as ‘peeling’. and then fired carefully.
Types of Glazing Precaution during Glazing

1. Self-glazing or autoglazing Over-glazing should be avoided since it gives the
2. Add-on glazing. restoration as an unnatural glossy appearance
and may cause slumping or loss of contour as Remedy
well as weakens the mass.
a. Manufacturers should use variation of
Advantages of Glazed Porcelain particle size to minimize space between the
particles.
• High strength b. The external shape of the crown should be
• Better esthetic 1–1½ mm longer in all directions in order
• Better hygienic to compensate for the shrinkage.
• Reduces crack propagation
• Reduces the abrasion caused due to opposing Internal Porosity
teeth or restoration. It is due to inclusion of air during firing. This can
be seen in bulk of the material and reduces its
Stains translucency and these voids rarely appear on
A mixture of one or more pigmented metal the surface of ceramic tooth or crown, because
oxides and usually a low fusing glass that the entrapped gases can be released.
when dispersed in aqueous slurry applied to
Remedy
the surface of porcelain and dried or fired,
will modify the shade of the ceramics-based a. Vacuum firing in which the air is removed
restoration. before it is entrapped during vitrification
process (formation of glass- like structure). It
Uses of Stains is most normally used method for producing
dental porcelain.
• Slight marking or defects are placed in b. Diffusible gases such as noble gases
porcelain restoration in imitation of a similar are substituted for the ordinary furnace
dental condition. atmosphere. The air is then driven out of the
• Stains are used in incisal area to imitate interstices during firing and the diffusible gas
enamel rods and hypocalcified structures. is substituted. During fusion, such entrapped
gases diffuse outwards through the porcelain.
Removal of Platinum Foil c. Cooling the porcelain under pressure, which
causes compression of the gas, thereby
After firing, platinum foil is removed and ready reducing the size so that their effect is
for cementation. negligible.
Cementation Advantages of PJC as Restorative Material

Cementation can be done using glass ionomer • Esthetically porcelain is most perfect material
cement or zinc polycarboxylate cement. Mostly for the replacement of the missing tooth
preferable luting media for PJC’s is resin cement. substance. It is available in a range of shades
and various levels of translucency such that
a most life-like appearance can be obtained.
FABRICATION DEFECTS • It is hard and resists wear extremely well.
• Extremely compatible with soft tissues.
Volume Shrinkage
• Correctly formulated porcelain is very
The cause of shrinkage during firing of dental resistant to chemical attack being unaffected
porcelain is the loss of water and densification by the wide variations of pH, which may be
through sintering. Volume shrinkage is of the encountered in mouth.
order of 30–40%, particularly due to elimination • Good insulating properties because the metal
of voids during sintering. atoms transfer their outermost atoms to the
nonmetallic atoms and thereby stabilize 2. The alloys used for metal-ceramic restorations
highly mobile electron. This fact is important should be capable of withstanding porcelain-
when the gross amount of enamel and dentin firing temperature without melting. Hence
are to be replaced and the residual layer of alloy must have high fusion temperature.
dentin. 3. Must resist deformation at temperature
encountered during the firing of ceramic (sag
Disadvantages resistance).
• Susceptibility to brittle fracture particularly 4. Alloys should have high MOE (to minimize
when flow and tensile stress exist in the same elastic deformation) and high-yield strength
region of the ceramic restoration. (no permanent deformation) to avoid excess
• Low fracture toughness and tensile strength. stress in the porcelain, which is brittle.
The relatively poor mechanical properties 5. Should have a value of COTE similar to that
can be improved by using alumina or metal of porcelain, which it is bonded.
supporting structure. 6. Should be capable of forming a bond with
• High degree of shrinkage upon firing. porcelain veneer that the porcelain does not
• Excessive hardness may be a disadvantage become detached.
when it contacts the opposite natural teeth, 7. Alloys must allow good wetting to porcelain
which may result in excessive wear of the and must form surface oxides for chemical
teeth in opposing arch. bonding to occur.
• Problems in matching in the exact color and 8. Components of the alloy must not discolor
texture of the natural teeth. the porcelain (discoloration can occur due
to presence of copper in some alloys).
METAL CERAMIC RESTORATION

OR PORCELAIN FUSED TO METAL Requirements of Ceramics
for PFM Bonding
All ceramic anterior restorations can appear
very natural. Unfortunately, the ceramics used 1. Must simulate the appearance of natural
in these restorations are brittle and subject teeth.
to fracture from high tensile stress. All metal 2. Must fuse to metal at relatively low tempera
restorations are strong and tough but from ture so that the metal does not melt.
esthetic point of view they are acceptable for 3. Must have COTE compatible with the alloys
posterior restorations. Fortunately, the esthetic used.
qualities of porcelain can be combined with 4. Must withstand oral environment.
strength and toughness of metal to produce 5. Porcelain during firing must wet and flow
restorations that have both a natural tooth- over the metal surface (low contact angles
like appearance and very good mechanical indicate good wetting).
properties. Therefore, if a strong bond is affected
between the porcelain veneer and such proper Composition of PFM Alloys
design and physical properties of porcelain
and metal, the porcelain is reinforced. So • High gold alloys
that brittle fracture can be avoided or at least • Low gold alloys
minimized. This is often referred to metal • Au–Pd alloys
restorations or more popularly called metal • Ni–Cr alloys
ceramic restorations. • Co-Cr alloys
• Ni-Ti alloys.
Requirements for Alloys for PFM Bonding The composition of alloys used for metal-
ceramic restorations have been discussed in the
1. Good corrosion resistance. Dental Casting Alloys chapter of this book.
Composition of Ceramics For Compressive (Thermal) Bonding

PFM Restorations
A critical requirement for the adhesion is thermal
The composition of the ceramic generally expansion compatibility between the ceramic
corresponds to that of the glasses except for and the metal. Ceramo-metallic systems are
an increased alkaline content. The addition designed with a very small degree of mismatch
of greater quantities of soda and potash (glass in order to leave the porcelain in a state of
modifiers) in order to increase the thermal compression.
expansion to a level compatible with metal α Porcelain – 13 to 14 × 10-6/°C
coping and to reduce fusion temperature. The α Metal – 13.5 to 14.5 × 10-6/°C
addition of glass/metal modifier (K2O) results in
the formation of high expansion leucite crystals. The difference of 0.5 × 10 -6 /°C causes
Leucite (K Al2 Si2O6) is potassium aluminum the metal to contract slightly more than the
silicate with a large COTE increases the thermal porcelain on cooling from firing temperature.
expansion of porcelain, so that it could match This mismatch leaves porcelain in residual
that of dental alloys. Color pigments and compression and makes it less sensitive to apply
opacifiers control the color and translucency of tensile forces (increase bond strength).
the restoration.
Chemical Bonding
Bonding between Ceramic and Metal The principal mode of porcelain metal binding is
by a direct electron transfer that occurs between
The primary requirement for the success of oxides of glass and oxidisable metal in the coping
metal ceramic restoration is the development alloy, this is a chemical bonding.
of durable wall between the porcelain and the Alloys of purely noble metals do not bind
alloy. The nature of the bonding can divide into chemically. Addition of oxidisable elements such
three types: as Indium (In), Tin (Sn) such an alloy establishes
• Mechanical bonding the potential for the oxidation of the alloy and
• Compressive (thermal) bonding component adhesion to the glass.
• Chemical bonding. Ceramic bonding to the metal in certain
cases requires the electrodeposition of metal
Mechanical Bonding coatings and heating to form suitable metal
oxides.
If the fused porcelain is able to wet the metal
rough surface efficiently, it will flow into Clinical Failure
surface irregularities on the surface resulting in The major problems associated with metal
mechanical interlocking. Sand blasting is often ceramic restoration is the failure of porcelain
used to roughen the surface of the metal coating veneer, crazing, cracking and separation of
to improve the bonding with the ceramic. the porcelain from the underlying substrate
Precautions (Figs 16.3A to C), may be caused by several
• Excessive roughening resulting in stress conditions. When the porcelain veneers crack
concentration at the metal ceramic interface. away from the casting, the failure develops in
• Excessive rough surface can also reduce one or several conditions.
adhesion if the ceramic does not penetrate
Technical Considerations of Metal–
into the surface and voids are present at the
Ceramic Restoration
interface. This may happen with improperly
fined metals that are poorly wetted by Because of the high melting temperature of
porcelain. the alloy, gypsum bonded investment material
Figs 16.3A to C Bond failure (A) between interfacial zone and metal
(B) between porcelain and interfacial zone (C) in interfacial zone itself
Advantages
• The properly made ceramic crown is stronger
and more durable than PJC.
• Permanent esthetic quality of the porcelain
properly designed reinforced ceramic unit.
• Bridgework is possible and excellent fit.
Drawbacks
• More tooth structure may be needed to be
removed to provide a proper bulk of the
crown with all porcelain restoration.
• Appearance of metal margins.
• Discoloration of metal (green color by silver).
• Appearance of translucency is difficult to
Fig. 16.4 Metal-ceramic restoration produce.
• Possible disadvantage of the alloy used.
cannot be used, thus phosphate or silica bonded

Porcelain Bonded to Platinum Foil
investment material must be used. A gas-oxygen
flame or induction is generally employed for Porcelain with the metal bonded ceramic resto
melting the alloy (Fig. 16.4). ration is that a considerable thickness of tooth
Surface treatment of metal casting before substance removed to allow space for the metal
porcelain application is important for good casting and porcelain veneer. An alternative
bonding. This treatment is used to toughen the approach is to make a porcelain crown, which
casting and form surface oxides. The surface is bonded to platinum foil.
may be roughened by sand blasting with a The objective of this technique is to improve
fine alumina abrasive. In most cases, the metal the esthetics by the replacement of the thicker
casting is heat treated either in air or under metal casting with a thin platinum foil, thus
partial vacuum to produce surface oxide to allowing more room for porcelain.
improve bonding. The opaque porcelain is This technique involves laying down two
condensed with a thickness of approximately platinum foils in the working die as a boost to
0.1–0.2 mm. It is then fired, the translucent the normal single foil. The exposed surface of
enamel is applied and tooth form built. The unit the outer foil is then tin-plated and the porcelain
is again fired. A final glaze is then obtained as crown is constructed and fired on the top of the
with the PJC. tin plated surface. Porcelain bonded to the layer
of tin oxide on the tin plated surface. The liner
platinum foil is removed prior to cementation of
CLASSIFICATION OF ALL-CERAMIC
the crown while the outer platinum face remains RESTORATIONS
bonded to the inner surface of the crown. These
Based on Processing Methods
foils help to prevent the crack formation on the
inner surface. 1. Sintered porcelains
• Leucite-reinforced feldspathic porcelain.
Metal-ceramic Based on Swaged Foil Coping E.g.: Optec HSP.
• Alimina based porcelains.
These are the products designed to fabricate the
• Magnesia based porcelains.
metal coatings of metal-ceramic crown with the
• Zirconia based porcelains.
use of a melting and casting process. Swaged
E.g.: Mirage II.
(work hardened) foil porcelain crowns consist of
2. Ceramming and sintering such as glass-
porcelain fused to a coping of wrought (swaged)
ceramics
palladium-gold alloy.
• Mica based porcelains
E.g.: Dicor
ALL CERAMIC RESTORATIONS • Hydroxyapatite based porcelains
E.g.: Cerapearl
To overcome the drawbacks of metal-ceramics,
• Lithia based porcelains
all-ceramic systems for dental restorations
E.g.: High strength ceramics.
have been developed with the help of novel
3. Machinable ceramics
processing techniques introduced to dentistry,
• Machinable ceramic
such as heat-pressing, slip-casting, Computer
E.g.: Vitabloc MK II, Dicor MG C
Aided Design-Computer Aided Machining
(Machinable Glass Ceramic), Clay In-
(CAD-CAM), etc. All-ceramic materials have
Ceram
been developed to match dental requirements,
• CAD-CAM Ceramics
offering increasingly greater performance from
E.g.: CEREC system (Siemens), Procera
a mechanical standpoint.
system (Nobelbiocare)
All-ceramics contain a significantly greater
• Copy milling ceramics
amount of crystalline phase (from about 35
E.g.: Clay system (Mikrona Tech)
to about 99 volume %). This higher level of
4. Slip-cast ceramics
crystallinity is responsible for an improvement
• Inceram alumina.
in mechanical properties through the following
• Inceram spinell.
mechanisms.
• Inceram zirconia.
• Dispersion strengthening.
5. Heat-Pressed and Injection Molded Ceramics.
• Transformation toughening.
• Leucite based
• Thermal incompatibility between glass
E.g.: IPS Empress.
matrix and crystalline phase.
• Spinell Based
Unfortunately, higher crystallinity is also E.g.: Magnesia spinell: Alceram.
associated with higher opacity, which is not
always desirable for dental ceramics.
Based on Microstructure
However, crystallinity is only one of many
intrinsic factors contributing to materials 1. Glass based systems
performance. Other factors such as crystal E.g.: Silica type.
size and geometry, modulus of elasticity, 2. Glass based systems with crystalline fillers
phase transformation and thermal expansion E.g.: Leucite crystals, Lithium disilicate
mismatch between crystal and glassy phase play crystals, etc.
a crucial role in determining the final mechanical 3. Crystalline based systems with glass fillers.
properties of the ceramic. E.g.: Alumina, etc.
4. Polycrystalline solids. through the ceramic. This ensures that the

E.g.: Alumina and Zirconia. interface region between the alumina particles
and the porcelain in virtually stress-free and not
Based on Strengthening likely to encourage crack propagation around the
alumina particles.
1. Based on dispersion strengthening
For example, Transverse strength – 125 MPa
E.g.: Aluminous porcelains.
Shear strength – 145 MPa.
2. Based on transformation toughening.
E.g.: Leucite-reinforced feldspathic porcelain,
zirconia based Fabrication
Porcelains, mica based porcelains, hydroxy The crown is formed on a platinum matrix with
apatite based a core of aluminous porcelain. A veneer of
porcelains, lithia based porcelains, etc. usually glass type is then fired over the crown
3. Based on thermal incompatibility for esthetics. Less tooth structure needs to be
E.g.: Leucite-reinforced feldspathic porcelain removed since the aluminous porcelain core
(Optec HSP), etc. requires a thinner veneer for good esthetics than
a metal crown. Aluminous porcelain has also
Aluminous Porcelain application in denture teeth in which brittleness
has been a problem.
The major disadvantage of the porcelain is
brittleness and this is the factor, which limits its
use. Several methods are available, which are
Disadvantages
aimed at preventing the formation and propa Alumina is opaque and therefore can only be
gation of cracks on the surface of the porcelain used to construct the inner core region of the
restoration. One approach is to use a core of porcelain crown. This is generally acceptable
pure alumina on which the porcelain crown is since it is the inner region from which the crack
constructed. propagates and this is therefore they are in need
Alumina is a very hard, opaque material, of reinforcement.
which is less susceptible to crack propagation
than porcelain. Porcelain, which contains Glass Ceramic/Castable Glass Ceramic
alumina is referred to as aluminous porcelain
and alumina extent is normally around 40% by A glass ceramic is a material fabricated in a
volume. vitreous or noncrystalline state and then con
verted to crystalline state by heat treatment. The
Functions of Alumina strength and toughness of glass ceramics can
be increased by the formation of the crystalline
Powdered alumina may be added to porcelain in plates, particles or needles during the cerammin
order to achieve a significant strengthening. The process. These crystalline structures increase
mechanism of strengthening is that the alumina strength by interrupting the crack propagation
particles act as crack stoppers preventing the through them under masticatory forces.
propagating crack throughout the body of the
porcelain.
Composition
The improvement of properties not only as a
result of good mechanical properties of alumina The first commercially available castable ceramic
with porcelain, the two materials having closely material for dental use is ‘Dicor’, which was
matching values of COTE and MOE. In addition, developed by Dentsply international and sup
alumina is slightly soluble in low fusing porcelain plied as silicon glass plate ingots containing
allowing for a continuity of atomic bonding MgF2.
• IPS Empress 2
• Optec HSP.
PRESSIBLE CERAMICS
IPS Empress
IPS-Empress introduced as an injection molding
system that uses leucite (4%–50%) reinforced
feldspathic porcelain. The leucite crystals may
improve the strength and fracture resistance of
Fig. 16.5 Ceramming furnace
the feldspathic glass matrix in a manner similar
to that which occurs in glass-ceramics like
Manipulation Dicor or in dispersion strengthened aluminous
porcelains.
The restoration is waxed on a die and then wax
IPS empress all ceramic permits light to be
pattern of the crown is invested by phosphate
reflected, scattered, and absorbed throughout
bonded investment material and ingot of
the entire crown and the underlying tooth
ceramic material is placed in a spherical crucible
structure. Opalescent properties of an empress
and melted and cast with a motor driven
crown in-vitro viewed by transmitted white light.
centrifugal machine at 1380°C (Fig. 16.5).
IPS empress is a heat-pressed glass-ceramic
After removal of sprue, the glass is invested
that has superior mechanical properties for
again and heat-treated at 1075°C for 6 hours to
several reasons. The high shrinkage of leucite
produce crystallization of glass to form a mica-
crystals creates compressive stress in the vitreous
ceramic. This crystal nucleation and crystal
phase, which prevents the development of
growth process is called ‘ceramming’.
surface cracks. The randomly oriented leucite
The final shape is achieved by applying a thin
crystals are tightly packed in the vitreous phase
layer of porcelain veneer of the required shape
and stop the propagation of microcracks. The
and fire.
combination of heat pressing, initial firing,
and stain and glaze of the veneers creates an
Advantages
additional 50% increase in strength. This higher
• Fracture toughness is improved by devitri cohesive strength and fracture toughness allows
fication. for thicker areas of porcelain with a lesser risk of
• Little shrinkage as a result of processing. fracture.
• Good esthetics because of the ‘chameleon
effect’ where part of color of restoration is Chemical Composition of IPS Empress
picked up from the adjacent teeth as well as
treated cement used for restoration. SiO2 : 59.0–63.0
Al2O3 : 19.0–23.5
Uses H2O : 10.0–14.0
Na2O : 3.5–6.5
• Used for inlays, full crown restoration by a CeO2 : 0–1.0
lost wax casting process. CaO : 0.5–3.0
BaO : 0–1.5
Leucite Reinforced TiO2 : 0–0.5
Manufacturers have introduced high strength Manufacturing of IPS Empress Glass Ceramic
ceramic using leucite (potassium aluminium
silicate) crystals dispersed in glass matrix. The powder to which the stabilizers, additives,
• IPS Empress fluorescent agents and pigments have been
added, then pressed to form ingot. Once the most attention. The disadvantage of the lithium
ingot has been sintered to about 1200°C it is disilicate glass-ceramic was their poor chemical
ready for sale on the market for processing in resistance.
EP500 press furnace.
Chemical Composition of IPS Empress 2
Fabrication of IPS Empress Restoration SiO2 : 57 to 80
The fabrication of a dental crown according to Al2O3 : 0 to 5
layering technique, for example is characterized La2O3 : 0.1 to 6
by wax up of a reduced model that is invested in K2O : 0 to 13
a special investing material, after a muffle has MgO : 0 to 5.0
been preheated the wax is burnt out, it is placed ZnO : 0 to 8.0
in an EP500 press furnace. Li2O : 11 to 19
Subsequently, a glass-ceramic ingot for P2O5 : 0 to 11
layering technique is pressed into the mold of Other additives up to 8.
the reduced crown at 1180°C according to the
viscous flow process. The crown framework is Manufacturing of IPS Empress
exposed to this temperature for 35 minutes. It 2 Glass Ceramic
is then cooled, divested and finished. Then the
Melting a glass, which is powdered and crystal
ceramic incisal materials for layering technique
lized in a sintering and heat-press process using
for short “layering ceramic” and glazes are
a heat-press furnace, produces the glass-ceramic.
applied. These materials are sintered at about 910
The base glass is melted at a temperature
to 870°C respectively. Glass-ceramic ingots for
of 1400°C to 1600°C. Raw materials like oxides,
sintering technique is preferred for fabrication
carbonates and phosphates are used. The molten
of the various restorations like inlay, onlays,
material is poured into water and afterwards
veneers, etc. The ingot is pressed at 1050°C for
grounded to fine powder. Then the sieved
staining technique. This provides IPS Empress
powder is pressed in a uniaxial press to form
glass-ceramic with its ultimate strength and
cylinders measuring 13 mm in diameter and 12
esthetic properties.
to 24 mm in height.
These cylinders are then sintered at 850°C
IPS Empress 2 to 900°C under vacuum. During this process
IPS empress 2 is a successor of the original IPS the cylinders are also crystallized. Thus an
empress. It is manufactured the same way as intermediate product in the form of a glass-
IPS empress, but consists of completely different ceramic ingot is produced in this manner. The
components. Whereas IPS empress is a leucite- ingots are cooled to room temperature after
reinforced glass ceramic, IPS empress 2 consists sintering process.
of a lithium disilicate glass-ceramic core that is
layered with a sintered glass-ceramic, and the Fabrication of IPS Empress 2 Restoration
chemical basis for the material is the SiO2-Li2O The fabrication of a dental crown using IPS
system. The first lithium disilicate glass-ceramic Empress 2 is characterized by wax up of a
was developed in as early as 1950’s. reduced model that is invested in a special
This development was the work of STOOKEY. investing material, after a muffle has been
Following his fundamental discovery, lithium preheated the wax is burnt out, IPS Empress 2
disilicate glass-ceramic became the subject of glass-ceramic ingot is placed in an EP500 press
considerable amount of research. The nucleation furnace.
mechanism and kinetics of crystallization of Subsequently, a glass-ceramic ingot is
the main lithium disilicate phase received the pressed into the mold of the reduced crown
at 920°C. The crown framework is exposed to Table 16.2 Comparison of heat-pressed ceramics
this temperature for 20 minutes. The effective
Property IPS Empress IPS Empress 2
pressure applied through the plunger is 20
bar. The pressing process is conducted under a Flexural Strength 112 ± 10 400 ± 40
(MPa)
partial vacuum of 20 to 50 mbar in the furnace
chamber. Under these conditions, the glass- COTE (ppm/—°C) 15 ± 0.25 10.6 ± 0.25
ceramic becomes viscous and consistently flows Pressing 1150–1180 890–920
into the mold. The typical pressing time varies Temperature (°C)
from 5–20 minutes depending on the volume and Veneering 910 800
complexity of the mold. It is then cooled to room Temperature (°C)
temperature. During the heat-press process and
the cooling phase the final microstructure of the • Very high chemical resistance of both
glass-ceramic is formed. Then the pressed part framework and layering ceramics.
is divested and finished. • High translucency.
The heat pressed IPS empress 2 glass-ceramic • Outstanding light optical properties due to
should be glazed or layered with additional apatite (also a component of natural teeth).
glass-ceramic to obtain dental restoration such • Wear behavior similar to that of natural
as crowns for the anterior and posterior region enamel.
or FPD’s for the anterior region. The layering • Ingots available in the most popular chromo
material is sintered on the heat-pressed frame scope shades.
using a sintering furnace at a temperature of • Excellent esthetic appearance.
800°C (Table 16.2).
This sintered glass-ceramic contains
fluorapatite crystals similar to the needle-like
Injection Molded Core Ceramic/Shrink-
fluorapatite crystals found in fluoride-enriched Free Ceramics/ Cerestore (Alceram)
natural tooth structure. This process mimics These materials were reported in 1983 for the
natural tooth structure, not only in composition production of all ceramic, single anterior or
through the use of fluorapatite, but through the posterior crowns. The method involved in
layering process of providing a strong dentinal the production of crown cores by injection
framework overlaid with a translucent enamel- molding, partially eliminating the need for use
like layer. The sintered glass-ceramic also has of a platinum foil and improving adoption of the
inherent fluorescence, opalescence, and an crown. The nonshrink property is achieved by
enamel-like translucency. incorporating significant qualities of MgO into
the ceramic frit. These react with the alumina
Indications during firing to form a mixed metal oxide called
3-unit FPD’s in the anterior and the premolar spinel (MgAl2O6). The spinel is less dense than
region (up to the second premolar as the the original mix of oxides of its formation results
abutment). in an expansion, which compensates for firing
Single crowns in the anterior and the shrinkage.
posterior regions.
Composition
Advantages A mixture of an alumina, MgO, aluminosilicate
• Specially developed lithium disilicate glass frit, wax, and silicon-resin plasticizers.
framework ceramics.
• Newly developed fluorapatite layering Manipulation
ceramics. The technique for fabricating ceramic coping
• Improved fracture resistance. from this type of material involves the formation
of a wax pattern on epoxy resin die. The lost wax Contraindications

process obtains the volume intended for forming
the coping. A plastic composition containing • Clenching and bruxism.
alumina, magnesia, wax glass and silicon resin • Short clinical crowns.
is heated to 180°C and injection molded and • Large or immature pulp chambers.
the injection pressure in the mold to form new • Abnormal occlusal relationships.
coping. Firing is then carried on a special furnace • Existing periodontal disease.
using controlled temperature up to 1300°C,
during this formation of spinel occurs. Veneer INFILTRATED CERAMICS
porcelains are packed into the surface of the
coping to produce finished crown. The drawback In-ceram
of this manipulation is complexity and high cost
In-ceram was developed in 1985, by Sadoun.
of process.
It makes use of aluminous cores that are infil
trated with a glass to achieve high strength
OPTEC HSP (High Strength Porcelain)/ substructures that can support crowns and
OPTEC VP (Veneer Porcelain) bridges.
In-ceram belongs to a class of materials
Many porcelain systems cause wear to the
known as interpenetrating-phase composites.
opposing dentition during function, which
These materials consist of at least two phases
usually necessitates nightguard use. New low-
that are inter-wined and extend continuously
wear ceramics may remove the need for a
from the internal to the external surface. These
nightguard in the future. With the advent of low-
materials may possess improved mechanical and
fusing, low-wear ceramics built over a pressable
physical properties compared with the individual
ceramic (Optimal Pressable Ceramic [OPC]),
components. They may have improved strength
has excellent esthetics, translucent margins and
and fracture resistance due to the fact that a
many of the new colors are designed to match
crack must pass through alternative layers of
bleached teeth.
both components no matter what direction the
It is a leucite-reinforced all-ceramic material
crack takes.
(leucite is 45–50%). IPS Empress and OPC
basically are the same; however, OPC’s leucite
crystal (filler) is smaller, resulting in higher Slip Casting
compressive strength (187 to 320 psi) and An all-ceramic restorative system, in-ceram,
a flexural strength of over 23,000 psi. The is based on the slip casting of an alumina core
process of heat pressing the ceramic rather than with its subsequent glass infusion. An impression
stacking the material differentiates OPC from IPS of the master cast preparations is made with
Empress. elastomeric impression materials. Special
It has 50% leucite in a glass matrix therefore gypsum supplied with in-ceram is poured
stronger than conventional feldspathic porcelain. to produce the die onto which the in-ceram
These leucite crystals are dispersed in a glassy alumina is applied.
matrix by controlling their nucleation during Alumina powder (38 g) is mixed with 5 ml
production. No core is required like Dicor. VP is of deionized water supplied in a premeasured
higher in chroma than HSP. OPC is the second- container. One drop of a dispersing agent is
generation product of IPS empress. added to help create a homogeneous mixture
of alumina in the water. One half of the alumina
Indications is added to a beaker containing the water/
• Anterior single units. dispersant and then sonicated for 3 minutes in
• Posterior single units. a Vitasonic. This initiates the dispersion process.
• Veneers. A second quantity of powder equal to one half of
the remaining amount is added to the beaker and been introduced. The technique of fabrication is
sonicated for 7 minutes; during the last minute, essentially the same as the original system.
a vacuum is applied to eliminate air bubbles. The primary difference is a change in compo
This solution of alumina is referred to as sition to produce a more translucent core. The
‘slip’, which is then ‘painted’ onto the gypsum porous core is fabricated from a magnesium-
die with a brush. The alumina is built up to alumina powder to form the porous core after
form the underlying core for the ceramic tooth. sintering instead of alumina powder as in
The water is removed via capillary action of the in-ceram alumina. This type of material has
porous gypsum, which packs the particles into a specific crystalline structure referred to as
a rigid network. “Spinell”.
The alumina core is then placed in the The porous spinell is secondarily infiltrated
in-cerament furnace and sintered. The cycle with a low viscosity, lanthanum aluminosilicate
involves a slow heating of approximately 2ºC glass, which produces a more translucent
per minute to 120ºC to remove water and substructure upon which Vitadur Alpha is
the binding agent. A rapid temperature rise veneered to form the final restoration.The glass
would boil of remaining water and binder, infiltration of in-ceram spinell should be done
producing cracks in the framework. The second in a vacuum environment.
stage of sintering involves a temperature rise In-ceram spinell is twice as translucent as
of approximately 20ºC/min to 1120ºC for in-ceram alumina because the refractive index of
2 hours to produce approximation of the its crystalline phase is closer to that of glass and
particles with minimal compaction and minimal the vacuum infiltration leaves less porosity. The
shrinkage of alumina. Shrinkage is only about translucency of in-ceram spinell closely matches
0.2% thus an interconnected porous network is that of dentin.
created, connecting pores on the outer surface
with those on the inner surface. Indications
A lanthanum aluminosilicate glass is used
• Anterior crowns
to fill the pores in the alumina. The glass is
• In clinical situations where maximum
mixed with water and placed on a platinum-
translucency is needed.
gold alloy sheet. The external surface of the
core is placed on the glass. The core is then Contraindications
heated in the Inceramat to 1100ºC for 4–6 hours.
The glass becomes molten and allows flowing • Posterior restorations.
into the pores by capillary diffusion. A 4-hour • Anterior and posterior FPDs.
infusion time is used for bridges. The excess
glass is removed by sand blasting with alumina In-Ceram Zirconia
particles. The last step in the fabrication of the
In-ceram zirconia is also a second-generation
restoration involves the application of aluminous
material based on in-ceram fabrication tech
porcelain core to produce the final form of
niq ue. The difference is being a change in
the restoration. The in-ceram core material is
composition to produce a material that has
apparently the strongest material available for
improved flexural strength and fracture
restorative procedures. Flexural strength values
toughness.
for the core range up to 600 MPa, but may decline
The porous core fabricated with in-ceram
as the veneer porcelain is added or the core
zirconia has a tetragonal form of crystal. The
thickness decreases.
porous core is secondarily infiltrated with a
low viscosity, lanthanum aluminosilicate glass,
In-Ceram Spinell which produces a stronger substructure.
A second-generation material, in-ceram spinell Zirconia has a physical property called
is based on the in-ceram technique, has recently transformation toughening (strengthening)
Table 16.3 Comparison of glass-infiltrated ceramics
Property In-ceram alumina In-ceram spinell In-ceram zirconia

Composition Al2O3 and lanthanum glass MgO – Al2O3 Al2O3 – ZrO2
Flexural strength (MPa) 500 350 700
Translucency Translucent Highly translucent Opaque
Strength Better Good Best
Indications Anterior and posterior crowns, Anterior crown inlays Posterior crown and
anterior 3-unit bridge and onlays bridges
when an external energy source is applied to the Drawbacks

material it goes through a phase transformation
to a monoclinic form of zirconia. The monoclinic • Need of costly equipments.
form of crystal is 3%–5% larger, thus in places of • The lack of computer controlled support for
microcracks this process of crystallization can occlusal adjustment.
seal the cracks. • The technique sensitive nature of surface
Properties of three types of glass infiltrated imaging is required for prepared tooth.
ceramics are compared in Table 16.3.
Zirconia Ceramics
MACHINABLE CERAMICS One of the most difficult areas in dentistry
today is the restoration of dental structures with
CAD-CAM Ceramics biocompatible materials that are strong enough
to withstand the forces of chewing (500–1000
CAD—Computer Aided Designing lbs pressure on molar teeth). Patients now have
CAM—Computer Aided Manufacturing/ a choice of a material that is esthetic, strong,
Machining/Milling pure, biocompatible and capable of being used
A system has been available for dental use, for single and long span dental bridgework. That
which consists of miniature 3D–video camera, material is called zirconium oxide.
monitor, keyboard, image processing module
and a milling machine (to cut the ceramic). The Properties
camera produces a stereographic image of cavity • Excellent biological compatibility: absolutely
preparation and digital data are used to control bioinert.
cutting of the filling surface of ceramic inlays. • Tasteless.
These ceramics are supplied as small blocks • Hardness: 1200 VHN
that can be grounded into inlays and veneers in • Compressive strength: 2000 MPa
a computer driven CAD-CAM system. • Bending strength: 1000 MPa
• Modulus of elasticity: 210 GPa
Advantages • Tensile strength: 7 MPa
• Freedom of making an impression. • Zirconium oxide is manufactured and
• The need for only single appointment. optimized industrially so that the material
• Negligible porosity in CAD – CAM ceramic qualities remain unchanged through the
material. complete production chain.
• Good patient appearance. • Radiopaque.
Figs 16.6A to C Milling of (A) Ceramic block; (B) Ceramic bridge designed on a ceramic block;
(C) Milled ceramic crown and bridge copings
• No pulp irritation because there is no need to for hip prosthesis. For years, there have existed
use adhesive cements and minimal invasive substantial clinical tests and examinations,
preparation by dentist. which confirm the high quality of zirconium
Zirconium oxide forms the core of each oxide.
crown and provides the cross-link that bridges Comparison of selected indirect restorations
the gap of missing teeth (Figs 16.6A to C). The are discussed in Dental Casting Alloys chapter
precision fit of the zirconium core is derived from of this book in Table 14.5.
computer-guided lathes that cut the form out of
a solid zirconium oxide block. Once formed, new Porcelain Teeth
synthetic porcelain (99.9% pure) is baked onto
They are used for both complete and partial
the zirconium core and then shaped like a tooth.
denture. The anterior teeth have one or two
Because of the extreme accuracy of the crown fit,
gold covered pins to provide retention to
the crowns can be cemented with biocompatible
denture base. The porcelain teeth in general
dental luting material.
have undercuts ‘dentoric holes’ located centrally
Advantages in the underside of the teeth. The differences
between porcelain teeth and acrylic teeth have
• Posterior bridges can be fabricated since it been discussed in the Denture Base Resins
has high tensile strength. chapter of this book.
• High resistance to corrosion.
• Stability to hydrolysis. Advantages
• High biocompatibility in comparison with
other ceramics (Table 16.4). • Excellent esthetics.
In medicine, zirconium oxide is being used • Excellent biocompatibility.
more and more as the material of choice specially • Highly resistant to wear and distortion.
Table 16.4 Comparison of all-ceramic restorations

Property Castable Pressable Infiltrated Machinable
Margin quality Good Excellent Good Good
Translucency Good Slightly Opaque Slight
Strength Weak Moderate High Moderate
Acid etchable Etchable Etchable Not indicated Etchable
Abrasiveness Minimum Moderate High High
Treatment time Two visits Two visits Two visits One visit
Disadvantages 12. Faull TW, Hesby RA, Pelleu Jr. GB, Eastwood GW.
Marginal opening of single and twin platinum
• Brittle. foil-bonded aluminous porcelain crowns. J
• Do not bind to acrylic denture base and Prosthet Dent. 1985;53:29-33.
require mechanical retention. 13. Giordano R, Cima M, Pober R. Effect of surface
• Cannot be easily polished after grinding. finish on the flexural strength of feldspathic and
• High density, increased weight of tooth. aluminous dental ceramics. Int J Prosthodont.
• Produce clicking sound on contact. 1995;8:311-9.
14. Griggs JA. Recent advances in materials for
• Mismatch of COTE produces stresses in
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2007.04.006.
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Highsmith J, Sola-Ruiz MF. Zirconia versus 17. Holand W. Materials science fundamentals of the
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2012;107(5):309-15.
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20. Jones WD. Development of dental ceramics:
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5. Cornell D, Winter R. Manipulating light with the
21. Josephson BA, Schulman A, Dunn ZA, Hurwitz
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W. A compressive strength study of an all-
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6. Davis BR, Aquilino SA, Lund PS Diaz-Arnold 22. Kelly JR, Nishimura I, Campell SD. Ceramics
AM, Denehy GE. Colorimetric evaluation of the in dentistry: Historical roots and current
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Dentistry, Crit Rev Oral Biol Med. 1996;7(2):134- 1991;4:138-46.
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28. Luthardt RG, Holzhuter MS, Rudolph H, Herold 40. Seghi RR, Denry I, Brajevic F. Effects of ion
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Mechanics of Cutting
with Dental Burs 17
Before any dental restoration can be placed
in the mouth, the teeth or other tissues must
be prepared to receive the restoration. Usually
such a process requires the cutting of the tooth
structure (tooth preparation). Cutting is generally
understood to mean the removal of a part of a
structure or surface by means of shearing action.
In a cutting tool the blade cuts through the work
at a predetermined rate, which is controlled by
many factors.
DENTAL BURS
Dental burs are essentially miniature milling
cutters as used in industry. Many shapes and Fig. 17.2 Cross-section of dental bur
sizes of dental burs are available for various
purposes in the preparation and finishing of
cavities and restorations. Face
The side of the tooth ahead of the cutting edge
Design of Dental Burs
in the direction of rotation is known as the tooth
A dental bur has three parts such as head, shank face (Fig. 17.2).
and shaft (Fig. 17.1).
Head: Portion carrying the cutting blades. Back or Flank
Shank: Portion connecting the head to the shaft. It is the side of the tooth on the trailing edge
(Fig. 17.2).
Shaft: Portion, which will be engaged within
the handpiece. Rake Angle
It is the angle between the face of the bur, tooth
and the radial line from the center of the bur
to the blade or cutting edge. It can be either
positive, negative or zero.
Negative rake angle: If the face is beyond or
Fig. 17.1 Dental bur leading the radial line in reference to the
Chapter 17 Mechanics of Cutting with Dental Burs 357
Figs 17.3A to C (A) Negative rake angle (B) Positive rake angle (C) Zero rake angle
direction of rotation the rake angle is said to be Clearance Angle

negative rake angle (Fig. 17.3A).
The angle between the back of the tooth and the
Burs made with negative rake angle are
work is known as the clearance angle. The angle
frequently used in dentistry.
between the land and the work is called as the
Advantages of negative rake angle: primary clearance angle. The angle between
• Easy to design the back and the work is called secondary
• Less temperature rise during use clearance angle (Fig. 17.4A). If the back of the
• Longer service tooth is curved the clearance is said to be radial
• Less clogging. (Fig. 17.4B).
Positive rake angle: If the radial line leads the Tooth Angle
face so that the rake angle is on the inside of the
radial line the rake angle is said to be positive It is measured between the face and the back or
(Fig. 17.3B). if a land is present between the face and the land
(Figs 17.5A and B).
Zero or radial rake angle: Rake angle can be zero
if the radial line coincides with face of the bur Flute or Chip Space
tooth (Fig. 17.3C).
The space between the successive teeth is known
Zero rake angled bur has lower efficiency.
as flute or chip space (Fig. 17.6).
Land Factors Affecting the Cutting

The plane of surface immediately following the Efficiency of Burs
cutting edge is called land (Fig. 17.4A). 1. Rake angle
Figs 17.4A and B (A) Clearance angle (B) Radial clearance angle
Figs 17.5A and B Tooth angle
According to the length of the head

a. Long
b. Short
c. Regular.
According to their shape
a. Round burs
b. Wheel burs
c. Inverted cone burs
d. Plane cylindrical fissure bur and cross
cut cylindrical fissure bur
Fig. 17.6 Flute or chip space e. Plane taper and cross cut taper fissure
bur
f. Pear-shaped bur
2. Clearance angle
g. End cutting burs.
3. Number of teeth in the bur
4. Concentricity and run-out
5. Influence of load Steel Burs
6. Influence of speed Steel burs are made from hypereutectic alloy; they
7. Coolants. usually contain manganese and molybdenum as
hardening agents in small amounts. The steel bur
CLASSIFICATION OF DENTAL BURS is usually from blank stock by a rotating cutter
that cuts parallel to the axis of the bur.
According to their composition
a. Steel burs
b. Tungsten carbide burs Tungsten Carbide Bur
c. Diamond burs. It was introduced in 1947. They have largely
According to their mode of attachment to the replaced the steel burs for cavity preparation.
handpiece
a. Latch type Advantages
b. Friction type.
• It is considerably harder (1650 to 1700
According to the handpiece they designed for VHN). So it is much more efficient in cutting
a. Contra-angle burs enamel.
b. Straight handpiece bur. • It is very rigid with the high MOE.
Chapter 17 Mechanics of Cutting with Dental Burs 359
Disadvantages metallic shaft. Since the diamond chips are very

hard there is no need for the exposure of new
• It is not as resilient or tough as steel.
abrasive particles during grinding. So the binders
• Being more brittle cannot be used in thin
are manufactured specially to resist abrasive
sections.
particle loss rather than to degrade at a certain
point and release particles. They are used in the
Diamond Burs preparation of crowns. Finishing diamonds are
Diamond is the hardest material known. It is used for resin bonded composites they contain
called as super abrasive. Burs and abrasive diamond particles of 40 µm or less in diameter.
wheels are made with diamond chips (either The main disadvantage of these burs is diamond
natural or synthetic) bonded to the surface of the grits are very expensive.
Abrasion and Polishing
18
Before any dental restoration or appliance is The material that causes the wear is called
placed permanently in the mouth, it is important an “abrasive”, and the material being abraded
that all these restorations or appliances should is called “substrate”. An abrasive removes the
be highly polished and therefore should have a rough areas on the surface by removing chips
smooth surface. or shavings from the material.
Rough surfaces occur unavoidably during In an abrasive tool (e.g. Diamond rotary
the construction of an appliance. For example, instrument) containing thousands of abrasive
in spite of all the care, an acrylic denture base points, which are not arranged in an ordered
may have minor surface roughness. pattern. Each point acts as an individual blade
A rough surface is: and removes a chip or shaving from the material,
• Uncomfortable to the patient. producing innumerable scratches on the surface.
• Poor oral hygiene: Food and other debris Abrasive particles remove some material
cling to it. It is difficult to remove these from the surface in a manner similar to the action
deposits from the rough surface. of a chisel in carving a piece of wood.
• Tarnish and corrosion: Apart from In the abrading of metals, the crystalline
unhygiene, these deposits will produce surface of the metal is disturbed, sometimes to
suitable conditions for corrosion or a depth of 10 µm. The grains become disoriented
tarnishing of any metallic materials. and strain hardening may occur. More the
• Poor esthetics. abrasion greater is the disorientation. Strain
Therefore minor surface roughness should hardening accompanies the disorientation
be removed from the denture before polishing and the superficial hardness of the surface is
is done. increased.
The surface effect varies with different metals
for example, in a ductile metal like gold; less
ABRASION
amount of the surface may be removed by the
Surface roughness is removed by a process abrasive than in a brittle metal.
known as abrasion. It is the smoothening of The surface disturbance of a resin, as in
rough surface before preparing it for polishing. a denture base, undoubtedly includes the
The term “abrasion” in the strict sense of the introduction of surface stresses, which may cause
word denotes “a wearing of one surface against distortion if the abrasion is too vigorous. The
another by friction.” generation of heat during the abrasion partially
Abrasion is the process of wear on the relieves such stresses, but if it is too great, it may
surface of one material by another material by relieve processing stresses, so that a general
scratching, gouging, chiseling, tumbling or other warpage results, as well as an actual melting of
mechanical means. the surface of the resin.
Chapter 18 Abrasion and Polishing 361
Factors Affecting Rate of Abrasion

The rate of abrasion of a given material by a
given abrasive is determined primarily by factors
as follows:
Difference in Hardness
An abrasive must be harder than the material,
which it abrades. This relationship is appreciable
even at high temperatures, which are created on
a surface during abrading.
A large difference in hardness between the
abrasive and substrate allows the most efficient
abrading to take place.
Materials, which are brittle, are more rapidly
Figs 18.1A and B (A) Particles of same shape and are of
abraded than those which are malleable and different size (under same force (B) Particles of almost
ductile. same size but of different shape under same force
Brinell and Knoop hardness values are
functions of materials resistance to indentation;
whereas Moh’s values are functions of materials to rounding of the particles and partly due to
resistance to abrasion. contamination of the abrasive with some of the
substrate material (Fig. 18.1B).
Particle Size and Shape Fracture of abrasive grains plays an important
role in maintaining abrasive action. Because
Particle size: Particle size is an important factor
rounded part of abrasive undergoes fracturing
in the rate of abrasion. The size of the abrasive
producing new sharp cutting edge. The clogged
particles plays an important role during abrasion.
fragments of abraded material must be removed
The larger the particle, the deeper the scratches
by washing in water.
in the surface and the faster the surface is worn
away (Fig. 18.1A).
Pressure
They are only used where large surface
irregularities have to be removed since they leave The pressure of the abrasive against the surface
a deeply scratched surface. A coarse abrasive being abraded is an important factor. Heavy
must be followed by a finer one before the pressure applied by the abrasive will cause
surface can be polished. deeper scratches and more rapid removal of the
Size of abrasives is expressed in terms of material. As the abrasive particles pass over the
µm. Based on the size the abrasive particles are work piece, the back pressure of the work piece
classified into three types: tends to dislodge or fracture the abrasive. The
• Abrasives of fine particles: 0–10 µm. greater the pressure deeper is the scratch and
• Abrasives of medium particles: 10–100 µm. greater is the tendency for the abrasive particle
• Abrasives of coarse particles: 100–500 µm. to be fractured or dislodged (Fig. 18.2).
Particle shape: Particle shape also has an effect
on rate of abrasion. Sharp, irregularly shaped
Speed
particles will abrade a surface more rapidly A very important factor in the control of the rate
than will more rounded particles having duller of abrasion is the speed at which the particle
cutting angles. The former will produce deeper travels across the work. The greater the speed the
scratches than latter. The rate of abrasion of an greater the frequency per unit time the particle
abrasive decreases during use. This is partly due contacts the surface.
Desirable Characteristics of an Abrasive

• An abrasive should be irregular in shape.
• An abrasive should be harder than the work
it abrades.
• An abrasive should possess a high impact
strength or body strength.
• An abrasive should possess attrition
Fig. 18.2 Particles of same shape and size under resistance so that it does not wear.
different pressures (F1—less pressure and F2—greater
pressure) Abrasive Materials
Abrasive materials are mainly classified as
Increasing the speed is the logical method natural and synthetic abrasives.
for increasing the rate of abrasion with a given Natural abrasives include Arkansas stone,
abrasive without wearing away the abrasive tool. chalk, corund um, diamond, emery, garnet,
At higher speed, many abrasive particles pass pumice, quartz, sand, tripoli, and zirconium
across the work at a rapid rate; the pressure can silicate. Cuttle and Kieselguhr are derived from
be decreased without a decrease in the rate of the remnants of living organisms.
abrasion. Manufactured abrasives are synthesized
The slower the speed of movement of the materials that are generally preferred because of
abrasive the deeper are the scratches which are their more predictable physical properties. Silicon
produced, and the greater are the forces trying carbide, aluminum oxide, synthetic diamond,
to fracture the abrasive or remove it from its rouge and tin oxide are examples of manufactured
bonding material. abrasives.
Lubricants Aluminum Oxide

For example, Silicone grease, water spray, It is a synthetic abrasive and is in pure form,
glycerol, etc. which is manufactured as a white powder from
Lubricants are used during abrasion for two bauxite (an impure alumina). It is much harder
purposes: than natural alumina (corundum) because of
• To reduce heat builds up. its purity. Pure alumina is manufactured from
• To wash away debris to prevent clogging of bauxite. Synthetic alumina is made as a white
the abrasive instrument. powder.
Too much lubrication can reduce the Uses
abrasion rate because it may prevent some of • To make blended abrasives, coated abrasives
the abrasive from coming in contact with the and air propelled grit abrasives.
substrate. • Sintered aluminum oxide are used to make
white stones, which is used for adjusting
Properties of Abrasive and Substrate dental enamel and for finishing both metal
alloys and ceramic materials.
If the abrasive material is brittle, its particles
break and form a new cutting edge. Thus
Corundum
brittleness can be an advantage.
If the substrate is a brittle material, it can be It is an impure form of ruby. This mineral form
abraded rapidly, whereas a malleable and ductile of aluminum oxide is usually white. Its physical
material will flow instead of being removed by properties are inferior to that of manufactured
the abrasive. aluminum oxide.
Uses Emery
• Used primarily for grinding metal alloys.
• Most commonly used in white stone. This is a mixture of aluminum oxide (corundum)
and iron. These are available in the form of
Arkansas Stone coated abrasive disks.
Arkansas stone mainly contains microcrystalline Uses

quartz and it is dense, hard, semitranslucent, • May be used for finishing metal alloys or
and light gray. These are used to give various plastic materials.
shapes for fine grinding of tooth enamel and
metal alloys. Garnet
Garnet is an extremely hard abrasive and is
Chalk usually dark red in color. Garnet is a silicate
It is composed of calcium carbonate and is used mineral with the combination of any other
as a mild abrasive paste to polish tooth enamel minerals such as Al, Co, Mg, Fe, and Mn. It is
(i.e. one of the polishing agents of commercial usually coated on paper or cloth with glue or
dentifrices), gold foil, amalgam and plastic similar binder.
materials. Uses
• Used in grinding metal alloys and plastic
Chromic Oxide materials.
It is a hard abrasive and is mainly used for polish
ing a variety of metals especially for stainless Kieselguhr
steel. It is also called as diatomaceous earth and is
composed of siliceous remains of minute aquatic
Cuttle plants known as diatoms. It is well used as a
mild abrasive (hardness is about 800 KHN) and
It is a white calcareous powder and also called polishing agent. Diatomaceous earth is used as
as “cuttle fish or cuttle bone.” Cuttle powder is filler in many dental impression materials. The
made from the internal shell of a Mediterranean main disadvantage with this abrasive agent is
marine mollusc of the genus “sepia”. These are a risk of respiratory silicosis when exposed to
available as coated abrasives. airborne particles.
Uses
• Used for polishing of metal margins and Pumice
dental amalgam restorations.
It is of volcanic origin, i.e. this material is
obtained by crushing pumice stone, a porous
Diamond volcanic rock.
It is called as “super abrasive” as it can abrade Because of its moderate hardness pumice is
any other known substance and it is mainly used by dentist for cleaning away tartar deposits
composed of carbon. These abrasives are supplied from the surface of the natural teeth. It abrades
as diamond abrasive rotary instruments, flexible the tartar, but has little effect on the harder tooth
metal backed abrasive strips, and diamond enamel.
polishing pastes. Inhaling pumice dust leads to chest
complaints (silicosis). Pummy disease, which is
Uses mainly caused by pumice substitutes, is known
• Used on ceramic and resin-based composite to occur frequently in a person who performs
materials. great deal of polishing.
Uses Synthetic Diamond Abrasive

• Used in smoothening of denture bases.
• Removes the tartar deposits from the surface These are used in manufacture of diamond
of the natural teeth. saws, wheels and burs. Diamond polishing
• Polishes tooth enamel, gold foil and acrylic pastes containing particles smaller than 5 µm
resins. in diameter are useful in polishing ceramic
materials.
Quartz Uses
• Used primarily on tooth structure, ceramic
It is very hard, colorless and transparent. Quartz
materials, and resin-based composite
particles are used for making coated abrasive
materials.
disks. Quartz abrasives are mainly used to finish
metal alloys and may be used to grind enamel.
Tin Oxide or Putty Powder
Rouge It is mixed with water, alcohol or glycerin to form
mild abrasive paste.
It is a fine red powder composed of iron oxide.
It is usually used in cake form by blending with Uses
soft binders. It may be impregnated on paper or • Used extensively as polishing agent for teeth
cloth, known as “crocus cloth”. It is an excellent and metallic restorations.
polishing agent for gold and noble metal alloys.
Tripoli
Sand It is a kind of porous rock which is powdered and
Sand is a mixture of small mineral particles used as coated abrasives and polishing agent.
predominately composed of silica. Its use in These are available in different colors such as
sand paper is a common example. They are white, gray, pink, red and yellow. Gray and red
applied under air pressure to remove refractory are used frequently in dentistry. It was named
investment materials from base metal alloy so because it was first found in northern Africa
castings. near Tripoli.
Uses Uses
• Used for grinding of metal alloys and plastic • For polishing metal alloys, composite resins
materials. and acrylics.
• Used as a powder in sand blasting equipment.
Tungsten Carbide
Silicon Carbide (Carborundum)
Burs of tungsten carbide are made by embedding
This is an extremely hard synthetic abrasive tungsten carbide particles in matrix of cobalt.
(2400 KHN). It is of two types—green and blue- These particles are harder and more efficient
black. Both are manufactured by fusing sand in cutting enamel. They are very rigid and more
(silicon) and carbon at 2000°C. The green form brittle.
is often preferred because substrates are more
Uses
visible against the green color. Most of stone
• Used in manufacture of burs, chisels, etc.
burs employed for cutting of tooth structure are
made of silicon carbide.
Zirconium Silicate
Uses
• Used as an abrasive agent for metal alloys, It mainly occurs as Zircon or Zirconium silicate
ceramics and plastic materials. in nature.
Uses The coarse abrasives are used initially to
• Used to make coated abrasive disks and remove gross surface irregularities produce deep
strips. scratches. When finer abrasives are used deep
• Used as a polishing agent. scratches are eliminated and replaced by finer
• Used as a component of dental prophylactic scratches.
paste.
Difference between Abrasion
Zinc Oxide and Polishing
Zinc oxide in alcohol is used for polishing dental The difference between an abrasive agent and a
amalgam restorations. polishing agent is difficult to define. The terms
are generally interc hangeable. Differences
POLISHING between abrasion and polishing are discussed
in Table 18.1.
Polishing is the production of a smooth mirror-
like surfaces without much loss any external Benefits of Polishing
form, or polishing is the process of making a
rough surface smooth to the touch and glossy • Oral health: A well-contoured and polished
which reflects most of the incident light, or restoration promotes oral health by resisting
polishing is a process which acts on an extremely the accumulation of food debris and
thin region of the substrate surface and provides pathogenic bacteria.
scratches so fine that they are not visible unless • Oral function: Oral function is enhanced
greatly magnified. with a well-polished restoration because
Metallographically speaking, polishing food glides more freely over occlusal and
denotes the production of a smooth, mirror-like the spaces on each side of the contact point
surface on a metal without the use of a film. surfaces during mastication.
A metallographic polish is accomplished by • Polished surface reduces the formation of
producing a virtually scratch-free surface. dental calculus on smooth enamel surfaces.
If the abrasive particles are finer, smaller • Polished surfaces of metal restorations
particles are removed from the surface finer significantly reduce the tarnish and corrosion
scratches are produced. If the particle size of activity.
the abrasive is reduced sufficiently, the scratches • A highly polished tooth will be more resistant
become extremely fine and may disappear to carcinogenic action than one that is not
entirely. The surface then acquires a smooth polished.
shiny layer known as “a polish”, such a layer is • A polished tooth surface is approximately
thought to be composed of minute crystals and 15% less soluble in acid than one with a
is said to have a “microcrystalline structure”. rough surface.
The polishing agents actually remove material • A polished restoration contact minimizes
from the surface molecule by molecule and in the wear rates on opposing and adjacent teeth.
process fine scratches and irregularities are filled • Polishing increases enamel luster and
in by the powdered particulate being removed smoothness.
from the surface. This microcrystalline layer is • A rough surface leads to uncomfortability.
referred to as “polish layer” or “Beilby layer”. Hence polished surface is desirable.
This is named so because such a microcrystalline
surface layer after polishing was first noted by a Polishing Agents
scientist, “Beilby”. It is probable that the rapid
Whiting (Precipitated Chalk)
movement of a polishing agent across a surface
heats the top layer of the material and causes it • Used for softer metals and plastics.
to flow and fill in the scratches producing “Beilby • Can also be used in dentifrices.
layer”. Whiting is mixed with water during use.
Table 18.1 Differences between abrasion and polishing
Properties Abrasion Polishing

Particle size A given agent having a large particle size The same agent with a smaller particle
acts as abrasive producing scratches. size acts as a polishing agent leaving a
polish layer on the surface.
Amount of material More amount of the material is removed A very little amount of the material
removed greater than 5 µm and even up to 10 µm is removed from the surface during
(i.e. 0.005 to 0.010 mm) polishing. Not more than 5 µm (i.e. <5
µm) (i.e. 0.005 mm).
Speed The optimum speed for abrasion is lower The optimum speed for polishing is
than that for polishing. The average speed higher than that for abrading. It varies
is approximately 5000 feet per minute. with polishing agents. The average
speed is approximately 7500 feet per
minute. Linear speed as high as 10000
feet per minute also used.
Prepared Chalk The surface of a metal can be smoothened by

rubbing it with another small, highly polished,
It is the purified natural material, used in
hard metal surface.
dentifrices.
This action disturbs deeper layers of the
metal than are affected by polishing and work
Rouge (Fe2O3) hardens the metal surface. This technique is
Never to be used to polish stainless steel as usually used to adapt the margins of a gold
it contaminates the surface with iron thus inlay.
providing suitable conditions for corrosion. Usually stainless steel or chromium-plated
• Give excellent shine on gold alloys. instruments are used either by hand or in the
• Dirty to use. form of smooth, rotating engine burnishers.
The ability of an alloy to be burnished may
Chromium Oxide depend on:
• High percentage elongation.
• Green chromium oxide is dirty to use. • Low proportional limit.
• Produces excellent polish on stainless steel. • A slow rate of work hardening.
Tin Oxide Electropolishing or Electrolytic Polishing

• Tin oxide or putty powder is used for This is the reverse procedure of electroplating.
polishing glass or porcelain. An electrolytic cell consists of two electrodes,
• It is not used in the mouth. and an electrolyte to carry current. The alloy to
Some other polishing agents are pumice, be polished is made the anode of an electrolytic
tripoli, zinc oxide (for polishing amalgam cell. As the current is passed, some of the anode
restorations), cuttle and kieselguhr, etc. is dissolved leaving a bright surface. Very little
material is removed in this process.
This is an excellent method for polishing the
Burnishing
fitting surface of cobalt-chromium alloy denture,
Burnishing is somewhat related to polishing in since little material is removed that the fit of the
that the surface is drawn or moved. denture is virtually unaltered.
Table 18.2 Composition of dentifrices
Components Weight percentage Materials Functions

Pastes and gels Powders

Abrasive 20–55 90–98 CaCO3, dibasic calcium phosphate, hydrated • Essential for adequate cleaning
Al2O3, hydrated silica, Na bicarbonate, calcium • Removes stain, plaque, etc.
pyrophosphate, insoluble Na metaphosphate, MgO • Gives clean and polished surface
Detergent (surface 1–2 1–6 Sodium lauryl sulfate, sodium N-lauryl sacrosinate • Decreases surface tension and
active agents) improves the ability of dentifrice to
wet the tooth surface
• Aids in removing debris from tooth
surface
Colorants 1–2 1–2 Food colorants • To accentuate flavor
• To promote consumer acceptance
• Appearance
Flavoring agents 1–2 1–2 Oils of spearmint, peppermint, wintergreen or • To accentuate flavor
cinnamon
Humectants 20–35 0 Glycerine, sorbitol and propylene glycol • Prevents paste or gel type from
drying out, i.e. maintains moisture
content
• Improves the appearance and
consistency of the product
Water 15–25 0 Deionized water or distilled water It gives desired consistency.
Binder 1–3 0 Carrageenan, carboxy methyl cellulose, natural • As a thickener
gums • Prevents the separation of liquid
and solid components
• Maintains the consistency of the
dentifrice
Fluorides 0–1 0 Na monofluorophosphate, NaF, Stannous fluoride • Dental caries prevention
Tartar control 0–1 0 Di sodium pyrophosphate, tetra sodium Inhibits or reduces the rate at which
Chapter 18 Abrasion and Polishing
agents pyrophosphate, tetra potassium pyrophosphate new calculus deposits formation

supragingivally
Desensitization 0–5 0 Potassium nitrate, strontium chloride Promotes occlusion of dentinal tubules
agents
367
Techniques for Polishing Dentifrices are agents used along with a

Restorative Materials toothbrush to cleanse and polish natural teeth.
Dentifrices should have maximum cleansing
Dental Amalgam efficiency with minimum tooth abrasion.
A polished surface is desirable on dental amal Highly abrasive dentifrices should not be used
gam to retard the collection of plaque and help specially when dentin or cementum is exposed.
to retard tarnish as well. Burnishing alone does Dentifrices perform three important functions
not create as smooth surface as does polishing. such as:
Polishing can be performed after 24 hrs with 1. They assist the toothbrush to mechanically
a rotary instrument with a fine abrasive mixed remove stains, debris, plaque and stained
with water or alcohol in a slurry or paste, flour pellicle from the teeth.
of pumice, or tin oxide may be used for this 2. They polish teeth to provide increased
purpose. light reflectance and superior esthetic
appearance. The high polish as an added
Gold Alloys benefit enables teeth to resist accumulation
of microorganisms and stains better than
Gold alloys can be finished by using coarse,
rougher surface.
medium and fine abrasives. Coarse scratches
3. Finally, they act as vehicles for the delivery
are removed with fine pumice (as an abrasive).
of therapeutic agents that provide known
The surface is then finished with a rubber
benefits.
wheel impregnated with a fine abrasive. Finally
For example, Fluorides, tartar control
polishing is carried out by Tripoli and rouge on
agents, desensitizing agents, peroxides, and
rag wheels.
bicarbonates.
Acrylic Resin Denture Bases
Dispension
These are soft materials and can be finished
easily with pumice followed by tripoli or tin Dentifrices supplied as powders, pastes and gels.
oxide. Because of its softness, care should be Composition of dentifrices have been discussed
taken not to alter the contour of the restoration. in Table 18.2.
Porcelain SUGGESTED READING

Glazing gives a glossy, smooth surface on dental 1. Ancowitz S, Torres T, Rostami H. Texturing and
porcelain crown. polishing: the final attempt at value control. Dent
It can be polished by a series of coarse to Clinics of America. 1998; 42(4):607-13.
fine abrasive rubber wheels, containing silicon 2. Attin T, Müller T, Patyk A, Lennon AM. Influence
of different bleaching systems on fracture
carbide or aluminum oxide, followed by a fine-
toughness and hardness of enamel. Oper Dent.
particle sized diamond paste applied on a felt 2004;29(2):188-95.
wheel. 3. Fine DH, Furgang D, Markowitz K, Sreenivasan
PK, Klimpel K, De Vizio W. The antimicrobial
effect of a triclosan/copolymer dentifrice on
DENTIFRICES oral microorganisms in vivo. J Am Dent Assoc.
No discussion of the action of abrasive or 2006;137(10):1406-13.
polishing agents in dentistry would be complete 4. Joiner A. The bleaching of teeth: A review of the
literature. J Dent. 2006;34:412-9.
without mentioning the effect of dentifrices
5. Mostafa Sadeghi, Shokrollah Assar. An in vitro
on tooth surfaces. Dentifrices are available in antimicrobial activity of ten Iranian-made
the form of pastes/gels/powders. The detailed toothpastes. Dent Res J. 2009;6(2): 87-92.
composition of all the forms are discussed in 6. Ozaki F, Pannuti CM, Imbronito AV, Pessotti
Table 18.2. W, Saraiva L, de Freitas NM, et al. Efficacy of a
herbal toothpaste on patients with established dentifrice containing hexametaphosphate. J
gingivitis a randomized controlled trial. Braz Contemp Dent Pract. 2006;7(3):1-11.
Oral Res. 2006;20(2):172-7. 9. Williams KR. Behind the scenes at the toothpaste
7. Seghi RR, Denry I. Effects of external bleaching aisle: the chemistry of dental materials. J Chem
on indentation and abrasion characteristics Edu. 2010;87(10):1007-8.
of human enamel in vitro. J Dent Res. 1992; 10. Zantner C, Beheim-Schwarzbach N, Neumann K,
71(6):1340-4. Kielbassa AM. Surface microhardness of enamel
8. White DJ, Kozak KM, Gibb R, Dunavent J, after different home bleaching procedures. Dent
Klukowska M, Sagel PA. A 24-hour dental plaque Mat. 2007;23(2):243-50.
prevention study with a stannous fluoride
Soldering and Welding
19
Metals joining operations are usually divided 5. Some casting defects can be corrected with
into three categories such as brazing, soldering, soldering.
and welding. Clean oxide-free metal surfaces brought
into intimate contact will bond together as a
SOLDERING consequence of metallic bonding forces. How
ever, this does not occur in most practically due
Process of building up a localized area with
to surface contamination and/or oxidation.
a filler metal or joining two or more metal
1. The basic technique of soldering is first
components by heating them to a temperature
to obtain metal surfaces that are free of
and filling the gap between them to a molten
contamination. This is accomplished by
with a liquidus temperature below 450°C (for
cleaning and by using fluxes, which also
brazing the liquidus temperature is more than
prevents oxidation during the soldering
450°C).
process.
2. A metal alloy with a lower melting point than
WELDING the parts to be joined must be chosen.
Process of fusing two or more metals parts 3. The parts should be brought to the solder’s
through the application of heat, pressure or melting temperature. If the molten metal
both, with or without a filler metal, to produce wets the solid metal, it will spread between
a localized union across the interface between the flux and the metal part, providing
the parts. intimate contact.
Soldering is often used in the construction Upon solidification, the solder will still be in
of dental appliances. contact and metallic bonding will be established.
Solder penetrates joints by capillary action.
Advantages
1. Fixed partial dentures are frequently casting Type of Solders
parts that are soldered together after careful
fitting to the master casting. 1. Gold solders
2. Wrought wire clasp arms can be soldered in 2. Silver solders.
place for partial dentures using investment-
soldering technique.
Gold Solders
3. Orthodontic wires and bands are often Composition of gold solders are given in Table
soldered together. 19.1.
4. Soldering can be used to build up certain Ni may be added instead of copper if a white
regions of crowns and inlays where the alloy is desired. Copper is not used for “PFM”
dimensions should be increased, such as for appliance because it colors the porcelain green,
missing contact points. as does silver.
Chapter 19 Soldering and Welding 371
Table 19.1 Composition of gold solders • It should flow freely when it melts so that a
Ingredients Weight Functions layer of the solder should be formed over the
% parts united.
• It should be as strong as the parts joined.
Gold 65 Main ingredient.
• The fusion temperature of a solder should be
Silver 16.3 • Improves the welding less than that of the solidus temperature of
(spreading and pene
the parent metals by at least 100°C.
tration) of gold solders
• Also whitens the alloy
• It should not cause pitting of the soldered
joint.
Copper 13.4 • Lowers the fusion
• The solder should have a color that matches
temperature
• Improves strength
the color of the parts joined.
• Makes solder amenable
to age-hardening Classification
Zinc 3.9 Lowers the fusion 1. According to their purpose
temperature
Fluxes may be divided into three types.
Tin 1.7 Lowers the fusion Type–1: Surface protection—prevents
temperature oxidation.
Type–II: Reducing agent—reduces any
Table 19.2 Composition of silver solders oxides present and exposes clean metal.
Type–III: Solvent—dissolves any oxides
Ingredients Weight % Functions present and carries them away.
Silver 10–80 Main ingredient 2. According to type of material
Copper 15–50 Improves the • Borax flux
strength • Fluoride flux.
Zinc 4–35
Cadmium Trace Lowers the fusion
Borax Flux
temperature Composition
Tin Trace Lowers the fusion • Dehydrated borax (Na2B4O7)
temperature • Boric acid (H3BO3)
Phosphorus Trace Lowers the fusion • Silica.
temperature The fused borax flux produces oxide-free
surfaces over which the solder will flow easily.
The flux can be applied as a powder or a liquid
Silver Solders (flux mixed with alcohol), or a paste. A paste
Compositions of silver solders are given in gives the most control in application and is
Table 19.2. formed by mixing the powdered flux with
petrolatum or a similar inert base.
FLUX
Fluoride Flux
The Latin word “flux” means “flow”.
“A flux is a material that is used to prevent Composition
oxidation, removes any preexisting oxide coat on • Potassium fluoride
the metal surface and allows free flow of solder”. • Boric acid
• Borax glass
• Sodium carbonate or silica.
Ideal Requirements
The ingredients are fused and grounded to
• Should be resistant to tarnish and corrosion. fine powder, which is used either directly or as
a liquid in alcohol or paste in petrolatum. These Precautions

fluxes are used for soldering alloys containing
chromium because fluorides dissolve the 1. The parts must be clean and secured properly
chromium oxide. on the master cast to prevent warping or
porosity.
2. Sheets of paper should not be used as a gauge
SOLDERING INVESTMENT MATERIALS because they are often too thin, ranging from
Soldering investments should not expand as for 0.005–0.1 mm.
casting investments because soldering requires 3. The parts should be securely fastened
lower temperatures than casting. together with sticky wax.
4. There should not be any investment material
Low fusing gold solders: Quartz based, rather at the joint.
than crystobalite based, gypsum investments 5. Over-heating may cause sulfur contamination.
are used. 6. Immediate quenching should be avoided
Preceramic soldering: Phosphate bonded because warpage could occur if the
soldering investments are used. investment were quenched immediately.
7. Total bench cooling also should be avoided
because that would make the solder too
TYPES OF SOLDERING TECHNIQUES brittle through age-hardening.
1. Investment soldering 8. Finishing instruments should not be used to
2. Free-hand soldering. remove the flux because the glass is harder
than the metal, and surrounding metal will
be removed along with the wax.
Investment Soldering
Investment soldering is recommended for Free Hand Soldering
precise arrangement of parts for fixed partial Soldering of orthodontic appliances is generally
dentures or partial dentures with wrought wire accomplished without the use of an investment.
clasp arms. Orthodontic torches can be placed on the bench
Procedure so that both hands are free to hold the parts in
position. Solder is generally melted on one of
The parts are placed on the cast with the gap the parts. Then they are held together and the
distance between them is at least 0.1 mm. joint is heated.
Excessive gap distance can lead to distortion
and pitting. The parts are securely fastened Precautions
together with sticky wax before removal from • Thin wire parts must be held in contact to
master cast and subsequent placement in the avoid narrowing of the joint caused by the
soldering investment. Investment should cover surface tension of the solder. This decrease in
metal parts where they are not to be soldered, diameter, concentrates stress is much more
but no investment in the soldering joint. Antiflux significant that for larger appliances.
may be applied to confine the flow of solder. Flux • The wires should not be overheated because
can be applied to the joint area before or after that deteriorates mechanical properties.
preheating of the investment. • Overheating of stainless steel wires should
Soldering is accomplished with a reducing be avoided since they can lead carbide
flame when the parts are at 750°C–870°C, giving protection, which may soften the wire.
them a yellowish red color. The solder flows
smoothly into the joint area. The investment and
appliance are allowed to cool for about 5 minutes
Defective Soldering
before quenching. The flux cools to a glass that Microstructural changes result from prolonged
can be removed through pickling. heating or overheating. Overheating of wrought
Chapter 19 Soldering and Welding 373
wires during soldering can lead to diffusion 1. Spot welding or resistance welding
between solder and wire and recrystallization 2. Pressure welding
and grain growth. Microstructural changes, 3. Laser welding.
surface fitting and internal porosity all result in
a weak joint. Spot welding
When the solder does not flow properly
In spot welding the two clean metal surfaces to
resulting in an incomplete joint, it usually due to
be welded are placed together under pressure.
one or more of the following:
Metal-to-metal contact is obtained by passing
• The parts were too cool when the solder was
a current through the joint to cause inter
applied.
facial melting. If a pulse of sufficient voltage
• The parts were not at similar temperatures;
and duration is applied by means of copper
the solder would flow over the heater part
electrodes, melting will begin at the interface
leaving an incomplete joint.
between the parts and spread outward to form
• Flux was insufficient to cover the joint.
a weld.
• Contamination was present due to improper
Spot welding is used to join flat structures,
cleaning, poor placements of flux, sulfur
such as orthodontic bands and brackets, and an
released from overheated investment,
electric pulse is applied. The magnitude of the
oxidation from an improperly adjusted torch.
pulse depends on the metals and their size and
• The gap distance was too small (0.1 mm) for
shape at the welding point, and on the size of
the solder to penetrate between the parts,
the electrodes.
which leads to the formation to voids.
• If the gap distance was too large, the solder
may not bridge the gap or if it does, the Pressure Welding
diameter of the joint will be too small for an
If two metal parts are placed together and a
adequate strength.
sufficiently large force is applied perpendicular
Bonding will occur between two metallic to the surface, pressure welding occurs, e.g. pure
surfaces placed in contact if they are free of gold and gold foil.
surface films (including oxides and films of
adsorbed gases) and surface roughness.
Laser Welding
METHODS OF WELDING In laser welding, the beam is focused at the
joint to melt the opposing surfaces. The two
The three methods of welding used in dentistry liquid surfaces contact and form a weld on
achieved metal-to-metal contact differently. solidification.
Appendix
Units and conversion factors

Unit SI equivalent
Angstrom (Å) 1 × 10–10 meter (m)
Angstrom (Å) 1 × 10–1 nanometer (nm)
Nanometer (nm) 1 × 10–9 meter (m)
Micrometer (mm) 1 × 10–6 meter (m)
Inch (in) 0.0254 meter (m)
Inch (in) 2.54 centimeter (cm)
Pound (lb) 0.4536 kilogram (kg)
Dyne 1 × 10–5 newton (N)
Pound force (lbf ) 4.4482 newton (N)
Erg 1 × 10–7 joule (J)
Calorie (Cal) 4.1868 joule (J)
Btu 1055.06 joule (J)
Dyne/cm2 1 × 10–1 newton/meter2 (N/m2)
Atmosphere 1.013 × 105 N/m2 (Pascal, Pa)
Pound per square inch (psi) 6.895 × 103 N/m2 (Pascal, Pa)
Pound per square inch (psi) 6.895 × 103 N/m2 (Pascal, Pa)
Kg/cm2 9.804 × 104 MN/m2 (Pa)
1 pennyweight (dwt) (Troy) = 1.555 g
20 dwt = 1 ounce (Troy) = 1.097 ounce (Avoirdupois)
10,000
Photomicrograph distance: µm/cm = ___________________
magnification
Temperature (°C × 1.8) + 32 = °F
(°F – 32)
___________ =
°C
1.8
Prefixes for SI units

Multiply by this factor Symbol Prefix
1012 T Tera
9
10 G Giga
106 M Mega
3
10 k Kilo
102 h Hector
10 da Deca
–1
10 d deci
10–2 c Centi
–3
10 m Milli
10–6 m Micro
–9
10 n nano
10–12 P Pico
10–15 f Femto
10–18 a Atto
Index
Page numbers followed by f refer to figure and t refer to table, respectively.
A impression material 177 Alumina, functions of 346

composition of 178t Aluminous porcelain 337
Abrasion 360 uses of 182 See Dispersion of crystalline
difference between 365, 366t Age hardening 71 phase
factors affecting rate of 361 A-hemihydrate manufacturing 236 Aluminous porcelain 346
Abrasive See Wet calcination Aluminum
materials 362 Aided design-computer aided bronze 315
properties of 362 machining 345 oxide 362
Accelerators and retarders 240 Alceram 349 See Cerestore Amalgam 42, 79
Acceptable taste and odor 162 Alcohol flame method 152, 152f alloys, composition of different
Acid-base reaction 78, 94 Alginate impression 81f
zoe cement 94 material 182, 182f bonding agents 91f
Acid-etch technique 138 composition of 183t capsules and pellets 80f
Acidity 111, 117 of lower arch 186f carriers for carrying plastic mix to
Acrylates 271 See Hydrophilic poly of upper arch 186f tooth cavity 89f
Acrylic Alginate classifications of 79
dough into mold, packing of 258f composition of 183 corrosion on 85
modified 271 containing disinfectants 189 generations of 79t
resin cements 123 in form of SOL 188 indications of 90
composition 123 modified 188 modified 91
dispension 123 powder 80f
scoop and water measuring jar
modified 124 Amino acid modified glass ionomer
185f
properties 123, 124t cements 122
spatula 185f
resin denture bases 368 Amount of
All ceramic
teeth 280 alginate powder 185f
crowns 333
with porcelain teeth, water 185f
restorations 345
comparison of 281 Annealing decreases strength
comparison of 353t
ADA specification increases ductility 64f
Allergic contact
based on new 305 Anterior restorations 78
dermatitis 41
number 4, 169, 182, 190, 287 Anticariogenic property 106, 117
stomatitis 41
of dental materials t 7 Application in dentistry, according
Addition Allotropic forms 314 to 285
polymerization, requisites for 52 Alloy powder 80 Aqueous elastic impression materials
polysilicone impression material, Alloyed 175
mechanism of 200f electrolytic precipitate 151 Argon laser lamps 138
Additive 36 See Color mixing gold 151 Arkansas stone 363
addition Alloying elements Articulation of trial dentures 254f
Additives, presence of 111 number of 65 Artificial
Add-on glazing 340 properties of 312 acrylic teeth 280f
Adhesion and bond strength 111 Alloys 225, 227 teeth 50, 280
Adhesion to tray 207 classification of 65 into carding wax, arrangement
Adhesive 143f constitution of 65 of 292
Admix alloy 82 for metal-ceramic restorations Atomic size 66
After flasking 255f 310 Austenitic
Agar for PFM bonding, requirements stainless steel 219
advantages of 182 for 342 steel 218
disadvantages of 182 Alternating copolymers 55 Automatic mixing 208
378 Dental Materials Science
B Bridge irregularities of 329t

copings, milling of 353f machine 326
Back pressure porosity 331 materials 50 centrifugal 326
Backbone structure 48 Brinell’s hardness test 24, 24f for titanium alloys 314f
Base metal alloys 304 Brittle materials, methods of porosity of 330t
See Dental casting alloys strengthening 336 procedure for dental alloys 319
Base metal alloys 42, 311 Brittleness 21 remedies for solidification defects
application of 311f Brush technique 338 of 330t
Base metals 304 Brush-heap structure 176f ring 322f
wax , requirements of 291 Burn out 324 liners 321
Base putty 208 Burnishing 90, 366 with liner 322f
Basic dental materials science 1 precautions 90 shrinkage 308, 313
Battery, type of 246 procedure 90 and methods of compensation
Bench Butyl rubber 194 309t
cooling 261 of casting gold base metal
curing 258 alloys 309t
Benefits of polishing 365 C technique 319
Beryllium 312 CAD-CAM 345 See Aided design- Causes
B-hemihydrate manufacturing 236 computer aided machining and remedies for discoloration in
Bigger-Gillmore needle 238 Cad-cam ceramics 352 casting t 332
Binder material 296 Calcium for surface roughness 329t
Biocompatibility 39, 133 hydroxide types of 268
biomaterials 39 cement 129, 129f Cavity
concept of 39 liners, applications of 128 liners 128
requirements of 39 sulphate lining agents 126
Bioglass 228 b-hemihydrate 235 varnish 49, 126, 127f
Biological properties 251 hemihydrate 235 Cement
Biomaterial 223 Capillary action 338 bases 126, 129
Bite registration See Brush technique classification of 129
paste 174 Carbon 228, 312 during setting, protection of 119
wax 294 silicon compounds 228 Cementation 341
Black casting 332 Carbonized gold foil 150 manipulation 112
Block copolymer 55 Carborundum 364 Cementum 3
Body centered tetragonal 218 See Silicon carbide composition 3
Bond failure 344f Carding wax 292f physical properties 3
between interfacial zone and Carving 90 Ceramics 227, 336
metal 344f Cast 158 bridge designed on ceramic
between porcelain and interfacial cleaning 327 block, milling of 353f
zone 344f construction of 181, 187, 242 firing furnace 339f
interfacial zone itself 344f recovery 327 for PFM
Bonded amalgams 91 structure 64 bonding, requirements of 342
advantages 91 Castable glass ceramic 346 restorations, composition of
Bonding agent 49, 140 Casting 343
application 136 alloys, ideal properties of 305 nonreactive family of 228
evolution of 144t causes for solidification defects of reinforced posterior glass
Bonding between ceramic and metal 330t ionomer cements 122
343 crucibles 325, 325f restoration, technical
Bone morphogenic proteins 227 defects in 328 considerations of 343
Border molding of special tray 254f fit, clinical evaluation of 319 restorations 337 See Fabrication
Boron 312 gold 304 porcelain jacket crown
Boxing See Dental casting alloys strengthening methods of 336
of impression 254f, 292f gold alloys Ceramming furnace 347f
process 292 mechanical properties of 308t Cerestore 349
wax 292 melting range of 308t Chain transfer, types of 54
Breaking stress 21 immediately after 328f Chalk 363
Index 379
Chemical properties of 133 Craig’s classification 92
activated denture base resins 262 resins 49, 130 Crazing 269
activated resins, technique for classifications 131 in complete dentures 270f
136 composition 131 Creep 85
affinity 66 definitions 130 determination of 85
bonding 343 fillers 132 in amalgam restoration 85f
composition of IPS empress 347, indirect 145 mechanism 85
348 microstructure 131 properties of amalgam 83t
modifiers, addition of 239 restorative materials, properties types of 32
reactions for individual alloy of 133t Crevice corrosion 45
mixtures 81 Compression Cross-linking of polyacid chains 110f
requirements 248 molding technique 253f, 265 Crown 3, 333
tempering 337 results in shortening of body 17f Crystal
Chemisorption, differences between Compressive bonding 343 arrangements, different 11f
12t Concentration cell corrosion 45 geometry 61
Chip space 358f See Flute Condensable composites 144 Crystalline
Chromic oxide 363 Condensation gold 150
Chromium 218, 312 factors affecting 338 mechanism of 59
oxide 366 methods of 338 phase 334
Clearance angle 357, 357f polymers 49, 50 structure 11
Close packed hexagonal crystal 11f polysilicone impression material theory of setting 236
Coatings, advantages of 227 195 Cubical expansion, coefficient of 28
Cobalt 312 composition of 195f Curing 259
based alloys 313 setting reaction of 196f cycle 260
chromium-molybdenum alloys polysilicones 51 fast 260f
225 pressure 84 slow 260f
chromium-nickel alloys 220 Conditions for solid solubility 66 Cushion like 20 See Resilience
CO-CR-MO alloys, composition Confinement, effect of 299 Cutting efficiency of burs, factors
of 226t Conical diamond indenter 24f affecting 357
Cohesive and noncohesive gold 151 Constructive application 18 Cuttle 363
Cold working, effects of 62 adsorption 12 Cytotoxicity
Colloidal silica 132 Contact angles of different solids with primary screening tests 40
liquid suspensions 301 surface energies 14f advantages of 40
Colloidal system 175 Conventional composite 134 tests, disadvantages of 40
Colloids 175 Cooling 340
Color curve 60f
frits 334 solidification 60f
D
mixing addition 36 Copolymers, types of 55 Deflasking 261
mixing subtractive 36 Copper 306, 312 Dendrites in polycrystals 61f
of alloy, based on 306 band matrix impression 169f Dendritic growth from nucleus 61f
Colorimeter 36f cement 103 Dental amalgam 78-80, 368
Commercially pure titanium 314 plated dies 245 alloy 79
See Pure titanium ring technique 168 dispension 80
Comparison of elastic, comparison Corrosion history 79
of 162f causes of 43, 219 Dental burs 356, 356f
Compatibility with gypsum 179, 185, classification of 43, 44 classification of 358
194, 197, 201, 205 effects of 43 cross-section of 356f
Compatible with cast 160 factors affecting 43 mechanics of cutting with 356
Complementary colors 35 factors leading to 85 Dental casting alloys 304
Complete denture products microleakage 85f classification of 305
fabrication of 253 Corundum 362 history of 304
finished 261f Coupling agents, definition of 131 Dental
technique for 253 Covalent bond 10 casting gold noble metal alloys
Composite CPTI 314 See Pure titanium 306
fillings 42 Crack propagation material, cements 49, 91
polishing kit 138f interruption of 337 classification 91
ceramics 333 fabrication defects of 266 Dispersion

classification of 333 materials 42 of crystalline phase 337
composition of 335t rebasing 273 phase 175
material 41 repair resins 50, 272 Disposable capsules 87
absorption 13 demerits of 273 Disproportionation, termination
adhesion 15 merits of 273 by 54
adsorption 12 Design of dental burs 356 Dissolution-precipitation theory of
angle of contact 14 Desirable setting 236
biocompatibility 38 characteristics of abrasive 362 Distortion 329
cohesion 15 properties of fillers 132 of casting, causes for 329t
corrosion 43 Destructive application 19 Dody centered cubic crystal 11f
diffusion 13 Development of materials 250 Dose dependent manner, symptoms
electrical properties 29 Dewaxing 254 on 86
hardness numbers of selected Diametral Double mix-single impression
24t compression test 22 technique 209
introduction 9 test for brittle materials 22f Dry
liquids 9 Diamond 363 calcination 236
mechanical properties 15 burs 359 corrosion 44
optical properties 33 Diatomaceous earth 363 Ductility 20
properties of 9 Die 158 Duplicating flask, cross-section of
189f
rheological properties 31 materials 160
Duplicating materials 189
selection of 6 See Compatible with cast
Durometer test 25
solids 9 materials 50, 244
Dust-free alginate 188, 188f
sorption 13 types of 244
Dust-less alginates 188
standards for 6 stone investment combination
See Dust-free alginates
surface properties 12 303
DYCAL 129 See Calcium
surface tension 13 Dielectric constant 29
hydroxide cements
tarnish 43 Different amalgam
Dynamic creep 32
tarnish and corrosion 43 functions 82t
thermal properties 26 phases 82t
wetting 14 Different crystal arrangements 11f E
plaster 243 Different lamps for curing Eame’s technique 87
restoration involving ceramics wavelengths 137t Eba-alumina
337 Dilatant 32 cements, properties of 97t
stone 243 Dimensional modified cements 96
waxes 28, 285 accuracy and stability 267 advantages 97
Dentifrices 368 changes 308 disadvantages 97
composition of 367t See Casting shrinkage Elastic
Dentin 3 stability 161, 172, 179 behavior of materials 18
bonding agents 140 Dimethacrylate cements 125 limit 18
bonding agents 143f See Enamel Direct coupling, termination by 54 memory of waxes 290
generations of 141 Direct filling gold 21, 149 modulus 19
pulp usage tests 41 forms of 149 portion of stress-strain curve 20
Dentist, factors controlled by 238 restorative material 153 Elasticity 197, 201
Dentistry Direct restorations 78 modulus of 111, 134, 308, 313
adsorption applications in 12 dental materials, comparison of Elastomeric impression materials
190
application in 12-15 147t
Elastomers 49
Denture Discoloration 271
Electrical
base material 27, 282 in casting, remedies for 332t
condenser 153f
classification of 249 Disinfection 197
melting 326
requirements of 248 Disorder transformation 71
resistance casting machine 327f
base resins 28, 50, 248 Dispensing system, according to 250
resistance-heated casting
classification of 250 Dispension machine 327
bases, inaccuracy of 269 composition 334 Electrochemical corrosion 44
cleansers 277 stains 334 in amalgam 44f
cleansers 278t Dispersed phase 175 types of 45
Index 381
Electrode Fatigue corrosion 45
position of metal on impression failure 23 current in
in electroplating bath 245f strength 22 clinical significance of 31
potential 45 applications 23 mouth 30f
selection of 246 Ferritic steel 218 single restoration, pathway of
Electroformed dies 245 Fiber 49 30f
Electrogalvanism 42 reinforced Galvanism 30
Electrolytic acrylic 271 in single isolated metallic
polishing 366 composites 146 restorations 31
precipitate 150, 151f polymers 228 Garnet 363
Electromagnetic spectrum 34t Fifth generation systems 142 Gas inclusion porosity 331
Electromotive force 29 Fillers Gel 175
Electroplating 179, 185 advantages of 132 etchant 139, 139f
Electropolishing 366 classification of 132 strength 177, 178, 184
ELGILOY 220 See Cobalt-chromium- definition of 130 to sol 176
nickel alloys Film thickness 111 Gelation 175, 180, 183
Emery 363 Final impressing with agar 181f mechanism of 175
Enamel 3, 143f Fine-filled composites 135f rate of tissue conditioner, factors
bonding agents 140 Fineness 297 affecting 277
Endodontic Fins 332, 332f temperatures 178
sealers, properties of 99t time 178, 184
Fins in casting
usage test 41 controlling of 184
causes for 332t
Endosseous implants 224 Generation dental adhesive systems
remedies for 332t
Energy, mechanical properties 16 145t
Firing 338
Esthetic requirements 162, 249 Genotoxicity, primary screening
of porcelain jacket crown 339
Etchant 143f tests 40
precautions of 339
types of 139 GIC liners, advantages of 129
stages of 282, 339
Ethyl silicate bonded investments Gillmore needles 238f
Fissure
302 Gingival tests 41
cavity 148f
Eugenol Glass ceramic 346
with caries 148f
drawbacks of 174 Glass cermet 119 See Metal modified
sealant 122, 146, 148f
impression paste, factors affecting glass ionomer
setting time of 171t Flame, different zones of 326f Glass ionomer cement 113, 114f
substitutes for 174 Flasking 255f capsule 114f
See Noneugenol pastes Flexible rubber bowl 185f chemical properties 117
Eutectic Fluid resin technique 265 classifications 114
alloy 69 Fluids commercial names 114
characteristics of 69 exudation of 29f composition 115
reaction 70 imbibition of 29f development 113
system 70f Fluorescence 38 manipulation 118
Expansions, two types of 240 Fluoride cements 103 manufacture of powder 114
External plasticizers 57 Flute 357 mechanical properties 117
Force, mechanical properties 15 mechanism of 115f
Fracture 270 properties 116
F Free radical polymerization 52 role of
Fabrication 346 chain transfer 54 tartaric acid 116
defects 341 initiation 52 water 116
disadvantages 346 propagation 53 setting reaction 114
porcelain jacket crown 37 termination 53 Glass phase 334
Face 356 Fusion temperature 166 Glass-infiltrated ceramics,
centered cubic crystal 11f comparison of 352t
Glass-ionomer liners 128
Factors minimizing creep 85 G Glazed porcelain, advantages of 341
Failures in alginate impressions,
types of 187t Galloy 42, 91 Glazes 340
Failures occur in agar impressions, Galvanic Glazing
types of 181t cell 68 of ceramic crown 340f
precaution during 340 of gold alloys 72 trays 158, 179, 194, 197, 205
purpose of 340 of high noble 309 classification of 158
types of 340 Heterogeneous of corrosion 45 wax, corrective 293
Glycerol 362 Hexagonal anhydrate 239 Impurities 297
Gold 306 High bisque 339 In-ceram 350
alloy, properties of 221t, 307 High copper amalgam spinell 351
alloys 42, 221, 368 alloys 82 zirconia 351
calcium alloy 151 composition of 80 Incomplete casting 331, 332f
See Alloyed gold High impact strength materials 271 causes for 332t
foil 150 High noble alloys 311 remedies for 332t
advantages 150 combinations of 311 Indentation test 238
cylinders 150 High strength porcelain 350 Index of refraction 37
disadvantages 150 High viscosity glass ionomers 121 See Refractive index
Graft copolymer 55 Homogenizing anneal 69 Indium metals 307
Grain Hume-Rothery rules 66 Induction casting machine 327, 327f
boundary 61 See Conditions for solid Inelastic impression materials 162f
growth 60, 64 solubility Infiltrated ceramics 350
shape 61 Humidity 239 Initiators and activators in dentistry,
size 61 Hybrid composite 135, 135f types of 52t
structure, modifies 64f Hydraulic bench press for removal of Injection molded core ceramic 349
Green excess flash 259f Inlay
stick compound 168 Hydrocal 243 casting wax 288f
strength 300 Hydrocolloids 175 wax, composition of 287t
Gypsum 235, 296 Hydrogen bonding 10 waxes, manipulation of 289
bonded investment 296 Hydrolysis 94 Inorganic
composition of 297f Hydrophilic fillers 132
products 235, 244 poly 271 polymers 48
classification of 235 polyvinyl siloxanes 202 Instrumental technique 36
effect of 237 Hydrous phosphate cement 104 Interatomic bonds 10
Hydroxyapatite 227 primary bonds 10
Hygroscopic expansion 241f secondary 10
H factors controlling 298 Interatomic distance 11
Hand Hygroscopic setting expansion 240, Interface
condensation 89 298 absorption 37
investing 323 opacity 37
mixing 300 reflection 36, 37
I scattering of light 37
trituration 88
Handling technique 302 Implant translucency 37
Hard reline materials 274 endosseous 224f transmission 37
Hardening heat treatment 72, 310 materials 50, 223 transparency 37
Hardness subperiosteal 224f Intergranular corrosion 45
based on 305 supported replacement tooth Intermediate restorative
difference in 361 223f material 93f
Head 356 transosteal 224f Intermediate restorative material 97
Heat types of 224 See Polymer reinforced zoe
activated denture base acrylic Impression 158 Intermetallic compounds 70
resins 250 compound 164, 164f, 168f Internal
cure acrylic resin 251f composition of 165t plasticizers 57
composition of 252t flow of 166f porosity 266, 341
cure and self-cure acrylic resins, measurement of 166f types of 268
comparison between 264 making 319 Interstitial solid solutions 66, 66f
of fusion 26t materials 28, 49, 158, 159 Intoxication, mechanism of 86
pressed ceramics, comparison of classification of 163 Ion exchange 337
349t concepts to 158 See Chemical tempering
treatment 71 plaster 242 Ionic bond 10
Index 383
IPS empress 347, 348 transmission 37 Medium bisque 339
glass ceramic, manufacturing of and reflection 35, 37f Melting alloys, methods of 325
347 transparency 37 Mercury
restoration, fabrication of 348 traveling, representation of 38f alloy ratio 84
Iridium 312 Linear expansion, coefficient of 28 alloy ratio 87
Iron 312 Lingual aspects of pre molars 260 on properties, effect of 87
Irregular surface in denture bases Liquefaction of gel 179 hygiene, recommendations in 86
267 Liquid 263 toxicity 86
Irreversible hydrocolloid 182, 182f etchant 139, 139f Metal 225
See Alginate impression form 80f Casting
material resins 49 after recovery 328f
Irreversible hydrocolloids 176 Loading alginate material 186f ring 322f
Loss of gloss 237 ceramic
Low alloys for 310
K bisque 339 based on swaged foil coping
copper 345
Ketac silver 119 See Metal modified
alloys 81 in amalgam alloy, functions of 81t
glass ionomer
amalgam, composition of 80 modified glass ionomer 119
Kinetic energy of liquid decreases 9
mercury-alloy ratio 87 technical considerations of 343
Knoop’s hardness test 25, 25f
viscosity glass ionomer cements with surface coating 226
Kreb’s penetrometer 172
121 Metallic
bond 10, 10f, 58
L M material 78
Lambert’s law of absorption 37 Machinable ceramics 352 Metalloid 58
Laminate Macrofilled composite 134 Metals 58, 227
gold foil 150 Macrohardness test 23 deformation of 61
technique 189 Malleability 20 densities of 26t
advantages 189 applications 20 melting point of 26t
classification 190 Mandibular denture 260f Metal-sprayed dies 246
disadvantages 189 Manganese 312 Metamerism 38, 38f
types 190 Manipulation Method of
Lathe cut powder 80 mixing 112 activation 250
Lattice of amalgam, technical polymerization 250
imperfections 61 considerations in 86 Methyl methacrylate 251
type 66 selection of materials 112 See Poly, properties of 251
surface preparation 112 Methyl methacrylate
Leached plasticizers 277
Martensitic steel 218 monomer, properties of 252
Leucite reinforced 347
Master die, preparation of 319 properties of 251
Light
Mat foil 151 Mica tray 152f
absorption 37
Mat gold 150 Microfilled composite 134, 135f
activated
Material Microhardness test 23
composites, technique for 137
ability of 21 Microstructure
denture base resins 272 evaluation of 6
polyether impression material based on 345
nature of 78
206 of composite 131f
selection of 96, 172, 300
cured system 125 of metal 59
Matrix
curing Milled ceramic crown, milling of 353f
definition of 130
chamber for light activated Milling of ceramic block 353f
strip placement 137f
resins 272f Mineral phase 334
Maxillary denture around slopes of
composite resin 131f Minimum mercury technique 87
palate 260f
pit 148f Maxillofacial materials 50, 278, 279t See Eame’s technique
opacity 37 Mechanical Model plaster 243
reflection 36 bonding 343 Modeling wax 291, 291f
refraction 37 mixing 300 Modified acrylic resin cements,
scattering of light 37 trituration 88 mechan ical properties of
translucency 37 advantages of 88 125t
Modulus of resilience 20 O Phosphate bonded investment 300

Moh’s scratch method 23 composition of 301t
Moisture compatibility 160 Occlusal rims 254f Physical metallurgy 58
Molten alloy in crucible 326f One bottle system 143 Physisorption, differences between
Operator, factors controlled by 297 12t
Molybdenum 312
Optical properties 112 Pinhole porosity 331, 331f
Monoclinic crystal 11f
color 34, 35 back pressure porosity 331f
Monomer 48
chroma 34 gas inclusion porosity 331f
Motor driven centrifugal casting
hue 34 subsurface porosity 331f
machine 327f
mixing 35, 36 Pit caries 148f
Mucosal tests 41
value 34 Pit sealant 122, 146
Mucostatic 160
interfaces 36 Pitting corrosion 45
Mucous membrane irritation tests 40
light 36 PJC restorative material, advantages
Mulling 88
measurement of color 36 of 341
Multiple mix technique 209, 210f pigmentation 36 Placing flask in curing vessel 262f
Multiple-pour investing procedure Oral Plasma arc curing lamps 138
255f function 365 Plastic
Munsell color system 36f health 365 applications 33
Mutagenesis assay, primary screening Organic sprues, types of 321f
tests 40 fillers 132 teeth 280 See Acrylic teeth
polymers 48 Plasticizer, action of 56
N Ormocer 146 Plasticizers 56
Orthodontic appliances 50 types of 57
Nanocomposites 135
classifications of 217 Plastics 33, 49
Nanoionomers 122
Orthodontic wires 19, 20, 217 Platinized gold foil 150
advantages 122 Platinum 307
classifications of 217
Natural foil, removal of 341
Orthoethoxy benzoic acid 96
polymers 48 Pneumatic vibratory condenser 153f
Orthorhombic
waxes 286t Poisson’s ratio 19
anhydrate 239
Negative rake angle 356, 357f Polishing 360, 365
crystal 11f
advantages of 357 agents 365
Osmium metals 307
Newer generation systems 142 differences between 366t
Osseointegration 225
Newtonian viscosity 32 restorative materials, techniques
Oxide powder 364
Nickel 218, 312 for 368
Nickel-based alloys 312 Poly, properties of 251
composition of 312 P Polyacid ions reacting with ions of
Nickel-titanium alloys 220 Palladium 307 tooth 112f
Nitinol wire, superelasticity of 221f Palladium-cobalt alloys 311 Polyacrylic acid
Noble Palladium-gallium-silver-gold 311 concentration of 111
alloys 311 Particle molecular weight of 111
metal 304 shape 361 Polyether impression material 203
alloys 309 size 361 advantages 205
Nodules 330f effect of 84 composition of 203t
Nonaqueous elastomeric impression Paste and reactor liquid 208 disadvantages 205
materials 190 elasticity 204
Pattern waxes 28 See Dental waxes
flexibility 204
Noncrystalline Penetration test 237
hardness 204
solids lack 11 Periodic chart of elements 59t
properties 204
structure 11 Periodontal ligament 4
tear strength 204
Noneugenol pastes 174 functions 4 Polymer 48
Nonmetallic material 78 Peritectic alloys 70 reinforced
Nonprecious alloy 42 Permanent zinc oxide eugenol cement,
Nonylphenoxy polyethanol deformation 179, 184 properties of 98t
homologues 202 restorative materials 78 zoe 97
Normal curing in boiling water 260f PFM alloys, composition of 342 Polymeric
Normal setting expansion 240, 241f, pH of crown 50
298 poly acid liquid 117t rigid inorganic matrix material
Nucleation 60 zinc phosphate cement 101t 144
Index 385
Polymerization 48, 78 Primer 140, 143f Resin
addition 49, 51 functions of 140 cements 123
by microwaves 265 Processing methods, based on 345 impression trays 280
degree of 50 Properties matrix 131
inhibitors 133 creep, rheological 32, 33 modified glass ionomer cement
advantages 133 rheological 111, 117 120
method of 49 viscoelasticity, rheological 33 tag formation 139f
shrinkage 133 viscosity, rheological 32 Responses 39
types of 50 Proportioning 300 Restorations 345
Polymers 228 Pseudoelasticity 221 finished 90f
classification of 48 Pseudoplastic 32 indirect 78
in dentistry, applications of 49 Pseudoplasticity 200 material 77
Polysilicone 208 Pulp 3 Restorative 49
impression material, addition 198 capping 41 cement, ideal requirements of 92
Polysulfide 51 Pulpotomy usage tests 41 dental materials, comparison of
impression material 191 Pumice 363 indirect 316t
composition of 192t Pure gold, characteristics of 149 material 19, 27, 28, 77
Porcelain 368 Pure titanium 314 classifications of 78
bonded to platinum foil 344 Putty powder 364 properties of 77
bonding 313 Pyrolytic silica 132 Reversible hydrocolloid 177
fused metal 334 See Agar impression material
fused to metal 342 Reversible hydrocolloid 33, 176
structure of 334
Q Rheological requirements 160
teeth 353 Quartz-tungsten halogen lamps 138 Rhombic crystal 11f
advantages 353 Quenching 71 Rhombohedral crystal 11f
Porosity 330 Ringless casting 325
classification of 330 Ringless casting system 309
Positive rake angle 357, 357f R Rockwell’s
Postcarve burnishing 90 Radial clearance angle 357f hardness number 24
Posterior restorations 78 Radiopaque denture base resins 272 hardness test 24, 24f
Pour type resins 265 Rake angle 356 test 24f
See Fluid resin technique Random copolymers 55 Root 3
Powder 262, 334 Rapid heat polymerized acrylics/ Rouge 364, 366
and liquid on paper mixing pad, hybrid acrylics 271 Rough surface 330f
dispension of 118f Reactor liquid 208 Rubber reinforced acrylics 271
manufacturing of 110 Rebasing 273 Ruthenium 312
ratio 240 Reciprocating rheometer 206 metals 307
Powdered gold 151 Reducing stress raisers 337
Power, mechanical properties 16 Reflected color 35 S
Precarve burnishing 90 Refractive index 37
Precious metals 304 Sag resistance 313
Refractory material 295 Sand 364
Precipitated Reline technique 209, 211f
chalk 365 blaster 328f
Relining 273 Sandwich technique 129
silica 132 denture 273
Precipitation hardening Sealing of occlusal rims 254f
Remedy 177 Secondary impression 254f
Preliminary impression 209, 254f for surface roughness 329t
Prepared chalk 366 Self-cure acrylic resin 262f
types of 268 Self-etching
Preproportioned alloy and powder Residual compressive stresses
87 adhesives 143
within surface of material, primer 143
Pressible ceramics 347 development of 336
Pressure 361 Self-glazing 340
Resilience 20 Semiprecious metals 304
Prevention of corrosion 46 Resilience in S-S graph 20f
Primary Separating medium 255
Resilient liners 274 composition of 255
colors 35 See Soft lining materials
screening tests 40 Set cement, structure of 94, 100, 105,
Resilient lining materials 50 110, 116
Setting reaction or chemistry 236 Special tray Superficial expansion, coefficient

Shank 356 differences between 159t of 28
Shear strain rate 33f materials 50 Surface impurities, removal of 151
Shear strength 23 Specific heat applications 27 Surface irregularities 329
Shear thickening 32 See Dilatant Spectrophotometer 36f Surface properties 12
Shelf-life of investment 299 Speed 361 Syneresis 176
Shrink-free ceramics 349 Spherical steel ball indenter 24f Synthetic
Silicate cements 104 Sponge gold 150 diamond abrasive 364
biological properties 105 Spring driven centrifugal casting plaster 243
chemical properties 106 machine 327f polymers 48
composition 104, 105 Sprue resins, chemistry of 48
dispension 105 and attachments, types of 321f waxes 285
esthetic properties 107 base 322f Syringe-tray technique 209
manipulation 107 design 320 See Double mix-single
manufacture 105 selection 321 impression technique
mechanical properties 106 size 320
properties 105 Spruing 320
rheological properties 106 purpose of 320
T
setting reaction 105 Squeeze dried technique 87 Tarnish
thermal properties 107 Stages in GIC mixing 118f causes for 43
Silicon 312 Stainless steel 218, 225 factors leading to 85
carbide 364
composition of 218t influences of 85
grease 362
types of 218t Tartaric acid 111
Siliconized alginates 188
wire 218f Tear strength 23, 179, 184, 197, 201
Silicophosphate cement dies 246
Stains 341 applications 23
Silver 307
Static creep 32 Temperature, effect of 298
amalgam dies 246
Steel burs 358 Tensile
cements 103
Steps in fluid resin technique 266 force is elongation 21
plated dies 246
Sticky wax 293f strength 22, 111, 117, 134
Simple cubic crystal 11f
Stock trays, differences between 159t stresses 337
Simple hexagonal crystal 11f
Strain test, indirect 22
Single composition high copper
importance of 17 Tetragonal crystal 11f
alloys 82
mechanical properties 16 Thermal
Single mix-single impression
types of 17 bonding 343
technique 211
Strength compatibility 337
Skin sensitization test 40
applications 22 conductivity 27, 134, 161, 166
Slip casting 350
of amalgam 83t applications 27
Small gillmore needle 238
types of 22 contraction 299
Small particle composite 135
Strengthening, based on 346 diffusivity 27, 86
Soft lining materials 274, 275t
Stress applications 27
Softening heat treatment 72, 310
corrosion 45 equilibrium phase diagrams 67
Soft-lining materials 276f
Sol to gel 176 flexural 16 expansion 86, 299, 301
Soldering 219 importance of 17 coefficient of 134, 161, 166
Solid mechanical properties 16 factors affecting 299
solutions, properties of 66 shear 16 properties 86, 112, 253, 288
state reactions 70 tensile 16 heat of fusion 26
Solidification 68 Styrene acrylonitrile 194 of silicate cement with tooth,
cooling curve 67f See Butyl rubber comparison of 107t
defects 330 Subperiosteal implants 224 selection of materials 107
of metal 59 Substitutional solid solutions 66 specific heat 27
shrinkage, compensation for 309 Substrate, properties of 362 requirements 161, 249
Soluble alginate solution 255 Subsurface porosity 331 response 48
Spatulation 338 Super cooled liquids 334 according to 250
effect of 299 Superelasticity 221 tempering 337
Index 387
Thermoplastic polymers 48 Tungsten 312 W
Thermoset polymers 49 carbide 364
Thermostatically controlled water bur 358 Washing 181
bath 167f bur advantages 358 Water
Third generation systems 141 bur disadvantages 359 ratio 240
Time allowable for casting 326 Two paste-dual cure system 125 settable
Time-temperature cooling curve 67 Two-paste system 208 cement 113, 116
Tin oxide 366 zinc phosphate cement 104
Tissue conditioners 276 sorption 134, 267
Titanium 226 U spray 362
alloys 220, 226, 314, 315 Wax
aluminum-vanadium alloys 226 Ultimate compressive stress 21 addition procedure 320
TMA alloy 220 See Titanium alloys application 21 distortion 290
Tooth Ultimate stress 21 elimination 324
angle 357, 358f Ultimate tensile stress 21 pattern by indirect technique,
colored restorative materials 130 Uncalcined gypsum 239 preparation of 289f
preparation 319, 356 Under triturated mix 88 pattern removal 321
properties of 4t Unsaturated groups, presence of 52 Waxing 320
structure Uses of stains 341 technique of 320
cross-section of 4f Utility wax 292 Weld decay 219
properties of 3 Wet
surface, preparation of 118 calcination 236
corrosion 44 See Electrochemical
Torch melting 325 V corrosion
Toughness 21
Toxicity 111 Vacuum investing field technique 181
Traditional composite 134 strength 300
machine 324f
Transformation toughening 337, 351 Whipping 338
procedure 323
Transmitted color 35 White light 35
Valence 66
Transosteal implants 224 Work, mechanical properties 16
Van der waals forces 10
Trapped gas porosities 331 Wrought structure 65
Varnish,
in casting, types of application of 127
causes for 331t painting of 127 Y
remedies for 331t selection of 127
Trapped gases 330 Yield strength 18, 308
Varying composition, effect of 297
Tray of material measured 18f
Veneer porcelain 350
adhesive 194, 197
Vibration 338
composition of 208
compound 169
Vicat penetrometer 207, 238f Z
Vicker’s hardness
materials 280 Zero angle 357
number 25
selection of 158 Zero rake angle 357f
test 25, 25f
Tree-like appearance 61f Zeta potential 31
Vinyl acrylics 271
See Dendritic growth from Zinc 307, 312
Viscoelasticity applications 33
nucleus oxide 365
Viscosity 33f, 111
Trial closure 258 advantages 96
Triclinic crystal 11f of sol 178
applications 96
Tripoli 364 Visible
classification 93
Triturated mix 88 light curing unit 137f
disadvantages 96
Trituration 87 spectrum, wavelength of different
manipulation 96
effect of 84 regions of 33t oxide eugenol cement 93, 93f
True breaking stress 22 Visual technique 36 properties 94
True solution 175 Vitreous phase 334 oxide eugenol impression paste
True strain 22 Volume 169
True stress 22 dispensers 87 composition of 170f
Tube impression technique 168, 213 shrinkage 341 setting reaction of 171
oxide eugenol composition 110 mechanical properties 109

factors affecting setting time dispension 109 properties 109
of 171t silicophosphate cement 108 rheological properties 109
liners 128 advantages 109 Zirconia ceramics 352
phosphate cement 15, 101f, 102f classification 108 Zirconium silicate 364
modifications of 103 composition 108 ZNO, reactivity of 111
polycarboxylate cement 15, 109, disadvantages 109 Zoe cement, mechanical properties
110f dispension 108 of 95t
manipulation 109 Zoe impression paste 169f

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Dental Materials Science

Dental Materials Science

Rama Krishna Alla

JAYPEE BROTHERS Medical Publishers (P) Ltd

Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers (P) Ltd.

Dental Materials Science

First Edition: 2013

Rama Krishna Alla

Kishore Ginjupalli MSc PhD Vijaya Lakshmi G MSc (Dent. Mate.)

Raghavendra Swamy MDS Sathyanarayana Raju Mantena MDS

• Resilience (Cushion Like) 20

• Tests for Evaluation of Biocompatibility 39

• Classification of Investments 296 • Properties 334

CROWN AND ROOT PULP

Table 1.1 Properties of tooth

SELECTION OF DENTAL MATERIALS

form of heat. This energy released is known as

Interatomic Secondary Bonds

van der Waals Forces

Table 3.1 Differences between physisorption and chemisorption

Importance of Stress and Strain

5. Breaking stress or fracture stress (describes elastic behavior of mate­rials). A high

The relationship between the maximum absorb considerable amounts of energy

Units: MJ/m3. Ductility

Applications Ductility represents the ability of a material to

TOUGHNESS Ultimate Compressive Stress

A material does not necessarily fracture at 3. Shear strength

Table 3.2 Hardness numbers of selected dental

to indicate the ability of a material to resist Table 3.3 Heat of fusion

HEAT OF FUSION Cobalt 1495 8.90

loses the sensation of hot and cold while eating

Figs 3.13A and B (A) Imbibition of fluids

• Load applied. Applications

Fig. 3.15 Relationship between viscosity and shear

Table 3.6 The electromagnetic spectrum

Nomenclature Frequency (Hz) Approximate wavelength (m)

response of the human eye to light coming from Hue

Fig. 3.16 Light transmission through a prism Complementary Colors

Fig. 3.17 Equilateral triangle representing color

base material. To match the pink soft tissues

PIGMENTATION LIGHT AND INTERFACES

then called as an isomeric pair; they are color

BIOMATERIALS • Age of the person.

1. Group I: Primary-screening tests Disadvantages of Cytotoxicity Tests

Advantages of Cytotoxicity Tests In these tests, the test material is implanted

Disadvantages placed. Observe the formation of dentinal bridge

accumulated components and other factors be mercury-free alternative to amalgam. Studies

Breakthroughs in the development of dental • Stain or discoloration arises from pigment

Flow chart 3.1 Classification of corrosion

Chemical or Dry Corrosion

The potential, which is exhibited by a metal

The growth of the polymer chain is a random

Addition Polymerization the same empirical formulas. In other words,

Termination by Direct Coupling In this termination process, the product

HOMOPOLYMERS AND COPOLYMERS 2. Random Copolymers

Advantages: Copolymerization may alter the

3. Copolymerization of methyl methacrylate

CROSS-LINKING Increases­ Decreases­

External Plasticizers SUGGESTED READING

Nucleation Grain Growth

until finally the dislocation reaches the boundary

STRAIN HARDENING OR WORK

Figs 5.5A to D A: Line dislocation (B to D) Dislocation motion

5. Breaking stress or fracture stress (describes elastic behavior of materials). A high

CROSS-LINKING Increases Decreases

Phases Functions Formula

Types Compressive (Mpa) Tensile Creep

cement, zinc polycarboxylate cement, and

Dissolved resins, e.g. Gives more Advantages

The conventional sealers generally are based on Property Values

Type of materials Initiator Activator