Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 271 (2004) 321–328

www.elsevier.com/locate/jcis

Removal of lead and chromium from wastewater using

bagasse fly ash—a sugar industry waste
V.K. Gupta a,∗ and Imran Ali b
a Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee 247667, India
b National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 247667, India

Received 24 July 2003; accepted 4 November 2003

Abstract
An inexpensive and effective adsorbent was developed from bagasse fly ash, obtained from a sugar industry, for the dynamic uptake of
lead and chromium. Lead and chromium are sorbed by the developed adsorbent up to 96–98%. The removal of these two metal ions up to
95–96% was achieved by column experiments at a flow rate of 0.5 ml min−1 . The adsorption was found to be exothermic in nature. The
adsorbent was successfully tried for the removal of lead and chromium from wastewater in our laboratory. The developed system for the
removal of two ions is very useful, economic, rapid, and reproducible.
 2003 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Adsorption; Chromium; Lead; Bagasse fly ash; Column studies

1. Introduction ness, nausea, vomiting, severe abdominal pain, anemia, and

Among various organic and inorganic pollutants, heavy
metal ions are very toxic and carcinogenic in nature [1,2].
The presence of heavy metals in the aquatic environment has
been of great concern because of their toxicity at lower con-
centrations. Some metal ions are cumulative poisons capable
of being assimilated and stored in the tissues of organisms,
causing noticeable adverse physiological effects. Lead and
chromium are very toxic metal ions, as they are carcino-
genic in nature [3]. The main effects of chromium metal
ions are on liver, kidney, and respiratory organs, with hem-
orrhagic effects, dermatitis, and ulceration of the skin for
chronic and subcronic exposure. Lead is the most significant
toxin of the heavy metals and its effects are of a toxicologi-
cal and neurotoxical nature which include irreversible brain
damage. Inorganic forms of lead typically affect the central
nervous system, peripheral nervous system, and hematopoi-
etic, renal, gastrointestinal, cardiovascular, and reproductive
systems. Organic lead toxicity tends to predominants affect
the central nervous system. The other hazardous effects of
lead are visual disturbances, convulsions, loss of cognitive
abilities, antisocial behaviors, constipation, anemia, tender-
gradual paralysis in the muscles. Therefore, the removal of
these toxic metal ions from water prior to supplying water
for drinking, bathing, etc. is very important and urgent.
The removal of the toxic metal ions from water is a
very difficult task due to the high cost of treatment meth-
ods [4]. Various methods exist for the removal of toxic metal
ions from aqueous solutions: reverse osmosis, ion exchange,
precipitation, electrodialysis, adsorption, etc. Among these
methods, adsorption is by far the most versatile and widely
used method for the removal of toxic metals [5–7]. A num-
ber of workers have used different materials as adsorbents
for the removal of different pollutants [8–20]. Activated
carbon has been used very frequently for the removal of
various metal ions from wastewater for more than three
decades [7,21] but it is very costly and in recent years the
search for low-cost adsorbent has grown [7]. In this study,
attempts have been made to develop a low-cost adsorbent
using bagasse fly ash, a waste byproduct of the sugar indus-
try, for the removal and recovery of lead and chromium ions
from wastewater.
2. Experimental

* Corresponding author. All chemicals and reagents used were of analytical grade
E-mail address: vinodfcy@iitr.ernet.in (V.K. Gupta). and were purchased from E. Merck, India/Germany. A pH
0021-9797/$ – see front matter  2003 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jcis.2003.11.007
322 V.K. Gupta, I. Ali / Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 271 (2004) 321–328
meter (Hach, USA) was used to measure the pH of solu-
tions. X-ray measurements were carried out by a Phillips
X-ray diffractometer employing nickel-filtered CuKα radi-
ation. The surface area of the adsorbent was measured by
a surface area analyzer (Model QS-7 Quantasorb surface
area analyzer). IR spectra of the sample were recorded on
an infrared spectrophotometer (FTIR Perkin–Elmer 1600).
The constituents of the prepared adsorbent were analyzed
following routine standard methods of chemical analysis
as described earlier [22]. The concentrations of lead and
chromium were determined on a PerkinElmer atomic ab-
sorption spectrometer (Model 3110).
2.1. Material development
Bagasse fly ash, a waste material of sugar industry, was
collected from a local sugar factory at Iqbalpur, India. The
material was treated with hydrogen peroxide (100 volumes)
at 60 ◦ C for 24 h to remove the adhering organic matter. The
resulting material was then washed with deionized water,
dried at 100 ◦ C, powdered, ground, and sieved to the desired
particle size before use. The material was stored in a vacuum
desiccator for further use.
2.2. Adsorption studies
Batch experiments were carried out using a series of
Erlenmeyer flasks of capacity 50 mL covered with Teflon
sheets to prevent any foreign particle contamination. The ef-
fects of pH, concentration, dose, temperature, and shaking
time were studied. Isotherms were run by taking different
concentrations of lead and chromium at the desired tem-
perature and pH. These concentrations were decided after a
good deal of preliminary investigation. After the required ex-
perimentation was over, solutions were centrifuged and the
concentrations of lead and chromium were determined in su-
pernatant using on atomic absorption spectrometer.
2.3. Kinetic studies
For kinetic studies the batch technique was used due
to its simplicity. A series of Erlenmeyer flasks of capac-
ity 50 mL containing a definite volume of solutions of lead
and chromium of known concentrations were kept in a ther-
mostatic shaking water bath. After the desired temperature
was attained, a known amount of the adsorbent was added
to each flask and the flasks were agitated mechanically. At
given time intervals, the solutions were centrifuged and the
supernatants were analyzed for lead and chromium using the
atomic absorption spectrometer. Equilibrium was achieved
in 80 min for lead and 60 min for chromium, respectively.
2.4. Column studies
Column for these studies was made of a Pyrex glass
tube (30 × 2 cm). The column on the right-hand side was
attached with a manometer by the two pressure points to
monitor the introduction of air in the column, if any. Wire
mesh of 250-B.S.S. (British Standard Size) gauge was fitted
at the pressure points, which prevented the entry of adsor-
bent particles at these points. The upper end of the column
was covered with a cover containing a tube connection to re-
move any air bubbles. The upper end is also attached to a
head tank from which the flow of wastewater is regulated.
The flow of the wastewater is also controlled by the stop-
per point at the lower end of the column. For packing the
column, the supporting medium, glass wool, was packed by
hydraulic filling. The weighed adsorbent material was kept
for 12 h in deionized water and then it was used to pack the
column. The column was kept undisturbed overnight for its
full settlement and saturation. The flow rate was varied to
achieve the maximum uptake of lead and chromium by this
fabricated column. The column runs were carried out up to
the point where the breakthrough capacity was consumed.
3. Results and discussion
The developed bagasse fly ash was found to be stable
in water and dilute acids and bases. The composition of
the adsorbent was SiO2 , 60.5%; Al2 O3 , 15.4%; CaO, 3.0%;
Fe2 O3 , 4.90%; MgO, 0.81%. The loss on ignition was found
to be 18.01% by weight. The density and porosity were
found to be 1.01 g cm−1 and 0.36 fraction, respectively.
The presence of mullite, haematite, kaolinite, α-quartz, γ -
alumina, and geolite is indicated by the X-ray diffraction
pattern of the bagasse fly ash d-spacing values. The sur-
face area of the adsorbent (200–250 µm) was found to be
450 m2 g−1 .
3.1. Effect of contact time
The adsorption experiments were carried out for differ-
ent contact times with a fixed adsorbent dose of 10 g l−1
at pH 6.0 for lead and 5.0 for chromium at 30 ◦ C. The re-
sults are plotted in Fig. 1, which clearly indicates that the
equilibrium time is 60 and 40 min for lead and chromium,
respectively (96–98%).
3.2. Effect of concentration
The adsorption experiments were carried out in the
concentration range of 5.0–70.0 ppm for lead and 5.0–
50.0 ppm for chromium at fixed pH (6.0 for lead and 5.0 for
chromium), temperature (30 ◦ C), and contact time (60 min
for lead and 40 min for chromium). The results are graphed
in Fig. 2 indicating 40 and 20 ppm as the maximum adsorp-
tion for lead and chromium, respectively. It is also interesting
to note that the adsorption becomes almost constant after 40
and 20 ppm concentrations of lead and chromium, respec-
tively.
 V.K. Gupta, I. Ali / Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 271 (2004) 321–328
Fig. 1. Effect of contact time on percent adsorption of lead and chromium.
Fig. 2. Percent adsorption of lead and chromium.
3.3. Effect of pH
The adsorption of lead and chromium was studied over
a pH range of 2.0–9.0 and the results are given in Fig. 3.
The maximum uptake of lead and chromium took place at
pH 6.0 and 5.0, respectively. It is also apparent from this
figure that the adsorption rises from 1.4 mg g−1 (pH 2.0)
to 3.8 mg g−1 (pH 6.0) for lead and 0.8 mg g−1 (pH 2.0)
to 1.8 mg g−1 (pH 5.0) for chromium and then starts to de-
crease in both the cases. The decrease of the adsorption at
higher pH may be attributed to the hydroxide formation of
lead and chromium.
3.4. Effect of dose
To achieve the maximum adsorption capacity of the ad-
sorbent for lead and chromium, the dose of the adsorbent
was varied from 2 to 16 g l−1 and it was found that a dose
323
Fig. 3. Effect of pH on percent adsorption of lead and chromium.
Fig. 4. Effect of adsorbent dose on percent adsorption of lead and
chromium.
of 10 g l−1 was sufficient for the maximum uptake of lead
and chromium under the reported experimental conditions.
These findings are shown in Fig. 4 and a perusal of this fig-
ure indicates that the adsorption increase from 1.4 mg g−1
(2 g l−1 dose) to 3.8 mg g−1 (10 g l−1 dose) for lead and from
0.5 mg g−1 (2 g l−1 dose) to 1.8 mg g−1 (10 g l−1 dose) for
chromium, respectively. It is also seen from this figure that
a further increase in dose (greater than 10 g l−1 ) does not
affect the adsorption greatly for either the metal ions.
3.5. Effect of temperature
The adsorption studies were carried out at three different
temperature, 30, 40 and 50 ◦ C, and the results of these exper-
iments are presented in Figs. 5 and 6 for lead and chromium,
respectively. It is clear from these figures that the adsorp-
tion remains almost constant at lower concentrations of lead
324 V.K. Gupta, I. Ali / Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 271 (2004) 321–328

Table 1
Effect of interfering ions on the uptake of lead and chromium
Interfering ions Maximum percent reduction in the uptake of
Lead Chromium
Sodium 10.8 10.2
Potassium 9.0 11.0
Calcium 8.2 10.0
Magnesium 7.6 8.3
Chloride 4.7 5.0
Sulfate 4.2 4.5
Nitrate 4.0 4.0
Phosphate 3.1 3.0

a non-selective nature of the adsorbent during the uptake of

these two metal ions in the presence of other competitive
metal ions.

Fig. 5. Adsorption isotherms of lead at different temperatures. 3.7. Effect of particle size

The batch adsorption experiments were carried out using

three different particle sizes, 100–150, 200–250, and 300–
350 µm at pH 6.0 for lead and 5.0 for chromium, with an
adsorbent dose of 10 g l−1 , shaking time 80 min for lead
and 60 min for chromium at 30 ◦ C. The % adsorption of
lead and chromium was found to be 99.9, 95.0, and 88.0%
using the above mentioned sizes. The adsorbent of particle
size 200–250 µm was selected for adsorption studies due to
the sufficient adsorption capacity and easiness of its prepara-
tion. Moreover, the centrifugation of this particle size adsor-
bent does not require any special attention and labor during
experiment. Contrary to this, the adsorbent of particle size
300–350 µm has a poor adsorption capacity, while it is very
difficult to prepare the adsorbent of particle size 100–150 µm
and requires a lot of labor in centrifugation.

3.8. Adsorption isotherm

Fig. 6. Adsorption isotherms of chromium at different temperatures.
and chromium at 30, 40, and 50 ◦ C. However, it decreases
at higher concentrations for both the adsorbates. It was also
observed that the maximum adsorption occurred at 30 ◦ C for
both lead and chromium metal ions and the order of the
adsorption for both the metal ions was 30 > 40 > 50 ◦ C.
Since the adsorption is decreasing at higher temperatures it
is exothermic in nature.
3.6. Effect of interfering ions
Natural waters contain various ions such as sodium,
potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, nitrate,
and phosphate and, therefore, the effect of these ions on the
adsorption of lead and chromium was determined. It was ob-
served that a decrease in the scavenging efficiency of the
adsorbent took place. The adsorption of lead and chromium
was found to decrease 3.0–10.8% (Table 1) in the presence
of the above mentioned metal ions. These findings suggest
To find out the mechanistic parameters associated with
lead and chromium adsorption, the results obtained by the
adsorption experiments were analyzed by Langmuir and Fre-
undlich models.
3.8.1. Langmuir isotherm
The Langmuir isotherm has been used by various workers
for the sorption study of a variety of compounds. The model
assumes uniform energies of adsorption onto a surface and
no transmigration of adsorbate in the plane of the surface.
The linear form of the Langmuir isotherm is given by the
equation
1/qe = 1/Q0 + 1/bQ0 Ce , (1)
where, qe is the amount adsorbed (mg g−1 ), Ce is the equi-
librium concentration of the adsorbate (mg l−1 ), and Q0 and
b are the Langmuir constants related to maximum adsorption
capacity and energy of adsorption, respectively. When 1/qe
is plotted against 1/Ce , a straight line with slope 1/bQ0 is
 V.K. Gupta, I. Ali / Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 271 (2004) 321–328 325

Fig. 7. Graphical representation of Langmuir isotherm. Fig. 8. Graphical representation of Freundlich isotherm.

Table 2
Langmuir and Freundlich constants for lead and chromium
Adsorbates Langmuir constants Freundlich constants
Q0 (mg g−1 ) b n KF
◦
30 C 40 ◦ C 50 ◦ C 30 ◦ C 40 ◦ C 50 ◦ C 30 ◦ C 40 ◦ C 50 ◦ C 30 ◦ C 40 ◦ C 50 ◦ C
Pb 2.50 2.30 2.10 0.021 0.025 0.029 8.0 9.0 9.6 2.57 2.50 2.45
Cr 4.35 4.30 4.25 0.089 0.093 0.097 12.05 12.8 13.1 1.86 1.75 1.66

obtained (Fig. 7), which shows that the adsorption of lead The values of RL were found to be 0.017–0.04 for lead and
and chromium follows the Langmuir isotherm. Langmuir 0.013–0.014 for chromium, respectively, which indicates fa-
constants b and Q0 are calculated from Fig. 7 and the values vorable adsorption (RL < 1).
of these at three different temperatures, 30, 40, and 50 ◦ C are
given in Table 2. 3.9. Kinetic studies

3.8.2. Freundlich isotherm Thermodynamic parameters obtained for the adsorption

The adsorption data of lead and chromium are also ana- systems were calculated using the following equations and
lyzed by a Freundlich model. The logarithmic form of the the values are given in Table 3:
Freundlich model is given by the equation (2)
G0 = −RT ln b  , (4)


log qe = log KF + 1/n log Ce , (2) ln b2 /b1 = (H /R) (T1 − T2 )/T2 T1 ,
0
(5)

where qe is the amount adsorbed (mg g−1 ), Ce is the equi- S 0 = (H 0 − G0 )/T . (6)
librium concentration of the adsorbate (mg l−1 ), and KF and b , b2 , and b1 are the Langmuir constants at 30, 40, and
n are Freundlich constants related to adsorption capacity 50 ◦ C, respectively, obtained from the Langmuir model.
and adsorption intensity, respectively [23]. When log qe is Other terms have their usual meaning. Free energy increases
plotted against log Ce , a straight line with slope 1/n is ob- with increased temperature (Table 3) indicating a decrease in
tained (Fig. 8), which shows that the adsorption of lead and adsorption at higher temperature, i.e., the exothermic nature
chromium follows a Freundlich isotherm. Freundlich con- of the adsorption.
stants KF and n are calculated from Fig. 8 and the values of
these at three different temperatures, 30, 40, and 50 ◦ C, are
Table 3
given in Table 2. Thermodynamic parameters for lead and chromium
The dimensionless separation factor (RL ) [24] was calcu-
Adsorbates G0 (kJ mol−1 ) H 0 S 0
lated from the Langmuir isotherm using the following equa-
tion: 30 ◦ C 40 ◦ C 50 ◦ C (kJ mol−1 ) (JK−1 mol−1 )
Lead −3.43 −3.18 −3.20 11.44 48.3
Chromium −1.46 −1.09 −0.96 14.24 49.0
RL = 1/(1 + bCe ). (3)
326 V.K. Gupta, I. Ali / Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 271 (2004) 321–328

Table 4
Other parameters for the uptake of lead and chromium
Temp. (◦ C) Qt F B Bt Di D0 Ea S #
(s−1 ) (s−1 ) cm2 s−1 cm2 s−1 (kJ mol−1 ) (J K−1 mol−1 )
30 (a) 4.30 0.97 0.019 1.33 7.70 × 10−7 7.60 × 10−7 −10.87 −172.6
(b) 2.20 0.96 0.024 1.20 9.70 × 10−7 9.60 × 10−7 −12.47 −171.8
40 (a) 4.20 0.97 0.019 1.33 7.70 × 10−7 7.60 × 10−7 −7.88 −172.7
(b) 2.10 0.95 0.022 1.10 8.90 × 10−7 8.80 × 10−7 −5.14 −172.1
50 (a) 4.10 0.97 0.019 1.33 7.70 × 10−7 7.60 × 10−7 −15.77 −172.7
(b) 2.00 0.93 0.019 0.95 7.70 × 10−7 7.60 × 10−7 −8.92 −172.7
(a) Lead, (b) chromium. Qt : amount adsorbed at 70 min for lead and 50 min for chromium, respectively. F : fractional attainment at equilibrium. B: a constant
equal to π 2 Di /r 2 (r = radius of the adsorbent particle, which is 200 µ). Bt: B × t. Di : effective diffusion constant in the adsorbent phase at different
temperatures at 70 min for lead and 50 min for chromium, respectively. D0 : effective diffusion constant in the adsorbent phase at different temperatures at
24 h (∞ time). Ea : energy of activation of adsorption. S # : entropy of activation.
Note: the values of Q0 at 30, 40, and 50 ◦ C for 24 h used are 4.45, 4.30, and 4.20 for lead and 2.30, 2.20, and 2.15 for chromium, respectively. The value of d
(average distance between the successive exchange sites) is taken as 5 Å.

To understand the practical application of adsorption and
designing the sorption reactor, kinetic data have been treated
by the model given by Boyd et al. [25], which is valid under
the experimental conditions used. This is in accord with the
observations of Reichenberg [26], as given by the equations
∞
6 
F =1− 2 (1/n2 ) exp(−n2 Bt),
π change sites and is taken as 5 Å. R, h, and k are the gas,
n=1
B = π 2 Di /r 2 ,
where F is the fractional attainment of equilibrium at time t,
Di is effective diffusion coefficient of adsorbates in the ad-
sorbent phase, r, is the radius of the adsorbent particle (as-
sumed to be spherical), and the values of n are the integers.
The fractional attainment of equilibrium can be deter-
mined by the equation
F = Qt /Q∞ ,
where Qt and Q∞ are the amounts adsorbed after time t and
after infinite time, respectively. For every calculated value of
F corresponding values of Bt are calculated from Eq. (7)
and the values of Di are calculated using Eq. (8). The linear-
ity test of Bt vs t plots (not given) is employed to find out the
particle diffusion control mechanism. At lower concentra-
tions Bt vs t plots did not pass through the origin, signifying
the adsorption to be film diffusion, but at higher concentra-
tion the same were linear up to a certain point and passed
through the origin, indicating the adsorption to be particle
diffusion in nature [27].
The values of Ea were calculated from the equation (Ta-
ble 4)
log K2 /K1 = (Ea /2.303R)(T2 − T1 /T2 T1 ),
where K1 and K2 are rate constants at temperatures T1
and T2 . The values of Ea were also calculated from the
slope (slope = −Ea /2.303R) of the graph plotted between
log K vs 1/T (plot is not given), and it was found that the
values were in good agreement with those obtained from
Eq. (10).
The values of D0 , the pre-exponential constant (analo-
gous to the Arrhenius frequency factor), and S # , the en-
tropy of activation, are calculated from the equations
Di = D0 exp[−Ea /RT ], (11)
D0 = 2.72d kT / h exp[S /R],
2 #
(12)
(7) where d is the average distance between the successive ex-
(8) Planck, and Boltzmann constants, respectively. The values
of Ea , Di , D0 , S # , and other parameters are given in Ta-
ble 4. The negative values of S # reflect that no significant
change occurs in the internal structure of bagasse fly ash dur-
ing the adsorption process.
It may be urged that the effective diffusion coefficient Di
in these systems is mainly composed of two components,
which are due to the simultaneous diffusion of the ingoing
adsorbates through pores of different widths and different
(9) electronic fields, along with the diffusion path. The diffusion
within the pores of wider paths and weaker retarding forces
of electrostatic interaction (particularly at the surface of the
sorbent) accounts for the faster one and the one within the
pores of narrower mesh widths and stronger retarding forces
accounts for the slower component of Di . As the tempera-
ture increases, the contribution of the faster component of
Di decreases. This is due to the decreasing mobility of ingo-
ing metal ions at higher temperature, which to some extent
overcomes the influence of retarding forces.
3.10. Column studies
The results obtained from adsorption batch experiments
were used to remove lead and chromium metal ions by
(10) column. The flow rate was varied to achieve the maxi-
mum removal of the adsorbates and it was found that the
maximum uptake of lead and chromium was achieved at
flow rate 1.0 ml min−1 . About 95–96% lead and chromium
are removed at lower flow rates (1.0 ml min−1 ), while this
decreases with increased flow rate. The results obtained
from the column experiments were applied to the well-
known bed-depth-service-time (BDST) model proposed by
 V.K. Gupta, I. Ali / Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 271 (2004) 321–328
Fig. 9. Breakthrough curves for lead and chromium.
Hutchins [28] and it was found that the results obtained
in column experiments for lead and chromium obey this
model very well, which indicates the feasibility of these col-
umn experiments. The breakthrough curves (Fig. 9) were
used to calculate the column capacity at complete exhaus-
tion and it was found to be 35.0 and 25.0 mg g−1 for lead and
chromium, respectively, which is greater than in the batch
experiments (30.0 and 20 mg g−1 of lead and chromium, re-
spectively). The high column capacity may be due to the fact
that a continuously large concentration gradient occurred at
the interface zones as it passes through the column, while
the concentration gradient decreased with time in the batch
experiments.
Regeneration and recovery of the column is a very impor-
tant aspect in wastewater treatment processes and, therefore,
desorption of lead and chromium was tried with a number of
eluents (methanol, ethanol, sodium hydroxide, sulfuric acid,
hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, etc.) and it was found that the
desorption of these two metal ions occurred by 5% HNO3 .
The column was allowed to pass 5% HNO3 at flow rate of
2.5 ml min−1 for about 3 h and then again allowed to pass
deionized water at a flow rate of 2.50 ml min−1 for about 3 h.
It was observed that the column loses about 2% capacity af-
ter the first run and about 3–10% after more than five runs.
Therefore, the column can be used for at least 10 runs with-
out any problem. It is very important to mention here that
bagasse fly ash is an easily available, inexpensive material,
and its cost is very low in comparison to the cost of regener-
ation. Moreover, the used bagasse fly ash can be used as raw
material for building materials. Therefore, there is no need
to regenerate bagasse fly ash in columns.
4. Cost estimation
The cost of the cheapest variety of carbon available in
India is about US $ 285.0 per ton. The waste bagasse fly
ash costs about US $ 20.0 per ton, which include the cost
of its purchase, transport, chemicals, electrical energy used
327
in the process, and labor required. Therefore, the developed
bagasse fly ash adsorbent may be considered as a good re-
placement for commercially available carbons.
5. Conclusion
Bagasse fly ash obtained from the local sugar indus-
try was found to be effective for the removal of lead and
chromium from wastewater. The removal of the lead and
chromium by bagasse fly ash takes place through a parti-
cle diffusion mechanism. Adsorption follows both Langmuir
and Freundlich models. The adsorption was found to be
exothermic in nature and lead and chromium are sorbed by
the developed adsorbent up to 96–98%. The removal of these
two metal ions was achieved up to 95–96% by column op-
erations at a flow rate of 0.5 ml min−1 . In view of all these
findings, it may be concluded that the developed bagasse fly
ash system for the removal of lead and chromium is very
useful, economic, rapid, and reproducible. Therefore, this
system can be used for the successful removal of lead and
chromium from wastewater and any other effluent.
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