ROAD RESEARCH LABORATORY

Ministry of Transport
RRL REPORT NO. 34

HUMAN TOLERANCE LEVELS FOR

BRIDGE VIBRATIONS ~,

by

D. R. Leonard

HARMONDSWORTH
ROAD RESEARCH LABORATORY

1966
 CONTENTS

;-Page

PAbgtra'ct ,1

1 1. t , I n t r o d u c t l o n ,1

22. EEx~it~tiO~.forces 22
22~ 1 ",~Wifid f o r c e s 22
? 2~-'2 \ V ~ h i c l e ~forces :; 3
Z 2~ 3 P P e d e ° s t r i a d ~ f o r c e s 44

S 3. RRe~sponSe~bf ~the b r i d g e ~'structure 44

44. RR~a.ction,bf :the~bridge" u s e r 55

4 4] 1 ~ i H u m a n r e a c t i o n s ' t o V i b r a t i o n s 75
44~2 P P a S s e n g e r s : i n vehicles 77
4 4~ 3 ~ P e d e s t i , 4 a n s 77

5 5. HHUman-x, i b r a t i o m t s t d d i e s ,8
5 5~ 1 E E s t a b H s h e d c l e v ~ l s bf, human, t o l e r a n c e :to Vibrations ", 8
f: 5~' 2 t~R-.~R.L;. L a b o r a t o : r y , t e s t s , o n ' . p e d e s t r i a n s : a n d
,': . m e a s u r e m e n t s : ' o n •b r i d g e s '9

6 6 . '~Mea~Sureme'n~ts:and:interpretations o f v i b r a t i o n s o n , b r i d g e s ~.10
',6~ 1 ~PrevioUs ~studies ~I0
,6," 2 C C o m p a r i s o n , o f ~ l a b o r a t o r y ~ and : f i e l d ' t e s t s i 11

: .7. ;~De;sign.c:riter4a foi'<bridge vibrations ~,12

- .7:i 1 rExisting c r i t e r i a ~.;12
- 72:2 ~ D e s i g n " p r o p o s a l s "]3

h~. r Uaterarvibrations ;-14

99. F-F.tfrther.work , ~15

: ~10.~Summa:ry ~t 5

- =ll.:<References , "16

C R O W N COPYRIGHT 1966

E x t r a c t s f r o m the text may be reproduced provided

the s o u r c e is acknowledged
Ownership of the Transport Research
Laboratory was transferred from the
Department of Transport to a subsidiary of
the Transport Research Foundation on 1st
April 1996.

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Extracts from the text may be reproduced,
except for commercial purposes, provided
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 H U M A N TOLERANCE LEVELS FOR
BRIDGE V I B R A T I O N S

ABSTRACT

The p r o b l e m of human r e a c t i o n to b r i d g e v i b r a t i o n is e x a m i n e d in o r d e r to
d e t e r m i n e a c c e p t a b l e l i m i t s up to w h i c h d e s i g n e r s can a l l o w b r i d g e m o v e -
ment. T h e s e l i m i t s a r e d e f i n e d by t h e r e a c t i o n of p e d e s t r i a n s ; s e p a r a t e
b o u n d a r i e s e x i s t f o r w a l k i n g and standing s u b j e c t s .

An e x a m i n a t i o n is m a d e of the d y n a m i c s y s t e m , w h i c h m a k e s up the
p r o b l e m , in t e r m s of the e x c i t i n g f o r c e s , b r i d g e r e s p o n s e and u s e r r e a c -
tion, so that r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s can be given f o r m i n i m i s i n g v i b r a t i o n s .

It is shown that, p r o v i d e d s t i f f n e s s and d a m p i n g within a s t r u c t u r e

a r e a d e q u a t e , t h e r e a r e no f r e q u e n c y r a n g e s to b e a v o i d e d f o r t h e n a t u r a l
f r e q u e n c i e s of b r i d g e s .

D e t a i l s a r e given of r e l a t e d w o r k on h u m a n r e a c t i o n to v i b r a t i o n s .

I. I N T R O D U C T I O N

The m a j o r i t y of e x i s t i n g b r i d g e s have few s i g n i f i c a n t v i b r a t i o n p r o b l e m s , a s f a i r l y

c o n s e r v a t i v e d e s i g n s have t e n d e d to give r e l a t i v e l y low l i v e l o a d to d e a d l o a d r a t i o s ,
t o g e t h e r with a d e q u a t e s t r u c t u r a l s t i f f n e s s and d a m p i n g . S e v e r a l d e v e l o p m e n t s a r e
likely to change this s i t u a t i o n : -

(a) R e f i n e m e n t s in s t r u c t u r a l a n a l y s i s , and i m p r o v i n g k n o w l e d g e of m a t e r i a l
properties.

(b) W i d e r u s e of p r e s t r e s s e d concrete, composite construction, all-welded struc-

t u r e s and b a t t l e d e c k s .

(c) Goods v e h i c l e s of h i g h e r w e i g h t s and s p e e d s

(d) C u r r e n t a e s t h e t i c t a s t e s which r e q u i r e m o r e s l e n d e r l i n e s in s t r u c t u r e s .

T h e s e f a c t o r s t o g e t h e r with t r e n d s t o w a r d s the u s e of l i m i t s t a t e d e s i g n , in
which the a p p r o p r i a t e s a f e t y f a c t o r f o r e a c h limit s t a t e is r e d u c e d to a r e a l i s t i c
m i n i m u m , will tend to r e s u l t in l i v e l i e r s t r u c t u r e s .

T h i s p a p e r t h e r e f o r e r e v i e w s the c u r r e n t p o s i t i o n of v i b r a t i o n s in t h e d e s i g n
of highway b r i d g e s , and p r o p o s e s l e v e l s f o r u s e in d e s i g n c r i t e r i a . T h e s e l e v e l s a r e
b a s e d e s s e n t i a l l y on l i m i t s d e r i v e d f r o m human r e a c t i o n and t o l e r a n c e to v i b r a t i o n s .
The human body is so s e n s i t i v e to v i b r a t i o n s that, in g e n e r a l , l i m i t s of t o l e r a n c e a r e
r e a c h e d at l e v e l s which a r e l e s s s e v e r e than would n o r m a l l y give r i s e to d i s t r e s s in
bridge structures.
 I n f o r m a t i o n on human r e a c t i o n s is c o l l e c t e d f r o m a v a r i e t y of s o u r c e s , p a r t i c u -
l a r l y f r o m the fields of land and a i r t r a n s p o r t a t i o n . However, the p r o b l e m of defining
l i m i t s b a s e d on human r e a c t i o n s to b r i d g e v i b r a t i o n s is b a s i c a l l y different f r o m the
e n d u r a n c e p r o b l e m s a s s o c i a t e d with t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and m a c h i n e r y as, a p a r t f r o m the
v i b r a t i o n s t h e m s e l v e s being of a t r a n s i e n t nature, the bridge u s e r n o r m a l l y only
o c c u p i e s a b r i d g e f o r a s h o r t p e r i o d of t i m e . Due to the lack of information on this
a s p e c t of v i b r a t i o n s , s u b j e c t i v e t e s t s w e r e c a r r i e d out at the L a b o r a t o r y to d e t e r m i n e
the r e a c t i o n of people when walking and standing on a vibrating bridge. A s u m m a r y
of t h e s e t e s t s is given in Section 5.2, and the r e s u l t s u s e d in defining t o l e r a n c e
levels.

The m e c h a n i c s of the b r i d g e / u s e r s y s t e m is d i s c u s s e d in t e r m s of the s e p a r a t e

c o m p o n e n t s involved. It can be r e g a r d e d a s a r e s p o n s e p r o b l e m * consisting of t h r e e
interacting parts:-

(a) Excitation of the s t r u c t u r e

(b) R e s p o n s e of the b r i d g e to the excitation
(c) The r e a c t i o n of the b r i d g e u s e r to the r e s u l t i n g b r i d g e m o v e m e n t .

E a c h p a r t is e x a m i n e d to indicate its influence on the s y s t e m as a whole; how-

e v e r , it is the final r e a c t i o n of the u s e r which d e t e r m i n e s the a c c e p t a b i l i t y of the
vibrations.

2. E X C I T A T I O N FORCES

Three sources of excitation exist for highway bridges viz:- wind, vehicle and pedes-
trian forces.

2 . 1 Wind f o r c e s

F o r c e s due to wind a f f e c t the u s e r in two ways; d i r e c t l y and indirectly.

D i r e c t action of wind on the u s e r i s only mentioned h e r e f o r c o m p l e t e n e s s .

T h i s could be a s e r i o u s p r o b l e m f o r p e d e s t r i a n s and v e h i c l e s on exposed b r i d g e s
s u c h a s s u s p e n s i o n b r i d g e s , and f o r v e h i c l e s on b r i d g e s whose approach r o a d s a r e
s h i e l d e d by s u r r o u n d i n g o b j e c t s , acting a s w i n d b r e a k s . This a s p e c t of design r e l a t e s
m o r e s p e c i f i c a l l y to p r o v i s i o n of p r o t e c t i v e p a r a p e t s .

I n d i r e c t l y , wind c a n a f f e c t the u s e r by exciting the s t r u c t u r e . It is the c l a s s of

s t r u c t u r e r e q u i r i n g d e s i g n f o r s t a b i l i t y in winds which is likely to be m o s t affected.
R e d u c t i o n of wind e x c i t a t i o n can be a c h i e v e d by i n c r e a s i n g s t r u c t u r a l stiffness, and
a s s i s t e d by a s high a value of s t r u c t u r a l damping a s p o s s i b l e . In addition a e r o d y -
n a m i c d e s i g n is u s e d to r e d u c e a e r o d y n a m i c forcing.

* T h e s u b j e c t of b r i d g e s t a b i l i t y is not d i s c u s s e d h e r e a s this p r o b l e m is mainly

c o n f i n e d to s u s p e n s i o n b r i d g e s , e x c i t e d by wind f o r c e s , for which well e s t a b l i s h e d
t e c h n i q u e s of c a l c u l a t i o n and m o d e l t e s t i n g exist.

2
 It is p o s s i b l e that d e s i g n f o r the a v o i d a n c e
wind v e l o c i t i e s m a y not be p r a c t i c a b l e on long
u n e c o n o m i c s t r u c t u r a l p e n a l t y . The t e m p o r a r y
in t h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s , although it is p o s s i b l e
p r o v i d e a g r e a t e r d a n g e r at such v e l o c i t i e s .
of l a r g e v i b r a t i o n s up to t h e h i g h e s t
s p a n b r i d g e s w i t h o u t i n c u r r i n g an
c l o s u r e of a b r i d g e m a y be n e c e s s a r y
that the d i r e c t w i n d p r o b l e m w o u l d

2.2 Vehicle forces

V e h i c l e s p r o v i d e the m a j o r s o u r c e of e x c i t a t i o n on h i g h w a y b r i d g e s . T h e n a t u r a l
f r e q u e n c y r a n g e of m o s t v e h i c l e s is 1-4 c . p . s , on t h e i r s u s p e n s i o n s y s t e m s ( i n c l u d i n g
t y r e s ) and a p p r o x i m a t e l y 8 - 2 0 c . p . s , f o r w h e e l hop (i.e. t h e m o t i o n of t h e w h e e l - a x l e
s y s t e m on t h e t y r e s ) . V e h i c l e s p r o d u c e e x c i t a t i o n at t h e s e f r e q u e n c i e s if t h e y t h e m -
s e l v e s a r e excited, f o r e x a m p l e by i r r e g u l a r i t i e s in r o a d s u r f a c e s and d i s c o n t i n u i -
t i e s at b r i d g e a b u t m e n t s and e x p a n s i o n j o i n t s . T h i s t y p e of e x c i t a t i o n can b e r e -
duced to a m i n i m u m by e n s u r i n g a s m o o t h s u r f a c e p r o f i l e b e t w e e n a p p r o a c h r o a d s
and bridge, t h e action of a v e h i c l e on a b r i d g e then b e i n g t h e t r a v e l l i n g l o a d e f f e c t .
The i n c r e a s i n g weight and s p e e d s of g o o d s v e h i c l e s will p r o v i d e a g r e a t e r p o t e n t i a l
f o r exciting b r i d g e s t r u c t u r e s .
An i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r is the length of t i m e that a v e h i c l e o c c u p i e s a b r i d g e . T a b l e
I s h o w s c r o s s i n g t i m e s of b r i d g e s f o r d i f f e r e n t b r i d g e s p a n s and v e h i c l e s p e e d s .

TABLE I

Vehicle times for c r o s s i n g b r i d g e s (seconds)

S )an (ft)
Vehicle speed
(miles/h) 100 150 200 300 400

15 4.5 6.8 9.1 13.6 18.2

30 2.3 3.4 4.5 6.8 9.1
45 1.5 2.3 3.0 4.5 6.1
60 1.1 1.7 2.3 3.4 4.5

F o r a t y p i c a l b r i d g e of 150 ft. s p a n and with a v e h i c l e s p e e d of 30 m . p . h . , t h i s t i m e is

only 3 . 4 s e c o n d s . Even allowing t i m e f o r v i b r a t i o n s to d e c a y , t h e t o t a l p e r i o d of
v i b r a t i o n is still s h o r t . It is t h e r e f o r e only on b r i d g e s w h i c h t a k e c o n t i n u o u s s t r e a m s
of t r a f f i c o r on v e r y long b r i d g e s that the d u r a t i o n of t h e v i b r a t i o n s b e c o m e s m o r e
p r o n o u n c e d . On H a m m e r s m i t h B r i d g e , which is r e g a r d e d a s a l i v e l y s t r u c t u r e , t h e
l o n g e s t p e r i o d of continuous v i b r a t i o n s u n d e r n o r m a l h e a v y t r a f f i c c o n d i t i o n s w a s
found to l a s t j u s t o v e r 1 minute, but even then individual p e a k v i b r a t i o n s r a r e l y l a s t -
ed f o r a s long a s 10 s e c o n d s .

S e v e r e e x c i t a t i o n can be p r o d u c e d by h e a v y v e h i c l e s w h e n p u l l i n g a w a y f r o m r e s t
o r when b r a k i n g . This p a r t i c u l a r p r o b l e m is a c c e n t u a t e d in t o w n s b y t r a f f i c l i g h t s ,
and in p l a c e s w h e r e t r a f f i c c o n g e s t i o n o c c u r s .

E v e n l y s p a c e d v e h i c l e s t r a v e l l i n g at the s a m e s p e e d g i v e r i s e to r e g u l a r o s c i l -
l a t o r y loading. The b r i d g e r e s p o n s e to t h i s e x c i t a t i o n m a y b e m a g n i f i e d if t h e n a t u r a l
p e r i o d of t h e b r i d g e i s s i m p l y r e l a t e d to t h e t i m e i n t e r v a l b e t w e e n v e h i c l e s . C o n -
t i n u o u s s p a n s w i t h e q u a l d i s t a n c e s between' s u p p o r t s would a g g r a v a t e ~ i s e f f e c t .

2.3 Pedestrian forces

A p a r t f r o m b o d i e s of m a r c h i n g t r o o p s , who t r a d i t i o n a l l y b r e a k step on c r o s s i n g
a b r i d g e , s t r u c t u r e s d e s i g n e d to c a r r y v e h i c l e s a r e u n l i k e l y to r e g i s t e r a n y s e r i o u s
m o v e m e n t f r o m p e d e s t r i a n s . H e n c e t h e i r e f f e c t will onl~,cQn~ern, ; f ~ t b r i d g e s .

T h e n o r m a l w a l k i n g r a t e o f p e o p l e va,ri~es up~ to~.approximately 2 . 3 p a c e s p e r

s e c o n d . It i s p o s s i b l e to achiev.e 3'.:0,pa,c e s p e r second,~but t h i s r e p r e s e n t s an u n -
r e a l i s t i c w a l k i n g r a t e : (.The r a t e of m a r c h i n g of a L i g h t I n f a n t r y r e g i m e n t is 140
p a c e s p e r m i n u t e i . e . 2.,3 p a c e s p e r s e c o n d ) .

A p o t e n t i a l f o r m of e x t r e m e e x c i t a t i o n of. a light f o o t b r i d g e s t r u c t u r e is t h e
d e l i b e r a t e f o r c i n g at r e s o n a n c e by g r o u p s of people. T h i s is p o s s i b l y m o r e of a
s o c i a l p r o b l e m , but s h o u l d not be i g n o r e d .

T h e u s e of f o o t b r i d g e s by h o r s e s m u s t a l s o be included;. A n o r m a l u p p e r w e i g h t
l i m i t f o r a r i d i n g h o r s e can be t a k e n a s 3/4 ton a l t h o u g h h o r s e s can be up to 1 t o n in
w e i g h t . It w o u l d be n o r m a l f o r a r i d e r to dismount, and l e a d a h o r s e at w a l k i n g p a c e
a c r o s s s u c h a , b r i d g e , b u t w h e r e t h e h o u s e is rid~len a t - m e , r e ~ walking s p e e d , ex-
c i t a t i o n f r e q u e n c i e s o f u p to: an e s t i m a t e d 3 c y c l e s p e r ~,second ~can occur:. Fbr~Uiese
b r i d g e s t h e r e s u l t i n g l ~ r g e r l i v e l o a d to d e a d load r a t i o should be noted :and due
allowance made.

3. R E S P O N S E O F THE: B R I D G E STRUCT,:URE'

B r i d g e r e s p o n s e to a m o v i n g l o a d is d e t e r m i n e d by the m a s s , s t i f f n e s s a n d d a m p i n g
of t h e b r i d g e a n d t h e d y n a m i c p r o P e r t i e s of t h e m o v i n g l o a d s . R e s p o n s e :of t h e b r i d g e
s t r u c t u r e w i l l be a t t h e f r e q u e n c y of the a p p l i e d e x c i t i n g f o r c e as: well a s at t h e
n a t u r a l f r e q u e n c y of the bridge.

T h e n o r m a l r a n g e of t h e f u n d a m e n t a l f r e q u e n c i e s of b r i d g e s t r u c t u r e s is I to
20 c . p . s . , a l t h o u g h it can be a s low a s 1/4 c . p . s , f o r s u s p e n s i o n b r i d g e s . T h i s c o i n c i -
d e s w i t h t h e r a n g e of f r e q u e n c i e s of v e h i c l e s , p e d e s t r i a n s and h o r s e s given above. It
c a n t h e r e f o r e be e x p e c t e d t h a t s o m e c o i n c i d e n c e of f r e q u e n c i e s will o c c u r b e t w e e n
b r i d g e and m o v i n g l o a d s : i . e . t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a r e s o n a n t ,condition e x i s t s .

T h e a m o u n t of d a m p i n g p r e s e n t in a s t r u c t u r e g r e a t l y a f f e c t s ~ h e magn,it:ude of
r e s p o n s e to an e x t e r n a l f o r c e n e a r r e s o n a n c e . If it is v e r y low l a r g e a m p l i t u d e s of
v i b r a t i o n c a n b u i l d up. T h e d a m p i n g in c o n v e n t i o n a l b r i d g e s has so f a r a p p e a r e d to be
a d e q u a t e , a l t h o u g h it m a y n e e d a u g m e n t i n g in the c a s e of light t e m p o r a r y s t r u c t u r e s
a n d f o o t b r i d g e s . W e l d e d c o n s t r u c t i o n a g g r a v a t e s the p r o b l e m , a s damping, c o m p a r e d
w i t h r i v e t e d s t r u c t u r e s , t e n d s to be l o w e r . T h e pre~entit-~enfi~in~design with v e r y
s l e n d e r b r i d g e s in p r e s t r e s s e d c o n c r e t e i s also~-~:emi[:~in,g ! i n n a w e r strucf-ural d a m p -
ing.

T h e c l a s s i c a l s o l u t i o n , ' i n c o r d e r , t o ~miriimise a r e s ~ n a n e e ~ f f e c t of a s y s t e m in-

v o l v i n g a s i n g l e : f o r c i n g ; £ r e q u e n c y : a n d ¢ o n e o s t r u c t u r a l frequenc:y,:is to~ avoid t h e r a t i o

4
of the f o r m e r to the l a t t e r b e i n g in the r a n g e 0. 5 - 2 . 0 . A p p l y i n g t h i s p r i n c i p l e to the
b r i d g e : v e h i c l e s y s t e m would be i m p r a c t i c a b l e , a l t h o u g h it i s a p o s s i b l i t y f o r f o o t -
b r i d g e s w h e r e a n a t u r a l f r e q u e n c y of above 4 c . p . s , w o u l d be r e q u i r e d .

It has b e e n s u g g e s t e d by P a i n and Upstone, 1 t h a t t h e f r e q u e n c y r a n g e of 2 . 7 -

3.0 c.p.s, s h o u l d be a v o i d e d due to the p o s s i b i l i t y of c o i n c i d e n c e of f r e q u e n c i e s b e -
tween b r i d g e s and m a r c h i n g m e n o r h o r s e s , t h i s l i m i t b e i n g o f t e n s t r i c t l y a p p l i e d . In
p r a c t i c e a b r i d g e with low d a m p i n g w h o s e n a t u r a l f r e q u e n c y is 3 . 5 c . p . s , c o u l d be
l i v e l i e r and give r i s e to m o r e c o n c e r n than o n e with g r e a t e r d a m p i n g a n d s t i f f n e s s
whose n a t u r a l f r e q u e n c y is 2 . 9 c . p . s . As a p r a c t i c a l u p p e r f r e q u e n c y f o r m a r c h i n g
m e n is a b o u t 2 . 3 c . p . s , and a s h o r s e s a r e now a l m o s t n o n - e x i s t e n t in t r a f f i c , it would
s e e m that t h e r e a s o n f o r a v o i d i n g t h i s f r e q u e n c y r a n g e i s not j u s t i f i e d .

In fact, p r o v i d e d a d e q u a t e s t i f f n e s s and d a m p i n g e x i s t s w i t h i n a s t r u c t u r e , t h e r e
is no n e c e s s i t y f o r a v o i d i n g a n y p a r t i c u l a r f r e q u e n c i e s .

S t r u c t u r e s in which the r a t i o of live load to d e a d l o a d is h i g h w i l l t e n d to have a

g r e a t e r r e s p o n s e to live l o a d e x c i t a t i o n . C e r t a i n f o o t b r i d g e s a n d t e m p o r a r y s t r u c -
t u r e s fall into t h i s c a t e g o r y . T h i s t y p e of c o n s t r u c t i o n i s s o m e t i m e s u s e d w h e r e t h e
low d e a d w e i g h t e n a b l e s e r e c t i o n t i m e and f o u n d a t i o n s to be k e p t to a m i n i m u m . W i t h
t h e s e s t r u c t u r e s t h e r e is a l s o a p o s s i b i l i t y of v i b r a t i o n s o c c u r r i n g in the p l a n e of t h e
bridge d e c k a s opposed to the n o r m a l v i b r a t i o n s w h i c h a r e p e r p e n d i c u l a r to it. A t t e n -
tion m u s t t h e r e f o r e be paid to t h e l a t e r a l and l o n g i t u d i n a l s w a y i n g m o t i o n s of t h e s e ~
bridges.

4. REACTION OF THE BRIDGE U S E R

4.1 Human r e a c t i o n s to v i b r a t i o n s

The p r o b l e m of h u m a n r e a c t i o n s to v i b r a t i o n s in g e n e r a l i s a c o m p l i c a t e d p r o -
c e s s which i s not c o m p l e t e l y u n d e r s t o o d . S e n s i t i v i t y c a n n o t be e x p r e s s e d s i m p l y in
t e r m s of the p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s d e s c r i b i n g t h e m o t i o n , a l t h o u g h it is k n o w n t h a t t h e
f i r s t and s e c o n d d e r i v a t i v e s of v e l o c i t y - - a c c e l e r a t i o n a n d j e r k - - h a v e an i m p o r t a n t
effect. A b s o l u t e a m p l i t u d e and v e l o c i t y a r e not r e g i s t e r e d b y t h e b o d y ' s p e r c e p t o r y
s e n s e s alone, without c o m p a r i s o n with an e x t e r n a l f r a m e of r e f e r e n c e . T h e f r e q u e n -
cy of v i b r a t i o n a l s o c o n t r i b u t e s to the s e n s a t i o n . T h e p r o b l e m is f u r t h e r c o m p l i c a t e d
by d i f f e r e n c e s in r e a c t i o n of individual s u b j e c t s to t h e s a m e m o t i o n , and a l s o b y e n -
vironmental conditions.

The p r o b l e m is e x a m i n e d f r o m two v i e w p o i n t s : - the p h y s i o l o g i c a l e f f e c t s of the

body and the p s y c h o l o g i c a l e f f e c t on the p e r s o n , a l t h o u g h t h e two a r e o b v i o u s l y i n t e r -
dependent.

The p h y s i o l o g i c a l e f f e c t s d e r i v e f r o m the f a c t t h a t t h e h u m a n b o d y is a d y n a m i c
s y s t e m which h a s n a t u r a l f r e q u e n c i e s of its own, a s s h o w n b y D i e c k m a n n , 2 G u i g n a r d
and Irving 3 a n d o t h e r w o r k e r s . It a c t s as an e x t r e m e l y s e n s i t i v e p i c k u p d e v i c e
which is able to d e t e c t v e r y s m a l l l e v e l s of v i b r a t i o n . T h i s e x t r e m e s e n s i t i v i t y
tends to e x a g g e r a t e p e r s o n a l r e a c t i o n s m a k i n g i n d i v i d u a l a s s e s s m e n t s of i n t e n s i t y
unreliable.
 F r e q u e n c i e s a t w h i c h f e e l i n g s of d i s c o m f o r t o r r e s o n a n c e o c c u r in the b o d y in-
clude:
I/4- Ic.p.s. A s s o c i a t e d with motion s i c k n e s s
2 c.p.s. h e a d r e s o n a n c e (for h o r i z o n t a l m o v e m e n t ) ,
a l s o a s s o c i a t e d with m o t i o n s i c k n e s s
4- 6 c.p.s. m a j o r r e s o n a n c e of the whole body
7- 9 c . p . s . a b d o m i n a l r e s o n a n c e ( l i v e r ?)
10-12 c . p . s . unspecified trunk resonances

T h e r e a r e a l s o o t h e r l e s s w e l l d e f i n e d r e s o n a n c e s at h i g h e r f r e q u e n c i e s .

If t h e b o d y is s u b j e c t e d to p r o l o n g e d v i b r a t i o n s , in w h i c h any of t h e s e f r e q u e n -
c i e s p r e d o m i n a t e , d i s c o m f o r t o r a n n o y a n c e r e s u l t . It should be noted that t h e r e is an
o v e r l a p i n t h e r a n g e s of t h e n a t u r a l f r e q u e n c i e s of the body with the ones f o r b r i d g e s ,
v e h i c l e s and people walking.

P s y c h o l o g i c a l e f f e c t s a r e m o r e d i f f i c u l t to define and v a r y m a r k e d l y b e t w e e n
i n d i v i d u a l s . T h e m o s t l i k e l y c o n s e q u e n c e i s to give r i s e to d o u b t s about the u l t i m a t e
s a f e t y of t h e b r i d g e . S i n c e m a n y p e o p l e r e a c t u n f a v o u r a b l y to h e i g h t s , even a s m a l l
d e g r e e of v i b r a t i o n m i g h t c a u s e a l a r m on a b r i d g e with a d r o p of l00 ft b e n e a t h it;
t h e f i r s t e n c o u n t e r w i t h a l i v e l y b r i d g e , e x c i t e d by t r a f f i c , m a y a l s o give c a u s e f o r
c o n c e r n if s u c h m o v e m e n t s a r e not e x p e c t e d . As the s a f e t y of the b r i d g e is u n l i k e l y
to be in q u e s t i o n t h e a n s w e r to t h i s p r o b l e m will be one of e d u c a t i o n and f a m i l i a r i s -
a t i o n with t h e s i t u a t i o n .
A s s o c i a t e d w i t h b o t h t h e p h y s i o l o g i c a l and p s y c h o l o g i c a l a s p e c t s is the p r o b l e m
of f a t i g u e a n d i n t e r f e r e n c e w i t h t a s k p e r f o r m a n c e a f t e r long p e r i o d s of s u b j e c t i o n to
v i b r a t i o n s . T h e s e h a v e b e e n t h e p r i m a r y c o n c e r n s of m a n y i n v e s t i g a t o r s , and m u c h
w o r k h a s b e e n d o n e on t h e s e a s p e c t s in the f i e l d s of land and a i r t r a n s p o r t a t i o n .
T h e s a m e p r o b l e m s h o u l d not a r i s e f o r the b r i d g e u s e r a s t h e l e n g t h of t i m e f o r
w h i c h a p e r s o n is s u b j e c t e d to v i b r a t i o n s c a n be at m o s t the t i m e spent c r o s s i n g the
b r i d g e . Tabl'e II g i v e s an i n d i c a t i o n of the t i m e t a k e n f o r a p e d e s t r i a n to w a l k a c r o s s
s p a n s of t h e s a m e l e n g t h s a s t h o s e u s e d in T a b l e I .

T A B L E II

P e d e s t r i a n t i m e s f o r c r o s s i n g b r i d g e s (seconds)

Span (ft)

100 150 200 300 400

3miles/h
(slow walking speed) 23 34 45 68 91

A d i s t i n c t i o n m u s t be m a d e b e t w e e n two t y p e s of b r i d g e u s e r , n a m e l y t h e p e d e s -
t r i a n and t h e p a s s e n g e r in a v e h i c l e . *

* C y c l i s t s a r e not c o n s i d e r e d a s t h e i r r e a c t i o n s will p r o b a b l y be l e s s s e v e r e than

t h e p e d e s t r i a n . L e n g t h of t i m e on t h e b r i d g e w i l l a l s o be l e s s .

6
 4.2 Passengers in v e h i c l e s

T h e p a s s e n g e r in a v e h i c l e is u n l i k e l y to be t r o u b l e d by v i b r a t i o n s , e x c e p t p o s -
sibly on s u s p e n s i o n b r i d g e s , f o r two r e a s o n s . F i r s t l y , t h e l e n g t h of t i m e t h a t t h e
v e h i c l e is on the b r i d g e is so s h o r t t h a t long t e r m e f f e c t s a r e u n l i k e l y to b u i l d up
s u f f i c i e n t l y to be n o t i c e d . S e c o n d l y , the n o r m a l r i d e of a v e h i c l e o v e r u n e v e n r o a d
s u r f a c e s p r o v i d e s g r e a t e r v i b r a t i o n s than a r e l i k e l y to o c c u r f r o m a b r i d g e s t r u c -
t u r e and h e n c e b r i d g e s will be c r o s s e d a l m o s t u n n o t i c e d . T h e s a f e f e e l i n g r e s u l t i n g
f r o m being ' b o x e d in' in a v e h i c l e a l s o t e n d s t o c o u n t e r a n y p s y c h o l o g i c a l r e a c t i o n s
such as m i g h t a r i s e with v e r y high b r i d g e s .

An e x c e p t i o n to t h i s g e n e r a l i s a t i o n can o c c u r u n d e r c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s . In
v e h i c l e s w h i c h a r e p a r k e d on b r i d g e s o r f l y o v e r s t h e m o v e m e n t of v e h i c l e s in o t h e r
l a n e s of the d e c k c a u s e s v i b r a t i o n of t he s t r u c t u r e w h i c h is t h e n m a g n i f i e d due to
r e s o n a n c e with the v e h i c l e ' s s u s p e n s i o n s y s t e m . Such m o v e m e n t s h a v e b e e n o b s e r v -
ed; th ey r e s u l t in a f e e l i n g of m o t i o n s i c k n e s s and g i v e t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t t h e b r i d g e
s t r u c t u r e i t s e l f is m o v i n g e x c e s s i v e l y . As t h i s i s m a i n l y d u e to t h e s u s p e n s i o n p r o -
p e r t i e s of t h e v e h i c l e the s o l u t i o n is to avoid p a r k i n g on b r i d g e s , a l t h o u g h t h e c a s e
m e n t i o n e d a c t u a l l y o c c u r r e d in a c o n d i t i o n of c o n g e s t e d t r a f f i c w h e n all v e h i c l e s in
one t r a f f i c l a n e on an e l e v a t e d s t r u c t u r e w e r e s t a t i o n a r y .

4.3 Pedestrians

Th e b r i d g e u s e r who will have t he g r e a t e s t r e a c t i o n to v i b r a t i o n , and w h o w i l l

t h e r e f o r e d i r e c t l y i n f l u e n c e a ny d e s i g n l i m i t a t i o n s , is t h e p e d e s t r i a n . A s no d i r e c t l y
a p p l i c a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n w a s a v a i l a b l e on the r e a c t i o n s of. p e o p l e , w h e n w a l k i n g o r
standing, to s h o r t t e r m v i b r a t i o n s , s u b j e c t i v e t e s t s w e r e c a r r i e d o u t at t h e L a b o r a -
t o r y to d e t e r m i n e t o l e r a n c e l i m i t s . T h e t e s t s , w h i c h a r e b r i e f l y o u t l i n e d in s e c t i o n
5.2 w e r e c a r r i e d out u s i n g a 35 ft l ong f o o t b r i d g e .

R e s u l t s of the t e s t show t hat t h e r e is a m a r k e d r e d u c t i o n in t o l e r a n c e l e v e l if a

p e r s o n is s t a n d i n g still r a t h e r than w a l k i n g on a b r i d g e . T h i s is t o b e e x p e c t e d a s
the f l e x i n g of k n e e s in the p r o c e s s of walking c r e a t e s a h i n g e e f f e c t w h i c h r e d u c e s
the amo u n t of m o v e m e n t t r a n s m i t t e d to the body. C o n f i r m a t i o n of t h i s f a c t w a s o b -
t a i n e d when p e o p l e bent t h e i r k n e e s w h i l s t s t a n d i n g on t h e b r i d g e , t h e r e d u c t i o n in
v i b r a t i o n of t h e t r u n k and head b e i n g v e r y n o t i c e a b l e . C o n c l u s i o n s f r o m t h e s e t e s t s ,
r e l a t i n g to a m p l i t u d e and a c c e l e r a t i o n l i m i t s , a r e d i s c u s s e d in s e c t i o n 7 . 2 on t h e
p h i l o s o p h y to be a d o p t e d t o w a r d s d e s i g n l i m i t s .

I n t e r f e r e n c e with w a l ki ng can o c c u r when w a l k i n g f r e q u e n c y a n d b r i d g e r e s -

p o n s e f r e q u e n c y a r e c o i n c i d e n t . T h e p h a s i n g of f o o t s t e p s with t h e r i s e and f a l l of t h e
d e c k p r o v i d e s an i r r i t a t i n g o r e x c e s s i v e s p r i n g y f e e l i n g , w h i c h t e n d s to be d i s t u r b i n g
r a t h e r than painful o r u n c o m f o r t a b l e . T h i s e f f e c t v a r i e s w i t h e a c h i n d i v i d u a l a s
walking r a t e s ( p a c e s / s e c o n d ) d i f f e r o v e r a p r a c t i c a l r a n g e of 1 . 7 t o 2 . 3 , f o r n o r m a l
walking. It is p a r t i c u l a r l y n o t i c e a b l e that p e o p l e who w a l k w i t h l o n g s t r i d i n g s t e p s
a r e often u n a w a r e of any s t r u c t u r a l m o v e m e n t at all, e v e n t h o u g h o t h e r p e o p l e s h o w
a d v e r s e r e a c t i o n s to the s a m e l e v e l of v i b r a t i o n .

C e r t a i n low f r e q u e n c i e s ( f r o m 1/4 to 2 c . p . s . ) a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h m o t i o n s i c k -
n e s s . T h i s p h e n o m e n o n is only a r e a l p o s s i b l i t y f o r p e r s o n s s t a n d i n g o r s e a t e d on a
b r i d g e f o r a lo n g t i m e . P e o p l e do s t a n d on b r i d g e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y s u s p e n s i o n b r i d g e s ,

7
f o r t h e v i e w a n d the n o v e l t y of t h e s i t u a t i o n . D e s i g n f o r such c o n d i t i o n s c a n n o t s e r i -
o u s l y be a l l o w e d f o r , if it is to the d e t r i m e n t of the e c o n o m y of the s t r u c t u r e .

F i n a l l y , it m u s t be r e m a r k e d t h a t not all v i b r a t i o n s p r o d u c e a d e t e r i m e n t a l
e f f e c t a s s e v e r a l c o m m e n t s d u r i n g t e s t s i n d i c a t e d that the s e n s a t i o n w a s p l e a s a n t at
some frequencies.

5. HUMAN VIBRATION STUDIES

P r e v i o u s s t u d i e s of h u m a n r e a c t i o n s to v i b r a t i o n s and i n f o r m a t i o n r e l a t i n g to b r i d g e
v i b r a t i o n s a r e e x a m i n e d f o r i n f o r m a t i o n w h i c h is of v a l u e in d e f i n i n g d e s i g n l i m i t s .
No a t t e m p t i s m a d e to p r o v i d e a c o m p r e h e n s i v e b i b l i o g r a p h y o r to r e v i e w t h e whole
of t h e r e l a t e d l i t e r a t u r e a s t h i s w o u l d be d u p l i c a t i n g m u c h of the w o r k of a u t h o r s
s u c h a s S t e f f e n s , 4 G o l d m a n , 5 W r i g h t a n d Green6, 7 and, m o r e r e c e n t l y , B r y c e . s

S u b j e c t s c o v e r e d in t h e l i t e r a t u r e i n c l u d e v i b r a t i o n e f f e c t s of ships, v e h i c l e s
( r o a d a n d r a i l ) , a i r c r a f t , e a r t h q u a k e s , b u i l d i n g s , m~{chinery a n d h a n d t o o l s .

The only subject connected with relatively short duration, transient vibrations,
is t h a t of e a r t h q u a k e s . A s i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m t h i s s o u r c e is not well d o c u m e n t e d , no
u s e f u l r e s u l t s c a n be o b t a i n e d f o r d e f i n i n g h u m a n t o l e r a n c e l e v e l s .

5.1 E s t a b l i s h e d l e v e l s of h u m a n t o l e r a n c e to v i b r a t i o n s

T h e m o s t u s e f u l r e s u l t s f o r d e f i n i n g t o l e r a n c e l e v e l s have been p r o v i d e d by
R e i h e r a n d M e i s t e r , 9 D i e c k m a n n , and G o l d m a n who h a v e p r o d u c e d s e r i e s of c u r v e s
c o v e r i n g t h e f r e q u e n c y r a n g e 1-100 c . p . s .

R e i h e r a n d M e i s t e r in 1931 p r o d u c e d 6 t o l e r a n c e r a n g e s b a s e d on the r e a c t i o n s
of 25 a d u l t s u b j e c t s . T e s t s w e r e c a r r i e d out on s u b j e c t s standing, s i t t i n g o r lying on
a p l a t f o r m w h i c h w a s t h e n g i v e n s i n u s o i d a l m o v e m e n t s in t h e v e r t i c a l o r h o r i z o n t a l
d i r e c t i o n s , f o r p e r i o d s of a b o u t 10 m i n u t e s . The t o l e r a n c e r a n g e s , r e p r o d u c e d in
f i g u r e I f o r v e r t i c a l t e s t s on s t a n d i n g s u b j e c t s , a r e c l a s s i f i e d a s i m p e r c e p t i b l e , just
p e r c e p t i b l e , c l e a r l y p e r c e p t i b l e , a n n o y i n g , u n p l e a s a n t o r d i s t u r b i n g and painful. T h e s e
c u r v e s h a v e b e e n in u s e f o r o v e r 30 y e a r s and no e v i d e n c e h a s been p r o d u c e d in that
t i m e to a l t e r t h e b r o a d p i c t u r e p r e s e n t e d f o r the c o n d i t i o n s of v i b r a t i o n s e x a m i n e d .

G o l d m a n , in 1948, r e v i e w e d t h e p r o b l e m and p r o d u c e d f r o m s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t
s o u r c e s i n c l u d i n g R e i h e r a n d M e i s t e r , a s e t of a v e r a g e d c u r v e s c o r r e s p o n d i n g to the
t h r e e t o l e r a n c e l e v e l s o f : - p e r c e p t i o n , u n p l e a s a n t n e s s and i n t o l e r a n c e . H o r i z o n t a l
a n d v e r t i c a l e x c i t a t i o n of s t a n d i n g , s e a t e d and l y i n g people w e r e a l l i n c l u d e d in this
a v e r a g i n g p r o c e s s , t h e r e s u l t s of w h i c h a r e given in f i g u r e s 2 and 3. The two f i g u r e s
p r e s e n t t h e s a m e i n f o r m a t i o n in t h e f o r m of a m p l i t u d e (fig. 2) and a c c e l e r a t i o n
(fig. 3). T h e y a r e of u s e in p r o v i d i n g a n o r d e r of m a g n i t u d e of i n t e n s i t y a g a i n s t f r e -
q u e n c y in t h e a b s e n c e of a n y s p e c i f i c i n f o r m a t i o n r e l a t i n g to a p a r t i c u l a r p r o b l e m .
It i s i n t e r e s t i n g to o b s e r v e t h a t t h e m i n i m a in t e r m s of a c c e l e r a t i o n in f i g u r e 3,
w h i c h o c c u r s in t h e r e g i o n of 5 c . p . s . , c o i n c i d e s with one of the m a j o r body r e s o n a n c e s .

A s e t of c u r v e s d e f i n i n g t o l e r a n c e l e v e l s w a s p r o d u c e d by D i e c k m a n n in 1958.
T h e s e c u r v e s , f i g u r e s 4 and 5, d e s c r i b e f o u r t o l e r a n c e l e v e l s : - K ---- 0, the l o w e r l i m i t
of p e r c e p t i o n ; K = 1, a l l o w e d in i n d u s t r y f o r any p e r i o d of t i m e ; K = 10, a l l o w e d o n l y
f o r a s h o r t t i m e and K = 100, t h e u p p e r l i m i t of s t r a i n f o r t h e a v e r a g e m a n ; w h e r e K
is a m e a s u r e u s e d to r e p r e s e n t t h e d e g r e e of s t r a i n on a p e r s o n . T h e y a r e b a s e d on
v e r t i c a l and h o r i z o n t a l o s c i l l a t i o n s of s u b j e c t s s e a t e d o r s t a n d i n g on a p l a t f o r m .
D i e c k m a n n ' s w o r k d i f f e r e n t i a t e s b e t w e e n v e r t i c a l m o t i o n - - - f i g u r e 4, and h o r i z o n t a l
motion--figure 5.

T h e a b o v e w o r k s all r e f e r to t e s t s in w h i c h e x c i t a t i o n of t h e s u b j e c t s w a s c o n -
tin u o u s f o r p e r i o d s of 5 to 10 m i n u t e s .

A f u r t h e r c u r v e of t o l e r a n c e l e v e l is p r o v i d e d by J a n e w a y I ° : t h e c u r v e b e i n g
d ef in ed b y af 3 = 2 (1 to 6 c . p . s . ) , af 2 -= 1/3 (6 to 20 c . p . s . ) , a n d af = 1/6o ( a b o v e 20
c.p .s .) w h e r e a is a m p l i t u d e in i n c h e s and f is f r e q u e n c y in c y c l e s p e r s e c o n d . T h i s
c u r v e , wh ich is given in f i g u r e 6, w a s d e r i v e d f o r r i d i n g c o m f o r t in v e h i c l e s .

B r y c e i n c l u d e s in his w o r k an i n v e s t i g a t i o n of t he e f f e c t of e x p o s u r e t i m e on
t o l e r a n c e l e v e l s . Although hi s r e s u l t s r e l a t e s p e c i f i c a l l y to h o r i z o n t a l e x c i t a t i o n of
a i r c r a f t p a s s e n g e r s , who a r e f i r m l y s u p p o r t e d in a s e a t , he s h o w s t h a t t o l e r a n c e
l e v e l s to v i b r a t i o n s r i s e as t he p e r i o d of e x p o s u r e d e c r e a s e s .

T h i s is a l s o i m p l i c i t in D i e c k m a n n ' s c u r v e s w h e n c o m p a r i n g t h e K = 1 and
K --- 10 l e v e l s . T h i s f a c t is i m p o r t a n t to b r i d g e v i b r a t i o n s a s it i s o n l y n e c e s s a r y to
t o l e r a t e t h e p e a k s of the v i b r a t i o n s f o r a s h o r t l e n g t h of t i m e .

No e x i s t i n g l i t e r a t u r e h a s b e e n found w h i c h c o v e r s v i b r a t i o n e f f e c t s on p e o p l e
when walking, o r t h e t o l e r a n c e of p e o p l e t o t r a n s i e n t v i b r a t i o n s .

5.2 R . R . L . L a b o r a t o r y t e s t s on p e d e s t r i a n s and m e a s u r e m e n t s on b r i d g e s

T e s t s w e r e c a r r i e d out in D e c e m b e r 1965 at t h e R o a d R e s e a r c h L a b o r a t o r y , t o
d e t e r m i n e t o l e r a n c e l i m i t s f o r p e d e s t r i a n s w a l k i n g and s t a n d i n g on a b r i d g e . A 35 ft
long t e s t b r i d g e w a s s u b j e c t e d to f o r c e d v i b r a t i o n s u s i n g h y d r a u l i c e x c i t a t i o n . T h e
e x c i t a t i o n s y s t e m e n a b l e d a m p l i t u d e s and f r e q u e n c i e s to be v a r i e d i n d e p e n d e n t l y , an
a m p l i t u d e f e e d b a c k s y s t e m a l l o w i n g the a m p l i t u d e of v i b r a t i o n to be h e l d at a c o n -
stant l e v e l f o r a g i v e n f r e q u e n c y . T e s t s c o v e r e d t h e f r e q u e n c y r a n g e 1 - 1 4 c . p . s . ,
which i n c l u d e s the r a n g e of n a t u r a l f r e q u e n c i e s of m o s t b r i d g e s . A m p l i t u d e s w e r e
v a r i e d b e t w e e n +0. 003" and +0. 200"; t h e m a x i m u m a m p l i t u d e b e i n g d e p e n d e n t upon
frequency.

40 s u b j e c t s , w h o s e a g e s r a n g e d b e t w e e n 20 a n d 72 y e a r s , w e r e q u e s t i o n e d f o r
t h e i r r e a c t i o n s to walking a c r o s s t h e b r i d g e . T h e s a m e s u b j e c t s w e r e t h e n a s k e d
f o r t h e i r c o m m e n t s a f t e r s t a n d i n g at the m i d d l e of t h e b r i d g e f o r s h o r t p e r i o d s of up
to a m i n u t e . T h e c o n d i t i o n s of v i b r a t i o n c h o s e n e n a b l e d b o u n d a r i e s t o be d r a w n b e -
tween a c c e p t a b l e and n o n - a c c e p t a b l e l e v e l s of v i b r a t i o n f o r al l s u b j e c t s ; t h e two
b o u n d a r i e s , f o r w a l ki ng and standing, a r e r e p r o d u c e d in f i g u r e 8a a s an a m p l i t u d e -
f r e q u e n c y plot. T h e s a m e b o u n d a r i e s a r e g i v e n in f i g u r e 8b in t h e f o r m of a c c e l e r a -
tion a g a i n s t f r e q u e n c y .

T h e t e s t s a r e to be d e s c r i b e d in d e t a i l in a s e p a r a t e r e p o r t . 11
 A s e r i e s of full s c a l e m e a s u r e m e n t s a r e being m a d e by the L a b o r a t o r y on
v a r i o u s t y p e s of b r i d g e s a s p a r t of a p r o g r a m m e to i n v e s t i g a t e the g e n e r a l v i b r a -
t i o n a l p r o p e r t i e s of h i g h w a y b r i d g e s . P a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n is being given to new
s t r u c t u r e s and to b r i d g e s w h i c h have r e c e i v e d a d v e r s e c o m m e n t s r e g a r d i n g t h e i r
liveliness.

V i b r a t i o n l e v e l s r e c o r d e d on 8 b r i d g e s a r e p r e s e n t e d in f i g u r e 9 a g a i n s t the
t o l e r a n c e l e v e l s p r o d u c e d in t h e L a b o r a t o r y t e s t s . In all c a s e s w h e r e m e a s u r e m e n t s
p l o t a b o v e t h e u p p e r b o u n d a r y t h e v i b r a t i o n s w e r e judged to be u n p l e a s a n t or d i s t u r b -
ing by t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l s t a f f . E x t r e m e v a l u e s on the f o o t b r i d g e s w e r e o b t a i n e d by
d e l i b e r a t e l y s e t t i n g up a r e s o n a n t c o n d i t i o n ; v i b r a t i o n s f r o m a n o r m a l walk a r e in-
c l u d e d f o r c o m p a r i s o n . P r e l i m i n a r y r e s u l t s would i n d i c a t e t h a t s l e n d e r f o o t b r i d g e s
in p r e s t r e s s e d c o n c r e t e a r e r e a c h i n g t h e s t a g e w h e r e v i b r a t i o n s a r e v e r y n o t i c e a b l e
in n o r m a l u s e and would be u n a c c e p t a b l e to s o m e people if e x c i t e d c o n t i n u o u s l y .
T e s t s on a few c a n t i l e v e r b r i d g e s with s u s p e n d e d s p a n s have shown the p o t e n t i a l
l i v e l i n e s s of t h i s t y p e of s t r u c t u r e . I n s u f f i c i e n t t e s t s have so f a r been c o m p l e t e d to
e n a b l e c o m p a r i s o n s to be m a d e with o t h e r b r i d g e t y p e s .

6. M E A S U R E M E N T S AND I N T E R P R E T A T I O N S OF VIBRATIONS ON BRIDGES

6.1 Previous studies

M u c h w o r k h a s b e e n c a r r i e d out on the d y n a m i c s of h i g h w a y b r i d g e s in o r d e r to
e s t i m a t e the p r o p e r t i e s of the s t r u c t u r e i t s e l f , and to u n d e r s t a n d the i n t e r a c t i o n of
the bridge-vehicle system.

T h e r e h a v e b e e n few m e a s u r e m e n t s m a d e on b r i d g e s in s e r v i c e , and only two

s y s t e m a t i c a t t e m p t s to r e l a t e h u m a n r e a c t i o n s to the m e a s u r e m e n t s of v i b r a t i o n in-
tensity.

W r i g h t and G r e e n ~-2 in C a n a d a t o o k m e a s u r e m e n t s on 52 b r i d g e s and i n t e r p r e t e d

t h e i r f i n d i n g s in t e r m s of l e v e l s on t h e R e i h e r and M e i s t e r s c a l e and on the ' i s o -
s e n s o r ' s c a l e w h i c h t h e y had d e r i v e d f r o m G o l d m a n ' s w o r k ( s e e f i g u r e 7). T h e
m e a s u r e m e n t s , c o r r e s p o n d i n g to the p e a k l e v e l s of the v i b r a t i o n s , showed that the
' u n p l e a s a n t ' l e v e l w a s f r e q u e n t l y e n c o u n t e r e d and that o v e r 25% of the b r i d g e s
r e a c h e d the ' i n t o l e r a b l e ' l e v e l . T h e s e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s h a v e been i n f e r r e d f r o m
c u r v e s b a s e d on c o n t i n u o u s v i b r a t i o n s at e a c h peak l e v e l .

It s h o u l d be n o t e d f r o m t h e r e s u l t s t a b u l a t e d by W r i g h t and Green, 7 that the

n a t u r a l f r e q u e n c i e s of b r i d g e s f o r w h i c h v i b r a t i o n s e x c e e d e d 45 units (on t h e i r i s o -
s e n s o r s c a l e - - s e e f i g u r e 7 of t h i s r e p o r t ) w e r e all g r e a t e r than 3.4 c . p . s , and t h a t 3
b r i d g e s w i t h f r e q u e n c i e s g r e a t e r t h a n 5 c . p . s , gave l e v e l s above 55 units, thus show-
ing t h a t a v o i d a n c e of low n a t u r a l f r e q u e n c i e s of b r i d g e s up to 3 . 0 c . p . s , is not in it-
s e l f sufficient to minimise bridge vibrations.

O e h l e r 13 in A m e r i c a c a r r i e d out c o m p a r a t i v e t e s t s on fifteen b r i d g e s of t h r e e
t y p e s : s i m p l e - s p a n , c o n t i n u o u s span a n d c a n t i l e v e r . R e s u l t s showed t h a t c a n t i l e v e r
b r i d g e s w e r e m o r e p r o n e to v i b r a t i o n s t h a n the o t h e r two t y p e s . His c o n c l u s i o n s

10
 a l s o i n d i c a t e that t h e r e w a s a t e n d e n c y f o r r e s p o n s e of b r i d g e s to i n c r e a s e w i t h d e -
c r e a s i n g n a t u r a l f r e q u e n c y of the s t r u c t u r e s . T h e l o w e s t b r i d g e f r e q u e n c y m e a s u r e d
in t h e s e t e s t s w a s 4 . 3 c . p . s . T h e s e f i n d i n g s do not a g r e e e n t i r e l y with t h e r e s u l t s
of W r i g h t and G r e e n ; the f r e q u e n c y r a n g e of the b r i d g e s t e s t e d by t h e m w e n t down t o
1.7 c . p . s .

O e h l e r ' s r e s u l t s , p l o t t e d on J a n e w a y ' s c u r v e f o r t o l e r a n c e to v i b r a t i o n s , s h o w e d
that s o m e p o i n t s w e r e a b o v e the c o m f o r t l e v e l ; but o n c e a g a i n s u b j e c t i v e c o m m e n t on
each b r i d g e is not given.

C o n s i d e r a b l e a t t e n t i o n w a s given to the v i b r a t i o n p r o p e r t i e s of t h e f o o t b r i d g e
c o n s t r u c t e d in St. J a m e s P a r k , L ondon. D e s c r i p t i o n s of t h e t e s t s on t h i s b r i d g e a n d
the m e a s u r e s t a k e n to m a k e t he n a t u r a l f r e q u e n c y as high a s p o s s i b l e ( e v e n t u a l l y
3.6 c . p . s . ) a r e d e s c r i b e d by W a l l e y . 14 T e s t s i n c l u d e d m a r c h i n g 300 g u a r d s m e n o v e r
the b r i d g e and m a r k i n g t i m e at d i f f e r e n t f r e q u e n c i e s . E v e n t h o u g h a r e s o n a n t c o n -
dition w a s a c h i e v e d with an a m p l i t u d e of + 0 . 3 5 i n c h e s at 3 . 6 c . p . s , no d a m a g e w a s
r e p o r t e d to th e s t r u c t u r e . D a m p i n g in the s t r u c t u r e w a s f o u n d to be ' g o o d ' and in
p r a c t i c e p e d e s t r i a n s at r e s t can s c a r c e l y f e e l t h e p a s s a g e of o t h e r s . W a l l e y , h o w -
e v e r , s t a t e s in his a r t i c l e ' . . . . . . , it is f e l t that t h e l i m i t h a s b e e n r e a c h e d w hen
s t r e s s e s a r e th e s o l e c r i t e r i o n of ( b r i d g e ) d e s i g n , f r e q u e n c y a n d a m p l i t u d e a r e of
equal i m p o r t a n c e ' .

A s i m i l a r m e t h o d of t e s t i n g w a s u s e d by W e s t R i d i n g C o u n t y C o u n c i l 15 on a p r e -
s t r e s s e d c o n c r e t e f o o t b r i d g e at S p r o t b o r o u g h n e a r D o n c a s t e r , w h i c h w a s t h o u g h t to
be unduly l i v e l y . A r e s o n a n c e c o n d i t i o n w as s e t up with an a m p l i t u d e of ± 0 . 7 i n c h e s
at 2 . 2 c . p . s . As with the St. J a m e s P a r k b r i d g e no structural damage was reported.

F i n a l l y , r e f e r e n c e is m a d e to t he d y n a m i c t e s t s to d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e G l a t t
B r i d g e 16 at Opfikon in S w i t z e r l a n d . T h e 75 ft span, p r e s t r e s s e d c o n c r e t e b r i d g e
showed v e r y l i t t l e sign of d a m a g e a f t e r a p p l i c a t i o n Of o v e r 2 m i l l i o n c y c l e s of l o a d
at the r e s o n a n t f r e q u e n c y of 3 . 4 5 c . p . s , with a l o a d c o r r e s p o n d i n g to t h e ful l d e s i g n
live load of the s t r u c t u r e . A m p l i t u d e of t h e m o t i o n w a s + 0 . 2 3 i n c h e s . T h e m a g n i t u d e
of the load w a s then i n c r e a s e d in s t e p s and t he b r i d g e e v e n t u a l l y f a i l e d a f t e r m o r e
than 61/2 m i l l i o n c y c l e s of l o a d i n g had b e e n a p p l i e d at r e s o n a n c e .

6.2 C o m p a r i s o n of l a b o r a t o r y and f i e l d t e s t s

T o l e r a n c e l e v e l s d e r i v e d f r o m the R R L l a b o r a t o r y t e s t s a r e in t he u n p l e a s a n t o r
annoying r a n g e s of t he R e i h e r and M e i s t e r s c a l e s . T h i s r e f l e c t s t he d i f f e r e n c e in e x -
p o s u r e t i m e s to v i b r a t i o n s and i n d i c a t e s t h a t the l a t t e r s c a l e s a r e u n n e c e s s a r i l y r e s -
t r i c t i v e f o r u s e in b r i d g e d e s i g n . T he r i s e in t o l e r a n c e l e v e l s w i t h d e c r e a s i n g t i m e s
of e x p o s u r e is c o n f i r m e d by B r y c e ' s e x p e r i m e n t . J a n e w a y ' s c u r v e f o r p a s s e n g e r
c o m f o r t in v e h i c l e s is b a s e d on e x p e r i m e n t s on s e a t e d s u b j e c t s and c o n s e q u e n t l y
give v e r y high l i m i t s at low f r e q u e n c i e s - - w h i c h w o u l d be t oo s e v e r e f o r p e d e s t r i a n s .
G o l d m a n ' s r e s u l t s can only be u s e d f o r g e n e r a l g u i d a n c e a s t h e y a r e b a s e d on s e v e r -
al d i f f e r e n t t e s t c o n d i t i o n s i n c l u d i n g the u s e of s e a t e d and l y i n g s u b j e c t s .

W r i g h t and G r e e n and O e h l e r ' s m e a s u r e m e n t s on b r i d g e s s h o w t h a t p e a k v a l u e s

a r e in th e u n p l e a s a n t and a n n o y a n c e r a n g e s of R e i h e r and M e i s t e r but d u e to l a c k of
s u b j e c t i v e c o m m e n t s p r a c t i c a l t o l e r a n c e l e v e l s c a n n o t be d e d u c e d . O e h l e r e m p h a -

11
s i s e s t h e f a c t t h a t v i b r a t i o n s o n l y e x i s t at p e a k l e v e l s f o r one o r two c y c l e s d u r i n g
t h e p a s s a g e of a v e h i c l e .

M e a s u r e m e n t s of v i b r a t i o n s r e c e n t l y m a d e by the Road R e s e a r c h L a b o r a t o r y
( f i g u r e 9) show t h a t s o m e b r i d g e s r e c e n t l y c o n s t r u c t e d a r e c a p a b l e of v i b r a t i o n s in
t h e r e g i o n of, and e v e n above, t h e t o l e r a n c e l e v e l e s t a b l i s h e d f o r people walking. The
e x p e r i m e n t a l s t a f f a c c e p t e d t h e s e v i b r a t i o n s f o r p e r i o d s of a few s e c o n d s but felt
t h a t p r o l o n g e d v i b r a t i o n s w o u l d be u n n a c c e p t a b l e to m a n y people.

T h e t e s t s on t h e St. J a m e s P a r k , S p r o t b o r o u g h and Glatt b r i d g e s show t h a t an

a d e q u a t e l y d e s i g n e d b r i d g e can w i t h s t a n d l a r g e l e v e l s of v i b r a t i o n ( a c c e l e r a t i o n s
e x c e e d e d 0 . 2 5 g at t h e c e n t r e s of t h e s e b r i d g e s ) without r e c e i v i n g p e r m a n e n t
d a m a g e . F u r t h e r m o r e t h e G l a t t b r i d g e t e s t s showed that a c o n s i d e r a b l e n u m b e r of
c y c l e s of v i b r a t i o n a t t h e full d e s i g n l i v e l o a d m a y be w i t h s t o o d b e f o r e d a m a g e
o c c u r s . T h e s e v i b r a t i o n l e v e l s a r e f a r in e x c e s s of t h o s e e n c o u n t e r e d u n d e r n o r m a l
working conditions.

It is c o n c l u d e d t h a t b r i d g e s a r e b e i n g c o n s t r u c t e d which can be e x c i t e d to h i g h e r
l e v e l s of v i b r a t i o n t h a n w o u l d be t o l e r a t e d by m o s t people, a l t h o u g h the v i b r a t i o n s
t h e m s e l v e s do not n e c e s s a r i l y c a u s e d a m a g e to the s t r u c t u r e .

D u r a t i o n and m a g n i t u d e of p e a k v i b r a t i o n s have been found to be of equal i m p o r -

t a n c e in d e t e r m i n i n g a c c e p t a b l e l e v e l s f o r v i b r a t i o n s .

7. DESIGN C R I T E R I A F O R BRIDGE VIBRATIONS

7.1 Existing criteria

In g e n e r a l , s p e c i f i c d e s i g n f o r t h e a v o i d a n c e of v i b r a t i o n p r o b l e m s in b r i d g e s
h a s b e e n n e g l e c t e d o r t a c t f u l l y i g n o r e d , a d e q u a t e c o n t r o l being ' e x e r c i s e d ' i n d i r e c t l y
by d e s i g n c r i t e r i a s u c h a s s t i f f n e s s and i m p a c t a l l o w a n c e . E v e n the s t i f f n e s s c r i -
t e r i a a r e s t a t e d i m p l i c i t l y in t e r m s of r e s t r i c t i o n s on 'live load d e f l e c t i o n ' to span
r a t i o s a n d r e c o m m e n d e d l i m i t s f o r s t r u c t u r a l depth to span r a t i o s . The 'live load
d e f l e c t i o n ' in f a c t i s t h e s t a t i c d e f l e c t i o n due to a s t a n d a r d load i n c r e a s e d by an
' i m p a c t f a c t o r ' to a l l o w f o r ' d y n a m i c e f f e c t s ' in the s t r u c t u r e .

It a p p e a r s t h a t t h e ' d y n a m i c d e s i g n ' of highway b r i d g e s is d i r e c t e d t o w a r d s p r o -

v i d i n g a s a f e l e v e l of s t r e s s in t h e s t r u c t u r e , the f u n d a m e n t a l d y n a m i c c h a r a c t e r i s -
t i c s of b r i d g e s n a m e l y , f r e q u e n c y , a c c e l e r a t i o n , a m p l i t u d e , d a m p i n g and t r u e d y n a m i c
stress, being avoided almost completely.

P a i n a n d U p s t o n e e x a m i n e d the p r o b l e m and p r e s e n t e d t h e i r r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s
in t e r m s of d e p t h to s p a n r a t i o s . H o w e v e r , t h e i r r e c o m m e n d a t i o n to avoid the f r e -
q u e n c y r a n g e 2 . 7 - 3 . 0 c . p . s . , d o e s not in i t s e l f e n s u r e that the v i b r a t i o n s a r e con-
t a i n e d w i t h i n a c c e p t a b l e l i m i t s . Doubt is given to the u s e f u l n e s s of t h i s r e s t r i c t i o n
a l t h o u g h it i s o f t e n a p p l i e d to b r i d g e d e s i g n s . An a c c e l e r a t i o n l e v e l of 0 . 5 f t / s e c 2
was indicated as being acceptable for pedestrians.

M o s t c o u n t r i e s i n c l u d e an a l l o w a n c e f o r ' d y n a m i c s t r e s s ' in t h e i r c o d e s of
p r a c t i c e , t h i s n o r m a l l y t a k i n g t h e f o r m of an i m p a c t f a c t o r w h i c h d e c r e a s e s with in-
creasing span.

12
 T h e d e f l e c t i o n / s p a n r a t i o is l i m i t e d to 1 / 3 2 5 in BS 44917 a l t h o u g h t h i s s t a n d a r d
is not i n t e n d e d p r i m a r i l y f o r b r i d g e d e s i g n .

No s p e c i f i c c r i t e r i a f o r v i b r a t i o n a p p e a r s in BS 153. i s

T h e A m e r i c a n AASHO s p e c i f i c a t i o n s 19 r e q u i r e a l i v e l o a d d e f l e c t i o n t o s p a n
r a t i o of not g r e a t e r than 1/800 f o r s i m p l e and c o n t i n u o u s s p a n s and not g r e a t e r t h a n
1/300 f o r c a n t i l e v e r a r m s w h e r e the l i v e l oad d e f l e c t i o n i n c l u d e s t he u s e of a d y -
n a m i c i m p a c t f a c t o r . In a d d i t i o n d e p t h - s p a n r a t i o s a r e r e s t r i c t e d to be not l e s s t h a n
1/10 f o r t r u s s e s and 1/25 f o r g i r d e r s . T h e s e l i m i t s w e r e r e v i e w e d by a c o m m i t t e e
in 195820 who c a m e to t he c o n c l u s i o n t h a t w h i l s t t h e c r i t e r i a w e r e not i d e a l f o r t h e
p r e v e n t i o n of v i b r a t i o n p r o b l e m s , no e v i d e n c e of s e r i o u s s t r u c t u r a l d a m a g e c o u l d be
a t t r i b u t e d to e x c e s s i v e v i b r a t i o n s in b r i d g e s d e s i g n e d to t h e s e l i m i t s . It w a s t h e r e -
f o r e r e c o m m e n d e d that t h e s e l i m i t s s h o u l d r e m a i n u n c h a n g e d unt i l m o r e e v i d e n c e
became available.

F o r b r i d g e s of c o m p o s i t e c o n s t r u c t i o n M a s o n and D u n c a n 21 in R h o d e s i a s u g g e s t
that a c c e l e r a t i o n should be r e s t r i c t e d to a l e v e l of 0 . 5 f t / s e c 2 and t h a t f r e q u e n c i e s
of at l e a s t 4 c . p . s , should be a t t a i n e d .
It should be noted t hat r e l a t i v e l y few c o m p l a i n t s h a v e so f a r b e e n r e c e i v e d in
this c o u n t r y r e g a r d i n g b r i d g e m o v e m e n t s . H o w e v e r , on b r i d g e s w h e r e c o n c e r n h a s
b e e n in.dicated about the l i v e l i n e s s of t he s t r u c t u r e , t h e e x t r e m e l e v e l s m e a s u r e d
have b e e n found to be within t h e a b o v e r e c o m m e n d e d l i m i t s f o r d e f l e c t i o n s . It i s
t h e r e f o r e c o n c l u d e d that r e s t r i c t i o n s on l i v e l oad d e f l e c t i o n a l o n e do not r e s u l t in
acceptable vibration properties.

7.2 Design p r o p o s a l s
T h e l e v e l of v i b r a t i o n s w h i c h can be a l l o w e d in b r i d g e s t r u c t u r e s i s e x a m i n e d
f r o m the point of view of t he b r i d g e u s e r . R e s t r i c t i o n s of m o v e m e n t i m p o s e d by
o t h e r l i m i t s t a t e s , such a s f a t i g u e and c r a c k i n g of d e c k s u r f a c e s a r e not d i s c u s s e d .
In c e r t a i n c a s e s t h e s e m a y i m p o s e g r e a t e r l i m i t a t i o n s , a l t h o u g h t h e m a i n p r o b l e m
a r i s e s f r o m t h e f a c t that m o s t b r i d g e s a r e c a p a b l e of t o l e r a t i n g g r e a t e r l e v e l s of
v i b r a t i o n than would be a c c e p t a b l e to b r i d g e u s e r s .

Design for the elimination of vibrations would be both uneconomic and unneces-
sary, hence the proposed design philosophy is based on establishing the maximum
level of vibration acceptable to the user.

Two c l a s s e s of u s e r a r e c o n s i d e r e d : t h e p e d e s t r i a n and t h e p a s s e n g e r in a
v e h i c l e . V e h i c l e s c r o s s b r i d g e s in s uch a s h o r t p e r i o d of t i m e t hat , c o m p a r e d w i t h
the v i b r a t i o n s r e s u l t i n g f r o m r o a d s u r f a c e i r r e g u l a r i t i e s , it i s d o u b t f u l w h e t h e r a n y
m o t i on f r o m a b r i d g e would be d e t e c t a b l e . T h e s p e c i a l c a s e of a v e h i c l e p a r k e d on a
b r i d g e cannot b e c o n s i d e r e d as a d e s i g n c a s e , a s t h e r e s p o n s e v a r i e s f r o m c a r to
c a r . In p r a c t i c e it should not o c c u r f o r a s u f f i c i e n t l e n g t h of t i m e to c a u s e d i s t r e s s .

It is t h e r e f o r e a s s u m e d t hat the m a x i m u m v i b r a t i o n l e v e l a l l o w a b l e i s d i c t a t e d
by the p e d e s t r i a n . B r i d g e s w hi ch c a r r y v e h i c l e s o n l y a r e c o n s i d e r e d l a t e r .

T o l e r a n c e l e v e l s a c c e p t a b l e to p e d e s t r i a n s a r e g i v e n in f i g s . 8a a n d 8b. T h e
b o u n d a r y f o r p e o p l e w al ki ng can be adopt ed, f o r t he p r e s e n t t i m e , a s an u p p e r l i m i t
for permissible vibrations under normal traffic conditions. Where deDberate exci-

13
tation of a bridge is a possibility e.g. by groups of people, or due to clutch jerk on a
vehicle, then the maximum movement should be restricted by adequate damping to
produce a level of acceleration which is not greater than 0.1 g. This level of vibra-
tion, which is normally regarded as being very unpleasant, can be tolerated by some
people for very short periods.

W h e r e b r i d g e s c a r r y a l a r g e n u m b e r of p e d e s t r i a n s or w h e r e t r a f f i c t e n d s to be
c o n t i n u o u s i.e. m o r e t h a n one v e h i c l e o c c u p y i n g the b r i d g e at a time, then it is sug-
g e s t e d t h a t it w o u l d be p r e f e r a b l e to keep l e v e l s of v i b r a t i o n below the ' s t a n d i n g '
b o u n d a r y of f i g . 8a.

T h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l q u e s t i o n of i n s e c u r i t y which is often a s s o c i a t e d with v i b r a -

t i o n s h a s so f a r b e e n i g n o r e d in d e f i n i n g t h e t o l e r a n c e l i m i t s . T h i s f e e l i n g d i f f e r s
m a r k e d l y f r o m p e r s o n to p e r s o n and in d i f f e r e n t s i t u a t i o n s . The p r a c t i c a l a n s w e r to
t h i s p a r t i c u l a r p r o b l e m m u s t be one of c o n d i t i o n i n g and e d u c a t i o n of the b r i d g e u s e r ,
to a c c e p t t h e l e v e l s of v i b r a t i o n p r o p o s e d . Once the b r i d g e u s e r has taken f o r g r a n t -
ed the u l t i m a t e s a f e t y of the b r i d g e , t h i s s h o u l d p r e s e n t no p r o b l e m . That t h i s is an
a c c e p t a b l e s o l u t i o n is d e m o n s t r a t e d by p e o p l e ' s a c c e p t a n c e of v e r y n o t i c e a b l e m o v e -
m e n t s on b r i d g e s , s u c h a s T o w e r B r i d g e a n d H a m m e r s m i t h B r i d g e , without f e a r s f o r
t h e s a f e t y of t h e s e s t r u c t u r e s . A n o t h e r e x a m p l e t h a t conditioning to v i b r a t i o n is
p o s s i b l e , is d e m o n s t r a t e d by t h e a c c e p t a n c e of the m o t i o n on L o n d o n ' s u n d e r g r o u n d
r a i l w a y w h e r e a c c e l e r a t i o n s of t h e o r d e r of 0 . 1 g a r e often e n c o u n t e r e d .
T h e r e a p p e a r s to be no r e a s o n why a n y p a r t i c u l a r f r e q u e n c y r a n g e should be
a v o i d e d f o r b r i d g e n a t u r a l f r e q u e n c i e s p r o v i d e d d a m p i n g and s t i f f n e s s in the s t r u c -
t u r e a r e a d e q u a t e to c o n t a i n v i b r a t i o n s below the l e v e l s i n d i c a t e d above.

On bridges c a r r y i n g vehicles only, it may be possible to accept higher levels of

vibration. Such limits cannot be specified at present, due to lack of information but
it would be prudent to use the 'walking' boundary of figure 8a for normal traffic con-
ditions, with an upper limit of 0. 1 g to cater for abnormal use.

T h e v a l u e of 0. 1 g could a l s o be u s e d f o r t e m p o r a r y s t r u c t u r e s , f o r e x a m p l e
B a i l e y B r i d g e s , w h i c h a r e e r e c t e d f o r s h o r t p e r i o d s in o r d e r to o v e r c o m e e m e r g e n -
cies such as bridge f a i l u r e s and t e m p o r a r y diversions.

R e v i s i o n of t h e a b o v e l i m i t a t i o n s , with a view to r a i s i n g t h e l e v e l s , m a y be p o s -
s i b l e w h e n f u r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n h a s b e e n o b t a i n e d on all c l a s s e s of b r i d g e s and when
it is p o s s i b l e to c a r r y out s a t i s f a c t o r y d y n a m i c a n a l y s i s of t h e s y s t e m as a whole.

8. LATERAL VIBRATIONS

L a t e r a l vibration of bridges has not been discussed in detail. The majority of

bridge s t r u c t u r e s c a r r y i n g vehicles tend to be extremely stiff in the horizontal
plane, and excitation f r o m vehicles is much lower than in the vertical direction.

E x c e p t i o n s m a y o c c u r in t h e c a s e of l i g h t w e i g h t s t r u c t u r e s such as f o o t b r i d g e s
a n d on l o n g s p a n b r i d g e s d e s i g n e d f o r w i n d s t a b i l i t y .

Dieckmann in figures 4 and 5 demonstrates the greater sensitivity of human

reactions to horizontal movement at very low frequencies. As Deickmann's work
shows a marked resonance effect of the head at 2 c.p.s., which may be a contribu-

14
t o r y f a c t o r in motion s i c k n e s s , it would be a d v i s a b l e to k e e p the h o r i z o n t a l f r e q u e n c y
of a f o o t b r i d g e above 4 c . p . s . T h e s e s t r u c t u r e s should a l s o be e x a m i n e d f o r a d e -
quate s t r u c t u r a l d a m p i n g in t h e l a t e r a l d i r e c t i o n a s l i g h t w e i g h t s u p p o r t s , s u c h a s
simple t u b u l a r c o l u m n s , m a y not p r o v i d e s u f f i c i e n t d a m p i n g .

As with v e r t i c a l v i b r a t i o n s , the e c o n o m i c s of long s p a n b r i d g e s m a y n e c e s s i t a t e

the a c c e p t a n c e of l a r g e v i b r a t i o n l e v e l s when wind f o r c e s a r e s u f f i c i e n t l y h i g h .

In view of the g r e a t e r s e n s i t i v i t y of p e o p l e to l a t e r a l v i b r a t i o n s , m o v e m e n t
should be r e s t r i c t e d to be below the ' s t a n d i n g ' b o u n d a r y of f i g u r e 8a as a d e s i g n
guide, until m o r e information is available.

9. F U R T H E R WORK

In o r d e r to apply t o l e r a n c e l e v e l s at the d e s i g n stage, a p p r o p r i a t e c a l c u l a t i o n s h a v e

to be p e r f o r m e d to d e t e r m i n e the r e s p o n s e of t h e b r i d g e . R e s p o n s e c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e
n o r m a l l y c o m p l i c a t e d and the p r e s e n t state of the a r t o n l y p e r m i t s a c c u r a t e p r e d i c -
tions for the s i m p l e s t s t r u c t u r e s . Much w o r k i s n e e d e d to p r o v i d e t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n
and in p a r t i c u l a r , s p e c i f i c a t i o n of s t a n d a r d ' d y n a m i c l o a d s ' f o r all c l a s s e s of b r i d g e s .

F i n a l l y t h e r e is a need to e x a m i n e the s u s c e p t i b i l i t y of d i f f e r e n t t y p e s of b r i d g e
c o n s t r u c t i o n to v i b r a t i o n s , to d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r t h e r e a r e a n y i n h e r e n t f e a t u r e s
which a f f e c t r e s p o n s e . T h i s will involve the c o m p a r i s o n of b a s i c d e s i g n f o r m s s u c h
a s s i m p l y s u p p o r t e d , - - - s u s p e n s i o n , - - c a n t i l e v e r ,---continuous--and a r c h - b r i d g e s ; the r e l a -
tive m e r i t s of bolted, r i v e t t e d and w e l d e d j o i n t s ; and t h e i n f l u e n c e of m a t e r i a l s u s e d
in c o n s t r u c t i o n , f o r e x a m p l e s t e e l , r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e , p r e s t r e s s e d c o n c r e t e a n d
c o m p o s i t e c o n s t r u c t i o n . O t h e r f a c t o r s which i n f l u e n c e r e s p o n s e i n c l u d e m a t e r i a l s
f o r w e a r i n g s u r f a c e s , t y p e s of b e a r i n g s , e x p a n s i o n j o i n t s and c o n s t r u c t i o n of a b u t -
m e n t s , and of c o u r s e v e h i e l e s and p e d e s t r i a n s . Such a c o m p a r i s o n , f o r the s a m e d e -
sign loading conditions and span, would enable the m o s t s u i t a b l e t y p e of s t r u c t u r e to
be s e l e c t e d f r o m the point of view of v i b r a t i o n s .

10. SUMMARY

The p a p e r s h o w s that t r e n d s in d e s i g n a r e t e n d i n g to p r o d u c e l i v e l i e r b r i d g e s t r u c -
t u r e s . M e a s u r e m e n t s on r e c e n t l y c o m p l e t e d b r i d g e s a n d on b r i d g e s f o r w h i c h a d -
v e r s e r e p o r t s have been r e c e i v e d c o n f i r m t h i s . As v i b r a t i o n s a r e b e c o m i n g m o r e
i m p o r t a n t a s a l i m i t s t a t e in d e s i g n it is n e c e s s a r y to d e f i n e t h e l e v e l s of v i b r a t i o n
which can be t o l e r a t e d .

The t r a n s i e n t n a t u r e of b r i d g e v i b r a t i o n s w i t h p e a k a m p l i t u d e s l a s t i n g f o r a few
seconds makes existing tolerance c r i t e r i a inapplicable for defining design vibration
l e v e l s . New l e v e l s of t o l e r a n c e a r e p r e s e n t e d in f i g u r e s 8a a n d 8b b a s e d on s u b j e c -
tive t e s t s of p e d e s t r i a n s w a l k i n g and s t a n d i n g on a f o o t b r i d g e . V i b r a t i o n s up to the
b o u n d a r y f o r walking should be s a t i s f a c t o r y u n d e r n o r m a l t r a f f i c c o n d i t i o n s a l t h o u g h
the lower ' s t a n d i n g ' b o u n d a r y is p r o b a b l y m o r e a p p r o p r i a t e f o r b r i d g e s c a r r y i n g
m a n y p e d e s t r i a n s or w h e r e v e h i c l e t r a f f i c is c o n t i n u o u s . As s t r u c t u r e s can o f t e n
withstand h i g h e r l e v e l s of v i b r a t i o n , an u p p e r l i m i t of 0. 1 g i s s u g g e s t e d f o r t h e u l t i -
m a t e level to which a b r i d g e can be excited. L a t e r a l v i b r a t i o n s s h o u l d be r e s t r i c t e d
to be below the standing b o u n d a r y of f i g u r e 8a.

15,
 A s s t r u c t u r e s r e s p o n d at t h e f r e q u e n c y of e x c i t a t i o n , the o v e r l a p in the r a n g e s
of n a t u r a l f r e q u e n c i e s f o r b r i d g e s , v e h i c l e s a n d the h u m a n body a l l o w s the p o s s i b l i t y
of l a r g e v i b r a t i o n s to o c c u r . E v e n at r e s o n a n c e t h e s e can be r e s t r i c t e d within t h e
p r o p o s e d l i m i t s if a d e q u a t e s t i f f n e s s and d a m p i n g is p r e s e n t . In t h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s
t h e r e a p p e a r s to be no r e a s o n f o r a v o i d i n g a n y p a r t i c u l a r f r e q u e n c y r a n g e a l t h o u g h
b r i d g e f r e q u e n c i e s a b o v e 4 c . p . s , w o u l d l e s s e n t h e p o s s i b l e e f f e c t on p e d e s t r i a n s .

V i b r a t i o n s w h i c h a p p r o a c h t h e l e v e l s p r o p o s e d , will be n o t i c e a b l e and h e n c e it
m a y be n e c e s s a r y to e d u c a t e p e d e s t r i a n s to a c c e p t t h e s e m o v e m e n t s a s n o r m a l a n d
to a s s u r e t h e m t h a t t h e s a f e t y of t h e b r i d g e i s not a f f e c t e d . C o n t i n u e d use of s u c h
b r i d g e s will c o n d i t i o n u s e r s to a c c e p t t h e s e l e v e l s .

T h e f u n d a m e n t a l c a u s e of v i b r a t i o n s is t h e e x c i t i n g f o r c e and hence its r e d u c -

t i o n w i l l a u t o m a t i c a l l y r e d u c e t h e l e v e l of the r e s p o n s e . In p r a c t i c e e x c i t i n g f o r c e s
d u e to v e h i c l e s can be r e d u c e d to a m i n i m u m by e n s u r i n g a s m o o t h r o a d s u r f a c e
p r o f i l e a t a b u t m e n t s , e x p a n s i o n j o i n t s a n d a c r o s s the b r i d g e i t s e l f . L i t t l e can be
d o n e a b o u t t h e v e h i c l e s t h e m s e l v e s , a l t h o u g h it should be n o t e d t h a t g r e a t e r v e l o c i -
t i e s a n d w e i g h t s i n c r e a s e t h e p o t e n t i a l e x c i t i n g f o r c e and t h a t s t o p p i n g and s t a r t i n g
v e h i c l e s m a y m o m e n t a r i l y p r o d u c e l a r g e v i b r a t i o n s . In g e n e r a l e x c i t a t i o n by p e d e s -
t r i a n s w i l l o n l y be i m p o r t a n t on f o o t b r i d g e s a l t h o u g h it w o u l d be p r u d e n t f o r b o d i e s
of m a r c h i n g m e n to b r e a k s t e p . D e l i b e r a t e e x c i t a t i o n by g r o u p s of people a r e l i k e l y
to p r o d u c e t h e m o s t s e v e r e m o v e m e n t s o n f o o t b r i d g e s .

S t i f f n e s s r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s , in t h e f o r m of r e s t r i c t i o n s on live load d e f l e c t i o n
a n d s t r u c t u r a l d e p t h to s p a n r a t i o s , a r e not s u f f i c i e n t in t h e m s e l v e s to p r e v e n t l a r g e
v i b r a t i o n s o c c u r r i n g . S t r u c t u r a l d a m p i n g , w h i c h is one of the l e a s t p r e d i c t a b l e f a c -
t o r s in b r i d g e d e s i g n , is of m a j o r i m p o r t a n c e a s it g o v e r n s the d u r a t i o n of v i b r a -
t i o n s and t h e i r m a g n i t u d e s n e a r r e s o n a n c e . P a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n should t h e r e f o r e be
g i v e n to the p r o v i s i o n of s u f f i c i e n t d a m p i n g e s p e c i a l l y f o r light t e m p o r a r y s t r u c -
t u r e s a n d t h o s e f o r w h i c h t h e r a t i o of l i v e l o a d to dead load is high.

RE FERENCES

I. PAIN, J. F. and T. J. Upstone. Some considerations affecting the minimum depth

of small highway bridge girders. Proc. Instn. Civ. Engrs. 1942-43.

2. DIECKMANN, D. A study of the influence of vibration on man. Ergonomics 1958

I, 4,347-55.

3. GUIGNARD, J. C. and A. Irving. Effects of low-frequency vibration on man. 1960.

Engineering 190, 364-67.

4. STEFFENS, R.J. Symposium on Vibration in Civil Engineering--Imp. Coil.

April, 1965.

5. GOLDMAN, D.E. A review of subjective responses to vibratory motion of the

human body in the frequency range I to 70 c.p.s. 1948 Naval Medical Research
Institute Maryland, Report NM-004-001.

6. WRIGHT, D. T. and R. Green. Highway bridge vibrations - Part I. A review of

previous studies 1959. Rept. No. 4, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario.

16
7. WRIGHT, D. T. and R. G r e e n . H u m a n s e n s i t i v i t y to v i b r a t i o n . 1959. R e p t . No. 7,
Q u e e n ' s U n i v e r s i t y , Kingston, O n t a r i o .

8. BRYCE, W . D . A r e v i e w and a s s e s s m e n t of c r i t e r i a f o r h u m a n c o m f o r t d e r i v e d
f r o m s u b j e c t i v e r e s p o n s e s to v i b r a t i o n . N a t i o n a l G a s T u r b i n e E s t a b l i s h m e n t .
R e p o r t to be p u b l i s h e d .

9. REIHER, H. J. and F. J. M e i s t e r . H u m a n s e n s i t i v i t y to v i b r a t i o n . 1931 F o r s c h

auf d e m Geb. d e s Ing. 2, 1 1 , 3 8 1 - 6 . ( T r a n s l a t i o n R e p t . F - T S - 6 1 6 - R E , W r i g h t F i e l d ,
1946).

10. JANEWAY, R . N . V e h i c l e v i b r a t i o n l i m i t s to fit the p a s s e n g e r . 1948 Jnl. Soc.

Automotive E n g r s . 56, 8.

11. LEONARD, D . R . S u b j e c t i v e t e s t s on h u m a n r e a c t i o n to b r i d g e v i b r a t i o n s .
(RRL B e p o r t - in p r e p a r a t i o n ) .

12. WRIGHT, D. T. and R. G r e e n . Highway b r i d g e v i b r a t i o n s P a r t II. O n t a r i o t e s t

p r o g r a m m e . 1963. Rept. No. 5, Q u e e n ' s U n i v e r s i t y , Kingston, O n t a r i o .

13. O E H L E R , L . T . V i b r a t i o n s u s c e p t i b i l i t i e s of v a r i o u s h i g h w a y b r i d g e t y p e s . P r o c .
A m e r . Soc. Civ. E n g r s . 1957 83 ST4 ( P a p e r 1318).

14. W A L L E Y , F. St. J a m e s ' P a r k B r i d g e . 1959 Jnl. Instn. Civ. E n g r s . 12, 2, 2 1 7 - 2 2 .

15. V i b r a t i o n t e s t s on the S p r o t b o r o u g h F o o t b r i d g e - D o n c a s t e r B y - P a s s M o t o r w a y .
1962. D.S.I.R. C o m m i t t e e on B r i d g e s . P a p e r BB 91. (not p u b l i s h e d ) .

16. ROSLI, A and H. H a f a c k e r . T e s t s on the Glott B r i d g e at Opfikon 1960. C. & C.A.

T r a n s l a t i o n No. 106.

17. BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 449. The u s e of s t r u c t u r a l s t e e l in

building. 1959.

18. BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 153. Steel g i r d e r b r i d g e s P a r t 3 1954,

P a r t 4. 1958.

19. AMERICAN ASSOCIATION O F STATE HIGHWAY O F F I C I A L S . S t a n d a r d s p e c i f i -

cation f o r highway b r i d g e s 1961.

20. P r o g r e s s R e p o r t of the C o m m i t t e e on D e f l e c t i o n L i m i t a t i o n s of B r i d g e s of t h e
S t r u c t u r a l Division, 'Deflection L i m i t a t i o n of B r i d g e s ' , P r o c . ASCE, 1958,
Chairman C.P. Seiss.

21. MASON, A. F. and M. A. G. Duncan. C o m p o s i t e s t e e l and c o n c r e t e b r i d g e c o n -

s t r u c t i o n in Southern Rhodesia, 1962. Jnl. Inst. Civ. E n g r s . 21, 4, 7 8 5 - 8 1 0 .

17
 200 ~ ~.~.0~.I I I I I I I I I I

100

50 1, \
Unpleasant %.
• or .
disturbing ~

I0
~ \\Po,n,ut
n

5
3
0
r
\\\ \
"O

Q.
\ '\N~,\
E
<erceptibie~ \ ~,
I'0

0-5
\:
\ \ N
\ ix ' \
\ \
0-I , ,, ,, , , ~,,\ ,,\
I 3 5 10 20 30 50 100

Frequency (c.p.s.)

Fig.1. HUMAN SENSITIVITY TO VERTICAL VIBRATIONS

(REIHER ANO HEISTER)

18
 I I

I Range of ls.d.
I about mean value

,°° L , I
I

t' I
.~- \ Intolerable ~
I
50 /

-<k lO ~ / I .L-
_
,
I \:" k
.~ . j T

Perceptible : I I
j '
o-s , T " I

I / 1 -

J L

: I
I ±
0.1 I I I II I I I I
I 2 3 5 10 20 30 50 100

Frequency (c.p.s.)

Fig.2. TOLERANCE LEVELS OF HUMAN REACTION TO

VIBRATION (GOLDMAN) - AMPLITUOE v FREOUENCY

19
 I I II I I I I I

1"0

[ I
/
I ntolerabLe

0"1
J
t-
.9 ![ itI t i
oJ
UnpLeasant

/ f
0"01

/
Perceptible.

0-001 J I , I I I I I I J I . i I I
3 S 10 20 30 50 100

Frequency (c.p.s.)

Fig.3. TOLERANCELEVELS OF HUMAN REACTION TO

VIBRATION (GOLOMAN)-ACCELERATIONv FREOUEilCV

20
 2oo~ \ I I I I I I I I

100 ~ - - -
\ 00

\
\ K=10

5
o
1-
\
3

1
\
0.5 _ -- ~
, -.<, K=I

~:~',~',~,,, \~-,
I I I I
0.1
2 3 5 10 20 30 50 100

Frequency {c.p.s.)

Fig./,. SCALE OF STRAIN FOR VERTICAL VIBRATIONS

(DIECI(MANN)

21
 200

\
I~ I I I I i t i l l

100

%•K=
I00

50
\I
\
\
\
~K =10
E
5
\
3
o
\
"o
3
,~
¢3L
E
\
,\
0"5
\
-

~ .IK: 0'1

\
0-I I I I I
I 2 3 S 10 20 30 50 100

Frequency(c.p.s)

Fi9.5. SCALE OF STRAIN FOR HORIZONTAL VIBRATIOItS

(OIECKMANN)

22
 200 I I I I I I i I I I I

~
100

f3 = 2
5O
L.
Discomfort zone

10

5
0I-
..._ a f z - _1

10
3

E
C o m f o r t zone

0.5 ¸
\°
\

0.1 I I I II l I I II
2 3 5 10 20 30 50 100

Frequency (c.p.s.)

Fig.6. VERTICAL VIBRATION LIMITS FOR AUTOMOBILE

PASSENGER COMFORT (JANEWAY)

23
 200 , ,,,,

'\\\\
I00 L_

~o~
\\
~°° \\\X;< ~ I -

~3
5 \
0

D
.',~-'__

E
<

%.
r-

0-5,

"\\
0"1 I I I II I i , i~
I 2 3 5 10 20 30 50 100

Frequency (c.p.s.)

Fig.7. CONTOURSOF EOUALSENSITIVITY TO VIBRATION-

"ISOSENSORS'(WRIGHT AWO GREEN}

24
 200 I I I I I I I I I

100 _
\
U nocceptabLe

50

10

c
5
r-

E
Acceptob|e

0.5

0.1 I I I II I I I I I
2 3 5 10 20 30 50 100
Frequency (c.p.s.)

Fig.On. HUMAN TOLERANCELEVELS FOR 9RIDGE VIBRATIONS

(RESULTS OF R.R.L. TESTS. OECEMDER 1965)

2,5
 I I I I I I I I II

1'0'
r-

L-
L 9

0'5

U nocceptobte
0.1

0'05
¢)

/__ r
~/~, ~ " - - - -

0"01 /

ooo~ ~ ' ! "~"°'=[ b l e

0"001 ~ . _ _ , ~ _ _ . L . , l I I I i I l I I
2 3 5 10 20 30 50 100

F r e q u e n c y (c.p.s.)

Fig.Oh. HUMANTOLERANCELEVELSFOR BRIDGE VIBRATIONS

(EXPRESSEOIN TERMSOF S )

26
 200 [] i t Ill I 1 I I

1oo _ []

-
e - \

ot - ~
®
\

~C
KEY
e.g. Bridge 3 - n o r m a l use shown (~)
obnormat use shown [ ]
(when appticabte)
0"5 etc.
Bridge numbers 1-5 inctusive are traffic b r i d g e s
Bridge numbers 6-8 inctusive are foot bridges

Note: Numbers 2 and 6 are cantilever bridges

w i t h suspended centre spans.

0.1 I I I I I I I I i i
2 3 5 10 20 30 50 100
Frequency (c.p.s.)

Fig.9. MEASUREMENTSMAOE BY R.R.L. ON HIGHWAY BRIDGES

2'Z
 2OO ~. lee l l l l J I I I I I I
Reiher ond Meister
(see fig.1.)
i i Jonewoy
(see fig.6.) _-
• • • • GotdmQn
(see fig.2.)
\- -
g \_~ R R.I.. tests
(see fig. 80,)

..\ \\- \".

,o
"--..\ ~ ,
_ .

.~_?tanding

°e o o

~ ooo°o

°'~ _ \• "...~
\ \
\
0-1 I I I t t
\ i %f l l I
1 2 3 5 10 20 30 50 100

Frequency (c.p.s.)

Fig.10. COMPARISONOF TOLERANCELEVELS TO VIBRATION

28
 P R O D U C E D BY ~N~OPnt~T
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photo-reproduced ~md printed offset
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