Unit 1: Puberty

Section 1: Human Development

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STAGES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

During lifetime we all experience different physical (physical appearance), psychological (way of thinking and learning)
and social (way we relate to others) changes.

Every person has a different pace of development, so it is difficult to say when each stage of human life begins and ends.

The main stages are:

 Prenatal stage (0-9 months): from the moment a human being is conceived, it begins developing all its organs
and systems that will allow the baby to live outside its mother’s womb
 Childhood (0-10 years, app): after birth, children grow fast, they begin to walk, run and speak. During this
stage of life, children go to school and learn to relate with others
 Puberty (11-13 years, app): in this stage the body changes biologically to prepare to be able to have children,
but in this stage humans are not fully matured psychologically
 Adolescence (13-20 years, app): Interests become more defined (music, sports, which college to go to)
 Adulthood (20-60 years, app): this is the longest stage. The person has responsibilities like a job or a family.
There are no important physical changes, but the lifestyle choices people make in this stage are important to
their well-being when they are older
 Advanced Adulthood (Senior Citizens, 60 years app and above): people become less active because of
reduced physical capabilities and can enjoy more free time

HUMAN SEXUALITY
Human sexuality is related to:
 physical changes that distinguish the male sex from the female
 psychological characteristics like personality, values, feeling and home life

A large part of human development occurs during puberty, all related to the biological ability to reproduce. However,
during this stage, human are not yet psychologically or socially mature enough to have children.

PUBERTY: A STAGE OF BIG CHANGES

Changes happen because the adolescent starts building his identity, which might have for the rest of his life. His likes or
dislikes are shown through clothing or music. His behavior towards his parents and classmates changes, because he is
searching to be unique and original.

SOCIAL CHANGES
In this stage, people change their relationship with their parents and establish relationships with many people who have
common characteristics (same age and common interests); this is how groups of friends are formed

PHYSICAL CHANGES
 Primary Sexual Characteristics: are developed during gestation, when reproductive organs form and the sex
of a person is determined
 Secondary Sexual Characteristics: appear during puberty. Some are:

Change in height (taller) Facial hair (beard)

Development of mammary gland Hair growth in armpits and
pubic area Deeper voice
Wider hips and stronger muscles Devolpment of internal and
external genitals Wider shoulders

Female Male

Science 6th 1
Unit 1: Puberty
Section 2: The Human Reproductive System
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THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

It produces hormones, which control diverse functions of human body, like changes that occur during puberty.

But one of its main functions is to produce and release gametes. For women, this type of cell is called oocyte.

Another function of female reproductive system is to allow the formation and development of a human being until it is
born.

The female reproductive system is made of internal and external genitals.

EXTERNAL GENITALS
One of its functions is to protect the internal parts from infections or physical harm

mons pubis urinary bladder

clitoris
labia minora
vaginal opening
labia majora
INTERNAL GENITALS

ovaries two organs with shape and size

fallopian tubes like an almond, located on both
connect each ovary to the uterus. sides of the uterus. Are called
In these tubes the oocyte meets the uterus female gonads, the oocyte are
male gamete, occuring the stretchy muscular organ of app 7- formed inside them
fertilization process and producing9 cm long. Inside it is a layer
an embryo called endometrium, where the
embryo implnats. If fertilization vagina formed by muscular walls that connect the
doesn’t occur, the endometrium uterus to the vaginal opening. One of its
detaches, which causes blood and functions is the expulsion of the
tissued to exit trough the vagina, endometrium during menstruation, it also
this process is called allows a baby to be born
menstruation.
If fertilization occurs, the embryo
implants in the uterus, and during
pregnancy this organ can grow up
to six times its normal size

THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Forms a gamete called spermatozoon (plural spermatozoa)

EXTERNAL GENITALS

Science 6th
Unit 1: Puberty
Section 2: The Human Reproductive System
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urinary bladder

seminal vesicles are two glands in charge of

making seminal fluid that give the
spermatozoa nutrients and help
them move

penis
is an organ located outside the testicles are two oval shaped organs located outside the
body. At the end of it, it widens pelvic cavity, a layer of skin called scrotum
forming the glans, that is covered protects them. They are the male gonads. Male
by skin called prepuce gametes called spermatozoa are formed inside of
them many tubes called seminiferous tubes, that
are inside the testicles

INTERNAL GENITALS

urinary bladder

prostate accesory gland located in the upper part of the urethra.

vas deferens
muscular tubes that transport Produces prostate secretions that help spermatozoa travel
spermatozoa from the epididimys
to the urethra
urethra tube connected to the urinary bladder. Runs throughout the
whole penis and reaches the outside. Its muscular walls can
epididimys
contract, allowing semen or urine to exit, because it is a
coiled up (enrrollado) tube located above shared duct between the reproductive and urinary system
each testicle. Here the spermatozoa that
come from the testicles are stored and
prepared to be transported to ther vas
deferens

Prostate and seminal vesicles are accessory glands  the produce secretions + spermatozoa = semen

MALE AND FEMALE GAMETES

 Female gametes: oocytes, formed in the ovaries
 Male gametes: spermatozoa, formed in the testicles

These cells are very important because they allow humans to reproduce. They have different structures and formation
processes.

OOCYTES OR EGG CELLS

Oocyte is spherical and surrounded by a group of cells called follicular cells
These gametes form and mature through a process called ovogenesis that
follicular cells begins before a woman is born. When a woman is born, each ovary has a
limited number of egg cells; during puberty, they begin the cycle of
ovulation, in which an egg is released each month.
Since oocyte doesn’t move on its own, the fallopian tubes contract to help it travel. From the time
the oocyte is released from the ovary, it is only fertile for 24 hours. If not fertilized, menstruation
occurs

SPERMATOZOA

They are formed in the testicle, specifically in the seminiferous tubes, were millions of
spermatozoa are created daily. The process of formation is called spermatogenesis and
starts at puberty and continues during a man’s entire life.

Science 6th
Unit 1: Puberty
Section 2: The Human Reproductive System
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After spermatozoa are produced in the testicles, they move through the epididymis, were they are stored for approximately
4 weeks, they mature and form their shape, preparing to move more easily

Spermatozoa are long and thin, there are many of them and are much smaller
than the oocyte

OTHER CHARACTERISTICS OF GAMETES

OOCYTE

zona pellucida transparent layer between the egg anf the corona radiata. Protects and stops more than
one spermatozoon from fertilizing the egg
cortical granules located inside the egg. Release enzymas that change the structure of the zona pellucida
once a spermatozoon has fertilized the egg

corona radiata layer of follicular cells that surround the egg on the outside and give it nutrients and
protection

SPERMATOZOON

head covered by a portion called acrosome, contains enzymes that allow it to enter the egg

mid-piece represent a number of structures called mitochondria, give the spermatozoon the
energy to move

tail allows the spermatozoon to move through the femalke reproductive system to find the
egg and fertilize it

HORMONES THAT CAUSE CHANGES

Sexual hormones are responsible for changes in personality and physical appearance.

They are chemical substances produced in the gonads

THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE CYCLE

Ovaries release estrogen and progesterone. One of their effects is related to woman’s reproductive cycle, called
menstrual cycle. It starts with puberty and lasts until ovaries stop releasing oocytes (about 50 years old).

The menstrual cycle is about 28 days long, but it is different in each woman and can last between 21 to 35 days. During
this time, two processes occur:
 The egg is released from the ovary (ovulation)
 The uterus prepares for the possibility of pregnancy

CHANGES DURING THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE CYCLE

Science 6th
Unit 1: Puberty
Section 2: The Human Reproductive System
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28

menstruation ovulation

Days of the Description

Menstrual
Cycle
1-4 Endometrium decreases because large part of its tissue sheds and is eliminated. It is expelled with blood in a process
called menstruation
5 - 12 The endometrium begins to grow again, increases in thickness and retains more water, preparing to receive an
embryo in the case of fertilization
13 - 15 Ovulation starts. The egg is released from the ovary and travels trough the fallopian tubes. Endometrium keeps
growing
16 - 27 Endometrium continues to thicken, preparing for pregnancy
28 If fertilization does not occur, the endometrium detaches from the uterus wall, starting a new menstruation cycle

Science 6th
Unit 1: Puberty
Section 3: Physical Activity and Hygene
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PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND PUBERTY

Physical activity has many benefits during puberty. It strengthens the body and helps some social and psychological
aspects of adolescence

THE BENEFITS OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY

Physical activity is defined as all the movement we do throughout the day, that benefit our bodies and help us stay healthy

Regular physical activity has many benefits:

 On physical level: reduces risk of cardiovascular diseases and controls weight-gain. Helps with the
development of boned and muscles
 On psychological level: makes you feel better, giving you higher self-esteem and self-worth
 On social level: helps you be more independent and more social when playing team sports

LEVELS OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY

 Vigorous: means that people spend most of their time doing strenuous things (professional athletes, farmers,
construction workers)
 Moderate: means that people spend some of their time on foot or moving around (jogging, riding a bike)
 Sedentary: means that people spend most of their day without doing any physical activity (students or office
workers who spend a lot of time sitting down)

TYPES OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY

 Resistance exercises: strengthen the cardiovascular and respiratory systems (jogging, walking, riding a bike)
 Strengthen exercises: increase physical capabilities, develop muscles and help maintain good posture (weight
lifting, sit-ups)
 Speed exercises: increase ability to move quickly and be agile, prepare body for fast reactions (speed races)
 Flexibility exercises: make easier to move and decrease risk of joint injuries

BODY HYGIENE HABITS

Good body hygiene habits help you stay healthy and clean:
 Take a shower everyday
 Use deodorant
 Dry with a clean towel and don’t share it
 Brush teeth after meals and before bedtime
 Put on clean clothes after bathing
 Wash your body with soap and your hair with shampoo
 Wash your hands before esating and after going to the bathroom, blowing your nose or touching pets
 Keep fingernails short and clean

Science 6th
Unit 1: Puberty
Section 4: Drugs and the Body
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DRUGS
Are natural or artificial substances that, when consumed, alter a person’s natural state of mind

TYPES OF DRUGS
Drugs can be classified as legal or illegal, or according to the effects they produce when consumed

DRUGS CLASSIFIED BY THEIR LEGALITY

 Legal drugs: their use is controlled by law  tobacco, alcohol and medicines with restricted use
(amphetamines and morphine)
 Illegal drugs: their use is not permitted by law because are extremely harmful to people’s health (marijuana,
cocaine). Using them is a crime

CLASSIFICATION OF DRUGS ACCORDING TO THEIR EFFECT ON THE BODY

 Depressants:
o Decrease activity of the nervous system
o Provoke drowsiness and relaxation
o Provoke confusion and memory loss
o Cause loss of perception of surroundings
o Ex: alcohol, heroine, tranquilizers (diazepam, morphine)
 Stimulators:
o Accelerate the activity of the nervous system
o Decrease emotional control
o Ex: cocaine, crack, nicotine, ecstasy and amphetamines
 Hallucinogens:
o Alter perception, feelings and sensations
o Stimulate visual and auditory senses
o Produce visual and auditory hallucinations
o Ex: marijuana, LSD

EFFECTS OF DRUG USE ON THE BODY

Tobacco: Alcohol: Marijuana:

 Chronic bronchitis  Brain deterioration  Altered perception of
 Mouth, larynx, lung cancer  Decrease in thought and reality
 Risk of heart attack judgment  Altered memory
 Change in breathing  Bronchitis
 Variation in heart rate  Increase in heart rate
 Cirrhosis of the liver  Risk of lung cancer
 Increase in blood pressure  Loss of balance and
 Loss of balance and coordination
coordination

CONSEQUENCES OF DRUG USE

DRUGS CREATE DEPENDENCE

It is shown when the consumer feels the need to consume them regularly, as a result of the body becoming accustomed to
drug use. When consumer can’t take drugs, shows symptoms like anxiety, insomnia, tremors and dizziness.

DRUGS CREATE TOLERANCE

Drugs change a person’s perception of reality because affect the nervous system, but the sensation changes because body
builds up tolerance to drugs, so the person increases the amount of drugs consumed to try to have the same experience of
the first time.

DRUGS CREATE ADDICTION

Dependence and tolerance lead to addiction  the uncontrollable impulse to consume them again and again

ADDICTION TREATMENT

Science 6th
Unit 1: Puberty
Section 4: Drugs and the Body
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When an addict stops using drugs, he experiences withdrawal symptoms, which can provoke serious physical problems to
him.
To cope with withdrawal symptoms, the addict needs to seek help in a detoxification or rehabilitation facility. They also
need support from family and friends, psychologists and doctors.

PREVENTING DRUG USE

 Cultivate good self-esteem: if you accept and love yourself, this will give you the security and confidence to
make responsible decisions
 Respect yourself and others: other people should respect you and not pressure you into making bad decisions;
and you should do the same
 Understand yourself and the effects of drugs: taking care of your body and knowing the negative effects of
drug use will help you live free from harmful substances
 Importance of family: family values are fundamental in dealing with problems of drug use
 Communication and affection within your family: a home with love, affection and protection gives you
security and confidence, contributing to good communication and freedom of expression:
 Promote a healthy lifestyle: an environment that encourages healthy habits allows for good use of free time in
a safe place

Science 6th
Unit 2: Energy in the Environment
Section 1: Photosynthesis
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EVERYTHING NEEDS ENERGY

Energy is important for all living things to maintain and develop their vital activities.
Living things get energy from nutrients; animals get them by eating other living things (animals or vegetables), while
plants are able to fabricate their own nutrients.

AUTOTROPHIC AND HETEROTROPHIC ORGANISMS

 Heterotrophic organisms: cannot fabricate their own nutrients so they have to obtain them from the
environment (plants, other animals, or both)
 Autotrophs: are capable of producing their own nutrients. For this, they need sunlight and inorganic matter
(substances normally simple, that don’t have carbon), and create organic matter used to obtain nutrients that
give them energy to live

THE CONTRIBUTION OF VAN HELMONT TO THE STUDY OF PLAN NUTRITION

400 years ago a Belgium scientist, Jean Baptiste van Helmont did an experiment to understand plant nutrition and he
concluded that plants found nutrition only in water, with which organic matter was formed (he did not consider air and
light). Although he made errors, his conclusions were important to understand the nutrition of plants.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS: THE INTAKE OF MATERIAL AND ENERGY FROM THE ECOSYSTEM

To produce their nutrients, plants need:
 Carbon dioxide: gas that living things eliminate as waste during respiration

 Light
To fabricate glucose, a nutrient from which they obtain the energy
 Water to perform it functions Carbon dioxide enters plants
through pores located in leaves,
called stomata

Through stem, water can reach

leaves and contribute to
photosynthesis
Leaves capture light (energy form sunlight),
through very small structures called
chloroplast that are in the cells of all green
parts of a plant, specially leaves. In them is
found chlorophyll, the green pigment that
Roots capture water
gives plants its green color and allows them
from the ground
to capture energy from sunlight

Photosynthesis:
Carbon dioxide + light + water = Glucose + Oxygen

THE EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE AND LIGHT

Temperature and light affect how living things function:
 All plants perform photosynthesis only between certain ranges of temperature (depending on its requirements)
 Photosynthesis also requires an optimal intensity of light. An excess of light, just a like a lack o it, can produce
decrease in photosynthesis activity of a plant

Science 6th
Unit 2: Energy in the Environment
Section 1: Photosynthesis
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RESPIRATION AND PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Thanks to photosynthesis, plants release oxygen, which is used by living things to breath, as a result, carbon dioxide is
released by living things, which is required by plants to fabricate glucose.

oxygen

Carbon dioxide

Science 6th
Unit 2: Energy in the Environment
Section 2: System of a Food Chain
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THE COMPONENTS OF AN ECOSYSTEM

Individual: each living thing that belongs to the same species (group of living things that
have similar characteristics and that reproduce among themselves, creating fertile
descendants)

Population: group of individuals of the same species that live in the same space and at the
same time

Community: includes all the population that inhabit a common environment and that interact
among themselves

Ecosystem: group formed by the living things in a certain place, the conditions the place has
to offer (temperature, light, humidity, etc), and the interactions that occur among them

THE COMPONENTS OF A SPECIFIC ECOSYSTEM

In a ecosystem there are always living and non living things.

All living things are called biotic factors, while non living things, are called abiotic factors.

Biotic and abiotic factors interact permanently in an ecosystem.

ORGANISMS AND THEIR ROLE IN AN ECOSYSTEM

Autotrophic organisms use sunlight for photosynthesis to produce organic matter and oxygen; they are called
producers.

Through this process, heterotrophic organisms can obtain the necessary nutrients; they are called consumers.

TYPES OF CONSUMERS
Herbivores: eat plants (leaves, flowers, pollen, seeds, nectar or roots)

Carnivores: they feed off other animals

Omnivores: they consume both, animals and vegetables

Scavengers: consume waste and dead animals (carrion)

Parasites: feed off other animals, but without killing them (can live in or outside the body they eat)

ENERGY FLOWS IN AN ECOSYSTEM

In every ecosystem, energy is constantly flowing from producers to consumers
NOT ALL ENERGY IS USED

Science 6th
Unit 2: Energy in the Environment
Section 2: System of a Food Chain
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Each time an animal feed off a plant or other animal, it receives only part of the energy that element contains, because all
organisms use a percentage of energy for their activities and other part is lost or dissipates as heat.

Loss of energy as heat

Transfer of energy

Transfer of matter

TROPHIC LEVELS, CHAINS AND SYSTEMS

Food chains are a representation of how living things interact in an ecosystem. A food chain is formed by links called
trophic levels.

Feed off herbivores

1st trophic level 2nd trophic level 3rd trophic level

Producer Primary consumer Secondary consumer (Fungus and bacteria)
Feed off waste and remains of living
Decomposers things of all levels. They return
inorganic matter to soil

Take the sun’s energy and

inorganic matter and Feed off producers
incorporate it into the food (herbivores)
chain

Food chains are not isolated, as organisms from one species can serve as food to many other organisms.

In this way, trophic chains cross over to form food chain systems.

Science 6th
Unit 2: Energy in the Environment
Section 3:The Effect of Human Activity on Food Chains
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CAN A FOOD SYSTEM BE CHANGED?

Alterations within food systems happen everyday in nature, for naturally causes or by human activity.

Independently of the cause, the damage done to a food chain can be so serious that it can cause the disappearance of an
entire ecosystem.

NATURAL CAUSES THAT ALTER FOOD SYSTEMS

 Glacial periods: times in which global temperature of Earth’s surfaces decrease, causing the migration of
animals and the extinction of organisms that can’t adapt to the new environmental conditions
 Volcanic eruptions: can gravely damage many animals and plants that are part of a food chain
 Floods: can leave plants and animals under water without the ability to escape
 Droughts: many plants die because they don’t have water to perform photosynthesis, and consumers can’t
obtain the energy from them

HUMAN INTERVENTION IN AN ECOSYSTEM

The increase of human population has caused a big impact in global ecosystems and its food chain, because of an
excessive use and extraction of natural resources.

THE HARMFUL EFFECTS OF HUMAN ACTIVITY

 Agriculture and the use of pesticides: many times farmers intervene in an ecosystem by harvesting to obtain
greater crops. Also, to protect the harvest they use pesticides (chemical substances created to control, kill or
repel organisms that can damage crops). The indiscriminate use of these can cause illness on human or damage
to crops.
 Indiscriminate hunting: can lead to a decrease in animal species and, in extreme cases, leave them on the edge
of extinction.
 Introduction of new species: when a new specie is introduced to an ecosystem where it doesn’t belong, it will
likely cause a change in the normal functions of the ecosystem.

CHANGES TO FOOD SYSTEM IN CHILE

The disappearance of just one organism of a food chain has a serious effect on all the rest of its parts.

In Chile, a group of scientists studied a central coastal zone to examine the repercussions of human intervention on a food
chain. They maintained a1 km zone on the coast free of human interaction for 2 years. Their observations were:

 Abalone (locos)  Limpet (lapas)

 Mussel (choros)  Algae (food to limpet)

Conclusion: coastal ecosystems were heavily altered by human activity

Science 6th
Unit 3: Energy
Section 1: Energy
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THE CONCEPT OF ENERGY

 Energy has the capacity to produce changes in the properties of bodies, affecting the state of matter, its
position, movement or size
 Energy can be found throughout the whole world and universe, it is a component of all matter
 It can be measured. Units of measurement:
o Calorie (cal)  amount of energy in food
o Kilowatt-hour (KWh)  amount of energy used
o Joule (J)  an internationally recognized unit

FORMS OF ENERGY
a. Mechanical energy: depends on the position of a body and its velocity.
a.1. Potential energy: related to the position of a body. Has 2 different forms:
a.1.1. Elastic potential energy: energy accumulated as a consequence of the deformation of an
elastic body (ex: bow)
a.1.2. Gravitational potential energy: energy associated with the relative position of a body in
space close to the Earth’s surface (ex: airplane)
a.2. Kinetic energy: associated with a body in motion. The larger the mass and greater the velocity of a body,
the more kinetic energy it produces (ex: car crash)
b. Chemical energy: is stored in material and then released when the matter changes its composition (ex: fire)
c. Thermal energy: produced by the movement of the particles that form their material, or kinetic energy
d. Heat: mechanism where energy is transferred between two bodies or zones of the same body, from the zone
with the highest temperature to the zone with the lower temperature
e. Electric energy: produced by the movement of electric charges of the particles that move through conductive
materials
f. Radiant energy: transports light, radio waves, ultra-violet and infrared rays and other forms of radiation. They
don’t need matter to transport them
g. Sound energy: energy that transports sound waves. Needs matter to be transported
h. Nuclear energy: contained in particles that make up matter (ex: uranium and plutonium)

PROPERTIES OF ENERGY
The most important property of energy is the law of conservation of energy: “energy can neither be created nor
destroyed, but can only change form and flow from one place to another” (the amount of energy remains the same)

Other properties of energy:

 Energy can transform: one form of energy changes into another form
 Energy is conserved: when one form of energy transforms into another, the total amount of energy always
stays the same
 Energy can be stored: stored energy corresponds to the different ways potential energy exists
 Energy can transfer and degrade: bodies in nature interact by transferring some of their energy; as energy is
transferred, it degrades, or loses the ability to produce changes over other bodies

Science 6th
Unit 3: Energy
Section 2: Energy and Changes
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ENERGY AND OBJECTS

Many devices we use need energy to function.

Needs electric energy to function, which obtains from the electric network to which it is
connected. It transforms it into heat and light

Uses electric energy to function, that obtains from chemical energy stored in batteries. It
transforms the energy into light

Needs electric energy to function, which obtains from the electric network. It transforms it into
mechanical energy, moving the blades of the fan, which create wind energy

Uses sunlight to function, transforming it into light and heat to cook food

Uses wind energy from breath of the person playing the instrument, then energy changes into
sound energy

Uses energy of the water’s movement (hydraulic energy) and transforms it into mechanical
energy

The food the person eats, transforms into chemical energy, and then it is transformed into
mechanical energy (with pedaling)

ENERGY AND LIVING THINGS

Organisms that use photosynthesis, transform light energy (sunlight) into chemical energy, that is stored in the nutrients
they produce, and also transferred to other organisms through the food chain.

The human body uses energy from food for 3 main things:
1. To maintain basal metabolic rate (minimum amount of energy an organism’s cells need daily to stay alive) 
60%-65%
2. To do physical activity  25% - 30%
3. To produce heat  10%

ENERGY IS NECESSARY FOR LIFE

The amount of energy needed varies from person to person and depends on factors like age, sex, level of physical activity
and state of health.
A balances diet gives you the benefit of good health. An unbalanced diet can cause diseases, like malnutrition or obesity.
Nutritional information, which appears on food packaging, allows us to calculate the energy the food will give us.

Science 6th
Unit 3: Energy
Section 3: Origin of Energy Resources
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ENERGY RESOURCES
Are all forms of energy present in nature and that can be used by humans.

TYPES OF ENERGY RESOURCES

A source of energy is anything that we can extract energy from.

The amount of usable energy is called energy resource.

1. Primary energy resource: natural sources that can used directly to obtain energy, without needing to transform it
1.1. Non renewable energy resources: is used more quickly than it is produced, so the reserves decreases as they
are consumed
 Coal (carbon): used for domestic activities and as raw material to make different products
 Crude oil (petroleum): used for fuel and as raw material to make products
 Natural gas: used for cooking, heating and fuel
 Radioactive substances: used to obtain nuclear power

1.2. Renewable energy resources: they are clean, respectful of the environment, endless and have low emissions
of carbon dioxide and other gases.
 Solar energy: comes from the sun and reaches the Earth in the form of light and heat, it is used in two
ways:
o Thermal energy: to make hot water
o Photovoltaic (PV): transformed into electric energy
 Geothermal energy: comes from the heat stored in the Earth’s core
 Hydroelectric energy: comes from dams that use water stored in rivers reservoirs. The potential energy
stored in water turns first into kinetic energy and finally into electric energy
 Tidal energy: is obtained from the movement of the ocean’s tides to make electric energy
 Wind energy: is a type of kinetic energy produced by the movement of the wind
 Biomass: is organic material produced by living things that can be used as an energy resource

2. Secondary energy resource: all the products that are a result of transforming primary energy resources

Science 6th
Unit 4: Matter and its Transformation
Section 1: Matter
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THE STRUCTURES OF MATTER

Matter is everything that has mass and occupies spaces, so it is able to be measured:

o Matter is formed by small particles

o These particles are in constant motion Corpuscular theory
o Between particles there is empty space of matter
o Particles are attracted to one another by force

STATES OF MATTER
1. Solid State
Particles are attracted to one another by great force, so the distance between them is very small, so
they have little kinetic energy and don’t move from their position  things in solid state are rigid
and have a defined shape

2. Liquid State
The force of attraction between particles is weaker, so they are able to move freely. They have more
kinetic energy than solids, so can vibrate, rotate and move more easily. They don’t have a defined shape,
but they have a fixed volume and are able to flow (liquids change their shape to fit the container they are
in)

3. Gas State
The force of attraction between particles is almost nonexistent, so they are able to move freely. They have
more kinetic energy, so are further apart and occupy all available space. Gases don’t have a defined
shape and flow easily, they don’t have constant volume (they can compress or expand)

Science 6th
Unit 4: Matter and its Transformation
Section 2: Temperature and Heat
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TEMPERATURE
Is a measurement that allows us to know how much kinetic energy the particles of a body have.

When particles of a body have more kinetic energy, the temperature is greater.

THERMOMETERS
Are used to measure the temperature of a body
 Alcohol thermometer: similar to a mercury thermometer, but inside it has a colored alcohol

 Mercury thermometer: has mercury inside, which expands and contracts according to the
temperature of the body it measures

 Thermoscope: one of the first devices to measure temperature, invented by Galileo Galilei in
the 16th century. To measure heat, used dilation of alcohol contained in a tube

 Digital thermometer: contains a mechanism that determines temperature, which is shown

on a digital screen

 Thermocouple: digital instrument that obtains very precise temperature readings using a
sensor

 Pyrometer: reads the infrared radiation emitted by bodies and expresses it as temperature

TEMPERATURE SCALES
Scale Celsius Fahrenheit Kelvin
Measurement ºC ºF K (Kelvins)
Freezing point of water 0ºC 32ºF 273K
Boiling point of water 100ºC 212ºF 373K
Division 100 180 100

HEAT
Heat is the transfer of energy from a body with higher temperature to one with a lower temperature.

Temperature: the measurement of kinetic energy of particles

THE MECHANISM OF HEAT TRANSFER

Science 6th
Unit 4: Matter and its Transformation
Section 2: Temperature and Heat
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1. Conduction: a body transfers heath through it, without any perceptible motion of the body

2. Convection: occurs when heat is transferred through a gas or liquid by the hotter
material moving into a cooler area

3. Radiation: is the process of heat transfer from one body to another

through electromagnetic waves, without physical contact

Science 6th
Unit 4: Matter and its Transformation
Section 3: Changes in State
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Changes of state of matter are produced by absorption or release of energy in form of heat.

1. Progressive changes in state: occur by heat absorption

1.1. Fusion: a body in a solid state changes into a liquid state
1.2. Sublimation: a solid becomes a gas
1.3. Vaporization: a liquid becomes a gas

Evaporation is the process in which only the particles on the surface of a

liquid obtain the kinetic energy necessary to turn into gas

Boiling is the process in which all the particles of a liquid, including those on the interior,
change temperature and state

2. Regressive changes in state: occur when heat is released

2.1. Solidification: a liquid becomes a solid
2.2. Deposition: a gas becomes a solid
2.3. Condensation: a gas becomes a liquid

Science 6th
Unit 4: Matter and its Transformation
Section 4: Changes in the State of Water
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TRANSFORMATION OF WATER
sublimation Progressive
changes in
state
fusion vaporization

solid liquid gas Regressive

changes in
solidification condensation state

deposition

THE HEATING CURVE OF WATER

Ice absorbs heat Fusion ends Water starts boiling

Tº raises Fusion Tº raises Vaporization ends
Liquid and vapor
Ice and water Only water in liquid form Tº raises
Tº constant
Tº constant Only vapor

THE COOLING CURVE OF WATER

Science 6th
Unit 4: Matter and its Transformation
Section 4: Changes in the State of Water
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Science 6th
Unit 5: Earth and its Resources
Section 1: The Layers of the Earth
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COMPOSITION OF THE BIOSPHERE

The biosphere, which includes all living things and outer layers of the Earth, is divided in 3 zones:
1. Atmosphere: layer of gas that covers all the Earth’s surface
2. Hydrosphere: formed by all the water on Earth
3. Lithosphere: formed by the Earth’s crust and upper part of the mantle

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ATMOSPHERE

COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE
Atmosphere is formed by a mixture of gases known as air:
 Nitrogen
 Oxygen
 Argon
 Carbon dioxide
 Water vapor  quantity depends on Tº, the greater the Tº, the greater amount of water vapor
 Ozone  layer that protects the planet from the sun’s ultraviolet rays
 Other gases

LAYERS OF THE ATMOSPHERE

1. Exosphere: mainly composed of hydrogen and helium, has the

least gas particles

2. Thermosphere: its maximum temperature is around 1,500ºC,

includes part of the ionosphere
+
3. Mesosphere: doesn’t contain water vapor or ozone.
Temperatures of -100ºC

4. Stratosphere: no water vapor but a lot of ozone

4.1 Ozone layer: stops ultraviolet radiation from the sun

5. Troposphere: contains 75% of atmospheric mass, with large

quantity of oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen and water vapor.
This is the area we live in

THE IMPORTANCE OF ATMOPSHERE FOR LIFE AND OBTAINING NATURAL RESOURCES

 The atmosphere generate a greenhouse effect: Earth retains heat from the sun and the reflected light in its
atmosphere, so Earth has an average temperature of 15ºC that doesn’t change drastically. At this temperature, water
is in liquid form and gives environmental stability for life.
 The atmosphere filters ultraviolet radiation (UV) from the sun, because of the ozone layer
 The atmosphere maintains life as we know it, because it has oxygen, necessary for breathing, and carbon dioxide,
used by plants for photosynthesis

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE HYDROSPHERE

The hydrosphere is not distributed equally on the planet, because the largest part of it is formed by salt water in the ocean.

Water in Earth is in 3 states (liquid, solid and gas) and is divided between oceans, continents and the atmosphere.

97% of total water is in the oceans. Only 3% is fresh water (with less salt), most of it is in solid state. So there is little fresh
water available for living things.

THE IMPORTANCE OF HYDROSPHERE FOR LIFE AND OBTAINING NATURAL RESOURCES

WATER IS IMPORTANT FOR ORGANISMS
1. Water is the origin of the first forms of life
2. Water is the habitat of many organisms and can affect habitats on land

Science 6th
Unit 5: Earth and its Resources
Section 1: The Layers of the Earth
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3. Water is the substance that makes up the largest part of all living things
3.1.An adult man’s body contains 60% water, a woman’s, 55%
3.2.Water is the main component of blood
3.3.Liquid that protects the development of vertebrate embryos is largely made of water
3.4.Plant cells store water

USES OF WATER
1. Energy: movement of water can be used to create electric energy
2. Industrial processes: food industry, mining
3. Agroforestry activities

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE LAYERS OF THE EARTH

Since it is not possible to reach the deepest layers of Earth, geologists use models to describe them:
1. Chemical Model
2. Physical Model

CHEMICAL MODEL PHYSICAL MODEL

1. Crust: divided into plates. Principal 1. Lithosphere: made up of crust and par of
minerals found; oxygen, silicon, aluminum, the upper mantle. Between 100 km to 250 km
iron, calcium, sodium, potassium, and thick. Is a rigid and fragile layer
magnesium.
About 70 km (in mountains) to 7 km thick (in 2. Asthenosphere: layer above the mantle,
ocean floor) ends at 660 km. Made of fluid with elastic
and plastic properties, which causes the
2. Mantle: composed of silica (silicon and tectonic plates to move
oxygen), iron and magnesium. Upper mantle
is 200 km thick in liquid state, lower mantle 3. Mesosphere: formed by viscous fluid,
ends at 2,900 km deep, were core starts includes upper and lower mantle

3. Core: Temperatures from 5,000ºC to 4. Outer core: is liquid. Located 5,133 km

6,000ºC, composed of iron and nickel below Earth’s surface

5. Inner core: is solid and its center is at

6,387 km below Earth’s surface

THE IMPORTANCE OF THE LITOSPHERE FOR LIFE AND OBTAINING NATURAL RESOURCES
In the lithosphere are different materials necessary for living things. On the soil of the Earth, are minerals, organic matter and
air.

Science 6th
Unit 5: Earth and its Resources
Section 2: Changes in the Layers of the Earth
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CHANGES IN THE ATMOSPHERE

Main changes in the atmosphere caused by human activity:
 Acid rain: comes from the use of fossil fuels that produce gasses that react with vapor in the atmosphere and form
acid substances. When it rains, snows or hails, the plant life is damaged
 The ozone layer is being destroyed by gases used for decades in refrigeration devices and aerosol sprays
 Greenhouse effect: excessive accumulation of gases cause the atmosphere to retain more heat, causing worldwide
increases of temperature and climate change
 Smog: a for of air contamination, is a fog formed by gas and different sized particles of matter

HOW CAN WE PROTECT THE ATMOSPHERE?

 Use alternative forms of energy, besides fossil fuel, such as hydroelectric, wind, tidal and geothermal energy
 Respect international treaties on reducing pollution
 Decrease emission of pollutions by using new industrial and automotive technology

CHANGES IN THE HYDROSPHERE

 Overexploitation of water resources: has made it scarce, decreasing rivers and lakes levels
 Building dams and reservoirs: although it is necessary to generate electric energy, their construction changes
water levels
 Water pollution: human-produced contaminants damage water, because they are not able to decompose
o Sewage or wastewater contains waste from sewers, showering and washing
o Water used for agriculture and livestock contains fertilizer, pesticides, leftover animal food and feces
o Water used in industry can have heavy metal, detergent, acid and non-biodegradable substances

HOW CAN WE PROTECT THE HYDROSPHERE?

Persons and families can:
 Decrease water consumption
 Use less energy
 Not use plastic bags
 Increase sewage water treatment

Industries can:
 Improve their production process, reducing the waste they produce

Agricultural and livestock-based producers can:

 Use water more efficiently
 Build reservoirs to store water
 Keep canals clean
 Keep waste away from water sources

CHANGES IN THE LITOSPHERE

 Urban expansion: building a city decreases the ability of the land to absorb rain and grow new plants
 Soil compaction: transit over the ground compacts it, making disappear pores and holes that are homes to
microorganisms and small animals
 Illegal garbage dumps: cause pollution in soil and underwater in the area, because of liquids formed by
decomposition

HOW CAN WE PROTECT THE LITOSPHERE?

 Respect or improve city planning
 Build sanitary landfills (garbage dumps built to meet environmental laws)
 Recycle
 Substitute pesticides for biological pest control

Science 6th
Unit 5: Earth and its Resources
Section 3: Soil Formation
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SOIL FORMATION
Soil is formed through a process called weathering, that takes place over thousands of years
1. The outside layer of rocks breaks down because of climatic factors
2. The fragments of rocks mix with organic matter
3. The accumulation of organic matter and minerals on top of the soil permits the development of plants and small
organisms
4. Organisms like worms move the soil as they move, helping air enter the soil and making it fertile

SOIL LAYERS

Horizon 0: top layer of soil, also called topsoil. Is dark brown, mostly made of organic material.
Plant and animal waste decompose in this level, forming humus
Horizon A: has a large amount of humus and organic matter. Formed by rock fragments and
crystallite minerals. Plant’s roots reach this layer, and worms, insects, fungi and bacteria live in
it

Horizon B: is a zone of accumulation and infiltration of minerals, that are transported by water
from the upper layers

Horizon C: made up of rock fragments

Horizon R: lowest layer of soil, formed by whole rocks

SOIL PROPERTIES
A. Physical Properties
 Texture refers to the amount of particles of different sizes that make up the soil (from smallest to largest: clay, silt
and sand)
 Porosity refers to the measurement of the pores in soil
 Water retention capacity corresponds to the amount of water that soil can store. It depends on texture and
porosity of the soil
 Color is an indicator of the soil’s components, varies depending on the amount of organic matter and humidity it
has

B. Chemical Properties
 Exchange capacity: soil’s ability to transfer nutrients to plants

Science 6th
Unit 5: Earth and its Resources
Section 3: Soil Formation
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 Fertility: presence of nutrients that plants need to grow

 Salinity: amount of dissolved salt the soil contains

C. Biological Properties
 Presence of humus: make soil more soft and spongy and gives it more water retention capacity
 Presence of living things: diversity of organisms that exist in the soil

TYPES OF SOIL
Clay soil: mainly made up of particles of clay. Is less permeable (retains water and doesn’t let it flow easily)

Silty soil: formed by silt particles, has low water retention capacity

Sandy soil: porous and permeable, doesn’t retain water very well

Rocky soil: formed by rocks of all sizes that are hard and impermeable. It doesn’t retain water

Peaty soil: made of abundance of organic matter, is permeable and spongy, rich in humus and very fertile

TYPES OF SOIL IN CHILE

Far North: soil is rough, contains high levels of salt and is dry

Near North: soil is semiarid

Central Region: soil is more permeable, spongy and contains more organic matter, having more water
retention, so it is more fertile

Southern Region: soil contains large amount of organic matter and humus. It is spongy and permeable,
very fertile

Far South Region: soil is very wet and mostly made of organic matter, allowing growth of dense
vegetation, but making it difficult to develop agricultural activity

Science 6th
Unit 5: Earth and its Resources
Section 4: Erosion
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Erosion is an external process that transforms the crust of the Earth, in which soil is worn down by water, wind and human
activity.

TYPES OF EROSION
1. Natural Erosion
1.1.Pluvial: force with which raindrops impact the soil and wash away the particles on the surface
1.2.Fluvial: occurs when rivers and groundwater currents wear away the matter that makes up the soil
1.3.Glacial: produced when huge masses of ice move because of the force of gravity, as they move, they ware
away the ground underneath them
1.4.Wind: rock particles are blown off and deposited in a new place

2. Anthropic Erosion: produced by inadequate agroforestry practices

 Logging for wood or agricultural fields allows the ground to be worn away by rain and wind
 Building canals to transport water from rivers can make some areas very dry and flood others
 Using heavy machines compacts soil, making it less porous

CONSEQUENCES OF EROSION
Soil can be eliminated by erosion if it is not covered by vegetation. The loss of soil by erosion is called desertification

Overexploitation (overuse of soil for agriculture), makes the soil lose all its nutrients, losing its fertility

Extracting mineral resources can also damage soil, because vegetation and soil are uprooted (pulled out of the ground)

Science 6th