ATOMIC STRUCTURE

1) Bohr’s Postulates:
a) The electrons in an atom revolve around the nucleus in circular path is called an orbit.

h nh
b) The angular momentum of electron is always an integral multiple of . i.e. mvr 
2π 2
c) As long as the electron revolves in a particular orbit, it neither loose nor gain energy.
Hence these orbits are called Stationary orbits
d) When electron jumps from higher orbit to lower orbit it emits energy and lower orbit to
higher orbit it absorbs energy.
e) The energy difference between two orbits is E = E2 - E1 = hv
Hydrogen Spectrum:
a) When electron jumps from higher orbit to 1st orbit is Lyman series. It is formed in U.V region
b) When electron jumps from higher orbit to 2nd orbit is Balmer series. It is formed in Visible region
c) When electron jumps from higher orbit to 3rd orbit is Paschen series. It is formed in Near I.R region
d) When electron jumps from higher orbit to 4th orbit is Brackett series. It is formed in Middle I.R region
e) When electron jumps from higher orbit to 5th orbit is Pfund series. It is formed in Far I.R region
Dis advantages:
a) Bohr’s theory cannot explain Zeeman & Stark effect
b) Bohr’s theory cannot explain dual nature of electrons
Advantages:
a) Bohr’s theory explain stability of an atom
b) Bohr’s theory explains single electron species Ex:H, He+
2) Quantum numbers:
* Quantum numbers explain the position of electrons in the space around the nucleus
Principal quantum number :
a) Principal quantum number was proposed by Bohr
b) Principal quantum number was denoted by n
c) The maximum number of electrons in an orbit is equal to 2n2
d) Significance: It indicates the size and energy of orbit
Azimuthal quantum number :
a) Azimuthal quantum number was proposed by Sommerfeld
b) Azimuthal quantum number is denoted by l
c) The number of sub-shells in an energy level is equal to n
d) Significance: It indicates the shape of orbitals
Magnetic quantum number :
a) Magnetic quantum number was proposed by Lande
b) Magnetic quantum number is denoted by m
c) The total number of ‘m‘ values is equal to 2l+1
d) Significance: It indicates the orientation of orbitals in space
Spin quantum number :
a) Spin quantum number was proposed by Goud smith and Uhlenbeck
b) Spin quantum number is denoted by s
c) The electron revolves in clock wise direction spin is +1/2 and anticlockwise direction spin is -1/2
d) Significance: It indicates the spin of electron
3) Emission spectrum:
a) The electron jumps from higher orbit to lower orbit gives emission spectrum
b) Emission spectrum formed due to emission of radiation
c) Emission spectrum contains bright lines on dark background
4) Absorption spectrum :
a) The electron jumps from lower orbit to higher orbit gives absorption spectrum
b) Absorption spectrum formed due to absorption of radiation
c) Absorption spectrum contains dark lines on bright background
5) Paulis exclusion: No two electrons in an atom can have same set of four quantum numbers is
called Pauli’s exclusion principle.
6) Aufbau principle : The orbitals filled with electrons in the order of their increasing energies is
called Aufbau principle . Ex : 1s  2 s  2 p  3s  3 p.....
7) Hunds rule: In the degenerated orbitals, each orbital is filled with one electron later paired up is
called Hund’s rule.

PERIODIC TABLE
1) a) IE1: The energy required to remove an electron from an isolated gaseous atom is called
first ionization energy ( M ( g )  IE1  M ( g )   e  )
b) IE2 : The energy required to remove an electron from uni positive ion is called second
ionization energy ( M  ( g )  IE2  M ( g ) 2  e  )
c) IE2>IE1 :1. For a given atom , the second ionization energy is more than first ionization
energy because increase of effective nuclear attractions
d) I.E Factors: i) As the atomic radius increases, the ionization energy decreases
ii) As the nuclear charge increases, the ionization energy increases
iii) As the screening effect increases, the ionization energy decreases
iv) The ionization energy of orbitals is s > p > d > f
v) The half & completely filled orbitals have More ionization energy

2) Periodicity: a) The repetition of properties of elements at certain regular intervals of electronic

configuration is called periodicity.
Periodic property Trend in groups Trend in period
( from top to bottom ) ( from left to right )
Atomic radius Increases Decreases
Ionization energy Decreases Increases
Electron affinity Decreases Increases
Electro negativity Decreases Increases
Acidic nature of the oxides Decreases Increases
Basic nature of the oxides Increases Decreases
Metallic nature Increases Decreases
Electro positive Increases Decreases
b) The distance between the centre of nucleus to outer most shell of an atom is called atomic radius
c) The energy required to remove an electron from an isolated atom in gaseous state is called
ionization energy
d) The energy released when an electron is added to an isolated atom in gaseous state is called
electron affinity
e) The tendency of an atom to attract the shared pair of electrons towords itself is called electro
negativity
f) Reason : In group atomic size increases, in period atomic size decreases
3) s,p,d,f-blocks:
s-block elements : a)Differentiating electron enters into s-orbital is called s-block elements
b) In the periodic table, s -block elements are placed at left side
c) In the periodic table, s- block contains 2 groups (IA & IIA groups)
d) The outer electronic configuration of s - block elements is ns1-2
p-block elements : a) Differentiating electron enters into p-orbital is called p-block elements
b) In the periodic table, p - block elements are placed at right side
c) In the periodic table, p - block contains 6 groups ( IIIA to VIIA group and zero group)
d) The outer electronic configuration of p - block elements is ns2np1-6
d-block elements :a) Differentiating electron enters into (n-1) d-orbital is called d-block elements
b) In the periodic table , d - block elements are placed between s & p blocks
c) In the periodic table, d - block contains 10 groups & 4 series (3d, 4d, 5d & 6d)
d) The outer electronic configuration of d - block elements is  n -1 d1-10ns1-2
f-block elements:a)Differentiating electron enters into (n-2) f-orbital is called f-block elements
b) f - block elements are placed at bottom of the periodic table
c) In the periodic table, f - block contains 4f & 5f series
d) The outer electronic configuration of f-block elements is  n - 2  f 1-14  n -1 d0-1ns 2 .

CHEMICAL BONDING
1) Hybridization:The intermixing of atomic orbitals of nearly same energy to give equal number of
identical hybrid orbitals is called Hybridization
sp hybridization :
a) Inter mixing of one ‘s’ orbital & one ‘p’ orbital to form two hybrid orbitals
is called ‘sp’ hybridization
b) The shape of ‘sp’ hybridization is Linear and it’s bond angle is 1800
c) In ‘sp’ hybridization ‘s’ character is 50% and ‘p’ character is 50%
d) In Be First exited state electronic configuration is 1S 2 2S1 2Px1
e) The shape of BeCl 2 is Linear and it’s bond angle is 1800
sp2 hybridization :
a) Intermixing of one ‘s’ orbital & two ‘p’ orbitals to form three hybrid orbitals is called
sp2 hybridization
b) In sp2 hybridization ‘s’ character is 33.33% and ‘p’ character is 66.67%
c) The shape of sp2 hybridization is Trigonal planar and it’s bond angle is 1200
d) First exited state electronic configuration of B is 1S 2 2S1 2Px1 2Py1
e) The shape of BCl 3 is Trigonalplanar and it’s bond angle is 1200
sp3 hybridization :
a) Inter mixing of one ‘s’ orbital & three ‘p’ orbitals to form four hybrid orbitals is
Called sp3 hybridization
b) The shape of sp3 hybridization is Tetrahedral and it’s bond angle is 1090 281
c) In sp3 hybridization ‘s’ character is 25% and ‘p’ is character is 75%
d) First exited state electronic configuration of C is 1S 2 2S1 2Px1 2Py1 2Pz1
e) The shape of CH4 is Tetrahedral and it’s bond angle is 1090 281
2) VSEPR theory:a)VSEPR theory was developed by Nyholm & Gillespie
b) The shape and the bond angle of the molecule depends upon repulsions between electron pairs
c) A lone pair of electrons occupies more space around the central atom than bond pairs of
electrons
d) The repulsions among electron pairs decreases in the order is lp - lp > lp - bp > bp - bp
e) The decreasing order of repulsions among triple, double and single bonds is  > = > -

3) PCl5 MOLECULE :a)In PCl5 central atom is P undergoes sp3d hybridisation

b) The Shape of PCl5 is Trigonal bi pyramidal and bond angles are 900,1200
c) PCl5 has 5 bond pairs

4) SF6 MOLECULE :a) In SF6 central atom is S undergoes sp3d2 hybridisation

b) The shape of SF6 is Octahedral and it’s bond angles are 900,1800
c) SF6 has 6 bond pairs

5) MOED a) N2 b)O2 :
a) Electronic configuration of N2 is  1s 2 ,  *1s 2 ,  2 s 2 ,  * 2 s 2 ,  2 p x2   2 p 2y ,  2 pz2
b) Electronic configuration of O2 is 1s2 ,  *1s2,  2s2,  *2s2,  2 pz2 ,  2 px2   2 p2y ,  *2 p1x   *2 p1y
1
c) Bond order formula is  Bonding electrons  Anti bonding electrons
2
d) The bond order of N2 molecule is 3 and O2 molecule is 2
e) The magnetic nature of N2 is diamagnetic nature and O2 is paramagnetic
6) Fajan’s rules:a)Fajan’s rules explain the partial covalent character of ionic bonds.
b) For a given cation, covalent character increases with increase in size of anion (KI>KF)
c) For a given anion, covalent character increases with decrease in size of cation. (LiF>KF)
d) Covalent character increases with increase of either charges of cation and anion.(SnCl4 >SnCl2 )
e) Compound having psuedo Inert gas configuration, increases the covalent character. (CuCl>NaCl)
7) Hydrogen bond:a)The weak electrostatic force of attraction between partially positively charged
hydrogen atom and highly electro negative atom is called Hydrogenbond.
b) Inter molecular hydrogen bond is formed between two different polar molecules. Ex: H-F, H2O
c) Intra molecular hydrogen bond is formed between two atoms of same molecule.
Ex: O-nitro phenol
8) Dipolemoment: The product of charge on two poles and distance between two poles is called
dipole moment.    q  d 
9) Co ordinate Covalent bond: a) The bond formed by sharing of electon pair is contributed by one
of the two bonded atoms is known as coordinate covalent bond (or) dative bond.
b) The atom which donates electron pair is called donar while the atom which accepts the electron
pair is called acceptor.
10) C2H4 (Ethylene):i) In this molecule hybridization of C is sp2
ii) Shape of the molecule is trigonal planar and bond angle is 1200
iii) It has 5  bonds and 1  bond
C2H2 (Acetylene): i)In this molecule hybridization of C is sp
ii)Shape of the molecule is linear and bond angle is 1800
iii)It has 3  bonds and 2  bonds
 STATES OF MATTER
1.Kinetic molecular theory:
a) Gases contains large number of tiny particles are called Molecules
b) Gas molecules move randomly with high speed.
c) Gas molecules does not have any attractive & repulsive forces
d) Gas molecules are uneffected by gravity
e) Average kinetic energy of the gas molecules is directly proportional to the absolute temperature

2.Graham’s law of diffusion:

a) The rate of diffusion of gas is inversely proportional to squre root of it’s density is called as
1
Graham’s law of diffusion. r α
d

r1 d2 M2 VD2
b) The rate of diffusion of two different gases, r = (or) (or )
2 d1 M1 VD1
c) Graham’s law of diffusion is used for working of ansil’s alarm.
d) Ansil’s alarm is used for the detection of Marsh gas(CH4) in coal mines
3. Dalton’s law of partial pressures:
a) The total pressure exerted by non-reacting gases is equal to the sum of the partial pressure of
component gases is called as Dalton’s law of partial pressure
b) The equation of Dalton’s law of partial pressure is PT = P1 + P2 + P3 + - - (at constant V,T)

c) Mole fraction  total pressure = Partial pressure.

4. Ideal gas equation:
1
a) According to Boyle’s law V α (At constant T)
P
b) According to Charle’s law V α T (At constant p)
c) According to Avogadro’s law V α n (At constant P & T)
d) Ideal gas equation is PV=nRT
an 2
5. Vander wall’s equation : ( p  )(v  nb)  nRT
v2
6. Temperature increases surface tension and viscosity decreases. Because kinetic energy of
molecules increases and intermolecular attractions decreases.
7. CH4 gas diffuses faster among N 2 , O2 & CH 4 due to lower molecular weight
8. The gas constant per molecule of the gas is called Boltzmann’s constant.
value K  1.38  1016 ergs.k 1molecule 1
3
9. Kinetic energy of gas molecules K .E  nRT
2

3RT 8RT 2RT

10. RMS velocity  , Average velocity  , Most Probable velocity 
M M M
11. Ratio of molecular velocities U mp : U av : U rms  1:1.128 :1.224
1
12. Kinetic gas equation PV  mnu
2

3
 STOICHIOMETRY
1. A chemical reaction in which both oxidation and reduction takes place simultaneously is
called Redox reaction.
2. Same element in the given form to undergo both oxidation and reduction simultaneously is
called disproportionation reaction. 2 H 2O21  2 H 2O 2  O20 .
3. Two species with same element in different oxidation state to form single product with
intermediate oxidation state is called Comproportion reaction.
4. Weight of substance = n X gram molecular weight of substance.
wt of the substance
5. No.of moles n = GMW of substance

6. Molecular formula = Empirical formula X n, n = MFW/ EFW

mass of solute
7. Mass percentage = mass of solute+ mass of solvent  100

8. The number of moles of solute present in 1 litre of the solution is called molarity
w.t of solute in gm 1000
Molarity (M) = 
GMW of solute V  ml 
9. The number of gram equivalents of solute present in 1 litre of the solution is called normality.
w.t of solute in gm 1000
Normality(N) = 
GEW of solute V  ml 
5. Calculate the oxidation number of underline element in the following compunds.
1) H 2 S 2O8 2) NaH SO4 3) Cr 2O72

2  1  2 x  6  2   2  1  0 1  1  x  4  2   0 2 x  7  2   2

2 x  12 x  6 2 x  12 , x  6
x  6

4) H 2 O2 5) O 2 F2 6) OF2

2  1  2 x  0 2 x  2  1  0 x  2  1  0

x  1 x  1 x  2

7) K 2 MnO4 8) MnO42 9) KMnO4

2 1  x  4  2   0 x  4  2   2 1 + x + 4(-2) = 0

x  6 x  6 1 x  8  0 ,
x= +7
 THERMODYNAMICS
1. Open and closed system :
a) A system which can exchange both energy and matter into the surroundings is called open system.
b) A system which can exchange energy but not matter with the surroundings is called closed system.
2. Extensive & Intensive properties :
a) The properties of system which depends on total amount of material present in the system
is called extensive property. Ex: mass, volume
b) The properties of system which is independent on total amount of material present in the
system is called intensive property. Ex: density, temperature
3. Enthaply :
a) The chemical change heat is either liberated or absorbed is called enthalpy of reaction
b) In a Chemical reaction, liberation of heat is called exothermic reaction H  ve sign
c) In a Chemical reaction, absorption of heat is called endothermic reaction H  ve sign
4. First law of thermodynamics :
a) The energy is neither be created nor be destroyed but it is converted to one form to
another form is called first law of thermodynamics. ΔU = q + w
b) First law of thermodynamics is also known as law of conservation of energy
c) It is impossible to construct a perpetual motion machine of first kind is called first law of
thermodynamics
5. Hess law : Hess law states that , the total heat change in a reaction is same ,weather the reaction
takes place in a single step (or) several steps
6. Entropy :
a) The thermodynamical quantity which measures “disorderness of molecules of the
system is called entropy (S). Units = Joules per kelvin (J/K)
b) Entropy is state function and extensive property
c) The order of entropy in this following is Sice < S water < S vapour
7. Heat capacity :
a) The amount of heat is required to rise the temperature of a substance through one
q
degree is called heat capacity. C = d T

b) Heat absorbed at constant pressure is equal to change in enthalpy  ΔH  = C p T

c) Heat absorbed at constant volume is equal to change in internal energy  ΔU  = Cv T
d) For a mole of an ideal gas, so ΔH = ΔU + RΔT , Cp ΔT = Cv ΔT + RΔT
e) Relation between C p and Cv are Cp - C v = R (or) Cp = Cv + R
8. Third law of thermodynamics : The entropy of a pure and perfectly crystalline substance is zero at
absolute zero temperature. TLt S  0 (Zero)
0

CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM & ACIDS AND BASES

1.Homogeneous and Heterogeneous equilibrium :
a) If the physical state of reactants and products are same in an equilibrium, then the
equilibrium is called homogeneous equilibrium Ex: H 2 g   I 2 g   2 HI  g 
b) If the physical state of the reactants and products are different in an equilibrium reaction,
the equilibrium is called heterogeneous equilibrium Ex: CaCO3 S   CaO S   CO2 g 
2. Law of mass action : The rate of chemical reaction is directly proportional to the product of the
active masses or concentration of reactants is called law of mass action .
3. The relation between KC and KP is KP= KC(RT) n
n  No. of moles of gaseous products - No. of moles of gaseous reactants
4. Lechatelier’s principle : If a system at equilibrium is subjected to change in temperature, pressure
or concentration, then the position of equilibrium shift in the direction in which this change is reduced.
5. Haber’s process : N 2 g   3H 2 g   2 NH 3 g 
a) Formation of NH3 is reversible and exothermic reaction
b) Optimum conditions:Pressure : 200 atm, Temperature : 725 - 775 K, Catalyst : Fe, Promoter : Mo
6. Contact process : 2 SO2 g   O2 g   2 SO3 g 
a) Formation of SO3 is reversible and exothermic reaction.
b) Optimum conditions:Pressure : 1.5 to 1.7 atm, Temperature : 673K, Catalyst : V2O5
7. Bronsted-Lowry theory :a) A substances which donate proton is called Bronsted acid.
Ex. H C l, H O
2

b) A substances which gain proton is called Bronsted base. Ex. H 2O, NH 3

c) The transfer of proton from acid to base is called Bronsted neutralisation
8. A pair of species which differ in a single proton is called conjugate acid – base pair
Molecule Conjugate acid Conjugate base
NH3 NH 4+ NH 2
H2O H 3O + OH 
OH  H2O O -2
HCO 3 H 2CO3 CO 2
3

9. Lewis acid :a) A substance that can accept an electron pair from other substance to form dative
bond is called Lewis acid
b) Simple cations Ag+,Co+3,Cu+2,Fe+3,Al+3 act as Lewis acid
c) Compounds in which central atom has incomplete octet can act as Lewis acid
d) CO2, SO2, SO3, NO2 can be act as Lewis acid
10. Lewis base :a) Electron pair donar as Lewis base
b) All simple anions like Cl-, OH-, CN-, F- can act as Lewis base
c) Molecules with lone pairs on the central atom can act as Lewis base
d) Molecules containing multiple bonds between similar atoms acts as Lewis base, Ex.CO, C2H 4
11. Ionic product of water : The product of molar concentration of H+ ions & OH- ions of water is
called ionic product of water . k w   H   OH   , KW= 1.0 x 10-14mol2/lit2 at 250C
12. PH : a) The negative logarithm of Hydrogen ion concentration is called pH, pH = -log10 [H+]
b) POH = -log[OH-], PH =14 - POH
13. Common ion effect: The phenomenon of the suppression of the solubility of a weak electrolyte
in water by addition of another electrolyte is called common ion effect
14. Salt hydrolysis:The anion or cation or both salts react with water to produce OH- or H+ ions or
both in aqueous solution is called salt hydrolysis.
HYDROGEN AND ITS COMPOUNDS
1. Hydrogen as fuel :
a) Atomic hydrogen and oxy hydrogen torches are used for welding and cutting the metals.
b) Hydrogen is also used as a rocket fuel.
c) Mixture of CO and H2 is SYNGAS, it is used in preparation of methanol
2. a) Electron deficient:The hydrides have the lesser number of electrons to write lewis structure is
called electron deficient hydride. Ex: Diborane  B 2H 6 
b) Electron precise:The hydrides have the required number of electrons to write lewis structure
is called electron precise compound. Ex: CH4, C2H6
c) Electron rich hydrides:The hydrides have excess no of electrons to write lewis structure is
called electron rich hydrides. Ex: HF, H2O, NH3
3. Heavy water: D2O is used as a moderator in nuclear reactor.
4. Soft water: The water which gives good quantity of lather with soap is called soft water
5. Hard water: a)If water does not give good quantity of lather with soap is called hard water
b) Temporary hardness is due to presence of bicarbonates of Mg and Ca
c) Permanent hardness is due to presence of chlorides and sulphates of Ca and Mg
6. Permutit process : Ion exchange method is also called Zeolite (or) Permutit process
Sodium aluminium ortho silicate (NaAlSiO4) can be written as NaZ is called Zeolite
7. Calgon Method : Sodium hexametaphosphate  Na6 P6O18  is known as calgon
8. H2O2 Oxidising properties:a) H2O2 oxidises black lead sulphide to white lead sulphate
PbS + 4H2O2  PbSO4 + 4H2O
b) H2O2 oxidises Hg to Hg 2O
2Hg  H 2O2  Hg 2O  H 2O
9. H2O2 Reducing properties: a).By using H2O2 hypochlorous acid is reduced to Cl- ion

HOCl + H2O2  H3O+ + Cl- +O2

b) H2O2 reduced Ag 2O to Ag
Ag 2O  H 2O2  2 Ag  H 2O  O2
IA & IIA GROUP ELEMENTS
1. Lithium reacts with water less vigorously than sodium. It is due to lithium has - small size & very
high hydration energy Ex:LiCl.2H2O
2. Alkali metals not found in the free State in nature due to they readily loss e- to give
monovalent M+ ions.
3. IA-group elements forms hydroxides and strong alkaline in nature
4. Mg metal used in alloys and aircraft construction
5. KHCO3is more soluble in water so it cannot be prepared by Solvay process
6. The properties of washing soda is white crystaline solid which exists as Na2CO 3 .10H 2O
7. KO2 is paramagnetic due to presence of unpaired electrons
8. Mg burns with dazzling briliance in air to give MgO and Mg3N2
9. The Na+ ion transmission of nerve signals and regulating the flow of water across the cell
membrane.
10. The K+ ion transmission of nerve signals and activating many enzymes.
11. The main pigment for the absorption of light in plants is chlorophyll, it contains magnesium
element.
12. All enzymes that utilize ATP in phosphate transfer require magnesium element.
13. The Ca+2 ion is present in Calcitonin and Para thyroid hormone and useful for cell membrane
integrity and blood coagulation.
1
14. Calcium sulphate of hemihydrate is called CaSO 4 . H 2 O plaster of paris
2
15. Plaster of paris is used in the building industry, bone fracture and making statues
16. The important uses of sodium carbonate manufacture of glass, soap, borax, NaOH ,paper &
In water softening cleaning and laundries
17. Quick lime is used in the manufacturing of cement, sodium carbonate from caustic soda &
employed in the purification of sugar.
18. Gypsum added to cement to slow down the process of setting of the cement, so that it get
sufficiently hardened.

19. A suspension of magnesium hydroxide in water is called milk of magnesia. It is used as

antacid in medicine.

GROUP-13 ELEMENTS
1. Inorganic Benzene has the formula B 3 N 3H 6 (Borazine)
2. The reactions involved in the formation of borax bead are

Na2 B4O710 H 2O   Na2 B4O7 
fused
 2 NaBO2  B2O3
(Borax glass)
B2O3  CoO  Co( BO2 )2
(Cobalt meta borate as blue colour bead)
3. Structure of diborane:
a) In diborane, boron undergoes sp 3 hybridization
b) Diborane contains 4 terminal hydrogen atoms and 2 bridged hydrogen atoms
c) Three centered two electron bond is present in diborane
d) The banana bond (or) tau bond present in diborane

4. Diborane (B2H6) preparation :

a) BCl3 reacts with LiAlH 4 to forms diborane ( 4 BCl3  3LiAlH 4  2 B2 H 6  3LiCl  3 AlCl3 )
b) BF3 reacts with NaH to forms diborane ( 2 BF3  6 NaH  B2 H 6  6 NaF )

5. Diborane properties:
a) Diborane reacts with CO to give borane carbonyl ( B2 H 6  2CO  2 BH 3CO )
b) Diborane reacts with ammonia at 1200 C , diammoniate of diborane is formed. This on again
heating at 2000 C gives borazole or borazine.
0
B2 H 6  2 NH 3 
120 C
 B2 H 6 2 NH 3 ’
0
 / at 200 C
3B2 H 6 .2 NH 3   2 B3 N 3 H 6  12 H 2
c) Diborane reacts with trimethyl ammine to give borazine adduct.
B2 H 6  2 N  CH 3 3 

 2  CH 3 3 N  BH 3 
d) Diborane reacts with water to give boric acid
( B2 H 6  6 H 2O  2 H 3 BO3  6 H 2 )
 GROUP - 14 ELEMENTS
1. The phenomenon of Existance of an element in different physical forms, with same chemical
properties is called allotropy. Crystalline allotropes of carbon are diamond (sp3) and graphite (sp2)

2. The phenomenon of self linkage of identical atoms to form chains or rings is called catenation.

3. The reluctance of ‘ns’ pair of electrons to take part in bond formation is known as inert pair
effect.

4. CO is a highly poisonous gas.

5. CO forms a stable complex with haemoglobin is called carboxy haemoglobin

6. The carboxy haemoglobin causes supplying of O2 into cells decreases ultimately resulting in death.

7. Hybridization of a) CO32 b) diamond c) graphite d) fullerene

sp2 sp3 sp2 sp2
8. differences between diamond and graphite:
Graphite: Diamond :
1) Each carbon undergoes sp2 hybridization 1) Each carbon undergoes sp3 hybridization
2) 2-D polymer 2) 3-D polymer
3) It is soft, slippery & lubricant 3) It is hardest material
4) It is good conductor of electricity 4) It is bad conductor of electricity

9. In diamond each carbon undergoes sp3 hybridization. 3-D polymer structure. Carbon atoms are
strongly held by covalent bonds. So diamond is hard.
10. In graphite, the layers can easily slide over each other due to weak vandarwaal forces with
below layers, hence it has slippery in nature and used as lubricant
11. Graphite is a good conductor of heat and electricity. Due to ‘sp2’ hybridization and presence of
free electrons.
12. The use of CO2 in photosynthesis atmospheric CO2 converts carbohydrates such as glucose

13. The common use of CO2 gas are a) fire extinguisher b) used in softdrinks c) manufacture of
urea
14. Solid CO 2 is called dry ice. It is used in frozenfoods for refrigerators
15. Man made silicates are Glass and Cement
16. ZSM-5 (A type of zeolite) used to converts alchols into gasoline directly
17. Producer gas is prepared by passing air over red hot coke at 1273K.
2C  O2  4 N 2  2CO  4 N 2
18. When steam is passing through white hot coke to produce water gas or blue gas or syn gas
C  H 2O  CO  H 2
 ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY
1. The amount of oxygen required to oxidise organic substances present in pollutated water is called
chemical oxygen demand (COD)
2. The amount of oxygen used by the suitable micro-organisms present in pollutated water during
for five days at 200C is called BOD (Bio-chemical oxygen demand)
3. a)Sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) after oxidation and reaction with water
forms acid rains b)The pH of acid rains is less than 5.6
4. Adverse effects caused by acid rains are a) It damages the life of buildings
b) It corrodes iron water pipes
5. a) PAN is peroxy acetyl nitrate b) PAN acts as powerful eye irritant
6. The medium which reacts with pollutant is called sink Ex: Oceans and trees
7. The permissible level of the toxic pollutant in the atmosphere, which effects a person on adversely
when he is exposed to this for 8 hours in a day is called TLV
8. The substance which is present in nature and causes the pollution is called as pollutant
9. The substance does not occur in nature but releases due to human activity and causes the pollution
is known as contaminant
10. The detection of different chemical forms in the environment causing pollution is known as speciation
11. The process of increasing of temperature of surface of earth is called green house effect or global
warming. CO2, O3 and chloro fluoro carbons gases
12. The major particulate pollutants preset in troposphere are dust, mist, fumes, smoke
13. The medium which is effected by a pollutant is called receptor. Ex: eye irritation by smoke
14. Common components of photo chemical smog are ozone, nitric oxide,acrolein, PAN.
15. Agro chemicals are respsonsible for water pollution Aldrin, Dialdrin, Sodium Chlorate, etc.,
16. Harmful effect caused by depletion of ozone layer is Skin cancer, Cateract of eye damages
17. The production process that would bring about minimum pollution to the environment is called
green chemistry.
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
 O

1.IUPAC name of a) CH 3  CH 2  CH 2  CH  CH 2 b) CH  C  CH
3 3

1-pentene propanone

c) CH 2  CH  CH  CH 2 d)

1,3-butadiene 2-methyl 2-butene

CH 3
I
e) CH 3  C  CH  CH 2  CH 3
I I
CH 3 CH3

2,2,3-trimethyl pentane 4,4-dimethyl pentanoic acid

2,2,4,4-tetramethyl pentane 2-butanol

k)

1,3-butadiene 3-pentanone 2-pentanone

l) 3,4,4,5-Tetramethyl heptane m) 2-methyl-1-butene
CH3 CH3
CH3
CH 3  CH 2  CH  C  CH  CH 2  CH 3
l) m) CH  C  CH  CH
CH3 CH3 2 2 3

n) 2,4-dimethyl pentane o) 3- Ethyl 4,4 –dimethyl heptane

CH3
CH 3  CH  CH 2  CH  CH 3
CH 3  CH 2  CH  C  CH 2  CH 2  CH 3
n) CH3
o)
CH3 C2H5 CH3

CH3

CH3 C CH3
p)Trichloro ethanoic acid : CCl3 COOH q) Neopentane :
CH3

CHO

r) P- nitro benzaldehyde : s) CH 3  CH 2  CH 2  CH  CH 2 (1-pentene)

NO2
2. Which hybrid orbitals are used by carbon atoms in the following molecules
a )CH 3  CH 3 b)CH 3  CH  CH 2 c) CH 3  CH 2  OH d )CH 3  CHO
sp3 sp3 sp3 sp2 sp2 sp3 sp3 sp3 sp2
3. Position Isomerism : Compounds having same molecular formula but differ in the position of
substituent or functional group or multiple bonds are called position isomers and this phenomenon
is know as position isomerism
Ex : 1-propanol & 2-propanol
4. Functional Isomerism : Compounds having same molecular formula but different functional
groups are called functional isomers and this phenomenon is called functional isomerism
Ex: Propanone & propanal
5. Wurtz reaction : Alkyl halides reacts with sodium metal in the presence of dry ether gives
alkanes. It is called Wurtz reaction
Ex: CH 3  Br  2 Na  Br  CH 3 
dryether
CH 3  CH 3  2 NaBr
6. Kolbe’s electrolysis : An aqueous solution of Na or K salt of a carboxylic acid on
electrolysis gives alkane.
2CH 3COONa  2 H 2O 
electrolysis
 C2 H 6  CO2  H 2  2 NaOH
Ethane
7. Preparation of Ethylene :

a) Ethyl bromide is heated with alcoholic potassium hydroxide gives ethylene

CH 3  CH 2  Br + KOH  alC  

 CH 2  CH 2  KBr  H 2O
b) 1,2 dibromo ethane is heated with zinc dust in alcoholic solution gives ethylene
CH 2  CH 2
Br Br + Zn 
Alcohol
 CH 2  CH 2  ZnBr2

8. Properties of ethylene : a) Ethylene on ozonolysis finally forms formaldehyde

Zn  H 2O
H2C CH2
  2 HCHO+ H 2O2
CH 2  CH 2  O3 
O
formaldehyde
O

b) Ethylene reacts with Bayer’s reagent produce ethylene glycol

CH 2  CH 2
CH 2  CH 2  H 2O  O  
Colddil KMnO4
 (Ethylene glycol)
OH OH

c) Ethylene is heated with O2 at high pressures produce Polyethylene or polythene

nCH 2  CH 2 
1500  2000atm
   C2 H 4  n 
9. Preparation of Acetylene:
a) Calcium carbide reacts with water gives ethyne or acetylene
CaC2  2 H 2O   C2 H 2  Ca  OH 2
b) 1,2 dibromo ethane on treatment with alc KOH gives acetylene or ethyne
CH 2 Br  CH 2 Br  KOH 
Alcohol
 CH2= CHBr 
NaNH 2
 C2H2 (acetylene)
10. Properties of Acetylene: a) Reaction of ethyne with water in presence of mercuric sulphate &
dil H2SO4 produce finally acetaldehyde
2 
HC  CH + H-OH 
Hg / H
333 K

b) Acetylene undergoes ozonolysis to give glyoxal

HC  CH  O3 


c) Halogens on reaction with acetylene form a tetrabromo ethane

11. Preparation of benzene: a) Sodium benzoate on heating with sodalime gives benzene
C6 H 5COONa  NaOH 
CaO
 C6 H 6  Na2CO3

b) Reduction of phenol with zinc dust gives benzene C6 H 5OH  Zn   C6 H 6
12. Properties of benzene : a) Halogenation: Benzene reacts with halogen in presence of AlCl3
gives halobenzene C6 H 6  Cl2 
Anhyd AlCl3
 C6 H 5Cl +HCl
b) Alkylation : Benzene reacts with alkyl halide in the presence of anhydrous AlCl3 gives
alkyl benzene and this reaction is called Friedel – Crafts alkylation
C6 H 6  CH 3Cl 
Anhyd AlCl3
 C6 H 5CH 3  HCl
Toluene
c) Acetylation : Benzene reacts with acylchloride in the presence of AlCl3 to produce
acetophenone
C6 H 6  CH 3COCl 
Anhyd AlCl3

 C6 H 5COCH 3  HCl
Acetophenone
d) Nitration : Benzene undergoes nitration to produce nitro benzene
C6 H 6  conHNO3 
ConH 2 SO4
323 K 333 K C6 H 5 NO2  H 2O
13. CaC2 
H2O
 A 
hot metal
tube
 B 
AlCl 3 +CH3Cl
C
A  C2 H 2 B  C6 H 6 C  C6 H 5CH 3
Acetylene benzene methyl benzene
CaC2 
H 2O
hydrolysis
 C2 H 2 , 3C2 H 2 
polymerisation
 C6 H 6 ,
C6 H 6  CH 3Cl  AlCl3
Fredel craftreaction
 C6 H 5CH 3
14. Ethylene 
Br2 /CCl 4
 A 
Alc K OH
 B 
Br2
C

A= (1,2-dibromo ethane)B = C2 H 2 (Ethyne) C = (1,1,2,2-Tetrabromo ethane)