Chapter 3 - Choppers - PDF

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UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA
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SEE 4433
Power Electronics
And Drives
1
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DR MOHD JUNAIDI BIN ABDUL AZIZ
junaidi@fke.utm.my
DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY CONVERSION

FACULTY OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
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Chapter 3:
DC to DC
Conversion
(Choppers)
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Overview
• General
• Buck converter
• Boost converter
• Buck-Boost converter
• Switched-mode power supply (SMPS)
- fly back converter
- forward converter
- bridge converter
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DEFINITION
DEFINITION:
Converting the unregulated DC input to a controlled
DC output with a desired voltage level.
• General block diagram:
Applications:
•High-frequency switched-mode power supply
(SMPS),
• DC motor control (traction, forklift, electric vehicles, trams,
battery chargers, capacitor chargers)
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Linear Regulator
• Transistor is operated in linear
(active) mode.
• Output voltage:
• The transistor can be conveniently

modeled by an equivalent variable
resistor, as shown.
• Power loss is high at high current

due to:
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Switching Regulator
Transistor is operated in switched-mode:
 Switch closed: Fully on (saturated)
 Switch opened: Fully off (cut-off)
 When switch is open, no current flow in it

 When switch is closed no voltage drop
across it.
Since P=V.I, no losses occurs in the

switch.
 Power is 100% transferred from
source to load.
 Power loss is zero (for ideal switch):
 Switching regulator is the basis of all

DC-DC converters
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Buck (Step-Down) Converter
 Duty cycle D:
 0≤D≤1
 complement D:
 D´ = 1 - D
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Switch is turned on (closed)
• Diode is reversed biased.

• Switch conducts inductor current
• This results in positive inductor
voltage, i.e:
• It causes linear
increase in the
inductor current
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Switch turned off (opened)
• Because of inductive
energy storage, iL continues to
flow.
• Diode is forward biased
• Current now flows
(freewheeling) through the
diode.
• The inductor voltage can be
derived as: 10
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Analysis
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Analysis
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Steady-state Operation
+ L -
Realization using
iL(t) ic(t)
VL(t)
power MOSFET
D1 R
Vg +- +
and diode t
DTs Ts
Unstable
Steady-state
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Average, Maximum and
Minimum Inductor Current
Average inductor current = Average current in RL
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Continuous Current Mode (CCM)
From previous analysis,
For continuous operation,
This is the minimum inductor

current to ensure continous
mode of operation. Normally L is
chosen to be >> Lmin
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Output Voltage Ripple
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Output Voltage
Ripple
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Basic Design Procedures
• Calculate D to obtain required output voltage.

• Select a particular switching frequency (f) and device
– preferably f >20 kHz for negligible acoustic noise
– higher fs results in smaller L and C. But results in higher losses.
Reduced efficiency, larger heat sink.
– Possible devices: MOSFET, IGBT and BJT. Low power MOSFET
can reach MHz range.
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• Calculate Lmin. Choose L >>10 Lmin

• Calculate C for ripple factor requirement.
– Capacitor ratings:
• must withstand peak output voltage
• must carry required RMS current. Note RMS current for
triangular waveform is Ip/3, where Ip is the peak capacitor
current given by iL/2.
• Electrolytic Capacitors (E-CAPs) can be used.
• Wire size consideration:
– Normally rated in RMS. But iL is known as peak. RMS value
for iL is given as:
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Examples
Question 1.
A buck converter has an input voltage of 12 V. The required average
output voltage is 5 V and peak-to-peak output ripple voltage is 20 mV.
The switching frequency is 25 kHz. If the peak-to-peak ripple current
of inductor is limited to 0.8 A, determine
i. duty ratio, D
ii. filter inductance, L
iii. output filter capacitor, C (0.42, 148 mH, 197 uF)
Question 2.
A buck converter is supplied from a 50V battery source. Given L = 400
μH, C=100 μF, R=20 , f =20 kHz and D = 0.4. Calculate:
(a) output voltage
(b) maximum and minimum inductor current,
(c) output voltage ripple.
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Examples
Question 3.
A buck converter has an input voltage of 50V and output of 25 V.
The switching frequency is 10KHz. The power output is 125 W.
(a) Determine the duty cycle,
(b) value of L to limit the peak inductor current to 6.25 A,
(c) value of capacitance to limit the output voltage ripple
factor to 0.5 %.
Question 4.
Design a buck converter such that the output voltage is 28 V when
the input is 48V. The load is 8 . Design the converter such that it will
be in continuous current mode.
The output voltage ripple must not be more than 0.5 %.
Specify the frequency and the values of each component.
Suggest the power switch also.
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Buck Converter Conclusion
• The output voltage may be controlled by the duty-

ratio, but cannot be larger than input voltage
• The voltage conversion ratio depends solely on duty-
ratio, and is independent of load condition
• The capacitor ripple current is independent of load
current
• The off-state voltage across device is supply voltage
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Boost (step-up) converter
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Steady-state
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UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA Operation
• Boost converter produces output voltage that is greater or equal

to the input voltage.
• Alternative explanation:
– when switch is closed, diode is reversed. Thus output is
isolated. The input supplies energy to inductor.
– When switch is opened, the output stage receives energy from
the input as well as from the inductor. Hence output is large.
– Output voltage is maintained constant by virtue of large C.
– The off-state voltage impressed across power device is Vo
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Average, Maximum, Minimum
Inductor Current
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Values
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Boost Converter Conclusion
• The output voltage is always greater or equal to the

input voltage
ratio, and always greater than or equal to one
• Theoretically the output voltage tends to infinity as D
tends to 1, but in practice the maximum output voltage
will be limited to conduction loss
• The capacitor ripple current is severe and depends
directly on the load current level
• The off-state voltage impressed across device is
output voltage
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Example :
A boost converter has an input voltage of 5 V. The average

output voltage is 15 V and the average load current is 0.5 A. If
fs = 25kHz, L = 150 μH and C = 220 μF, determine
(a)duty cycle (b) inductor ripple current
(c) inductor peak current (d) output ripple voltage
The boost converter has the following parameters:

Vd = 20V, D = 0.6, R = 12.5, L = 65 μH, C = 200 μF, fs= 40 kHz.
Determine
(a) output voltage, (b) average, maximum and minimum
inductor current, (c) output voltage ripple.
Design a boost converter to provide an output voltage of 36V
from a 24 V source. The load is 50 W. The voltage ripple factor
must be less than 0.5%. Specify the duty cycle ratio, switching
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frequency, inductor and capacitor size, and power device.
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Buck-boost Converter
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Buck-boost Analysis
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Buck-boost Analysis
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Output Voltage
Steady state operation : NOTE:
Output of a buck-boost
converter either be higher
or lower than input.
 If D > 0.5, output is higher
than input
 If D < 0.5, output is lower
input
• Output voltage is always
negative.
• Note that source is never directly connected to load.
• Energy is stored in inductor when switch is closed and
transferred to load when switch is opened.
• Off-state voltage across power switch is ( Vd – Vo )
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Average Inductor Current
Assuming no power loss in the

converter, power absorbed by
the load must equal power
supplied the by source, i.e.
But average source current is related

to average inductor current as :
Substituting for Vo ,
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L and C
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UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA values
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Ripple Factor, r
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Example :
A buck-boost converter has input voltage of 12 V. The duty cycle

is 0.25 and the switching frequency is 25 kHz. L = 150 μH and
C = 220 μF. The average load current is 1.25 A.
Determine:
(a)average output voltage
(b)peak-to-peak output voltage ripple
(c)peak-to-peak inductor ripple current
(d)peak current transistor
(-4 V, 56.8 mV, 0.8 A, 2.07 A)
A buck-boost converter has the specification as follows:
Vd = 18 V, D = 0.6, fs = 40 kHz, R = 10 , L = 50 μH, C = 200 μF
Consider all components are ideal, determine
(a)output voltage
(b)average, maximum, and minimum inductor current
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(-27 V, 6.75 A, 9.45 A, 4.05 A)
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Buck-Boost Converter conclusion

ratio and less than unity for D < 0.5.
For D > 0.5, the conversion ratio greater than unity. The
maximum conversion ratio is limited in practice by circuit
losses
• Similar to boost, the capacitor current ripple is severe
and depends on load current
• The off-state voltage impressed across the device is
the sum of supply and output voltage
• The average inductor current is the sum of average
input and output current
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Converters in CCM: Summary
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Control of DC-DC Converter:
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
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DC-DC Converter Control
• Purpose of
control:
To regulate the
output voltage so
that it is
maintained within
a specified
tolerance band
(e.g. 2% of output
DC voltage)
• Basic block
diagram for
converter control
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Isolated DC-DC Converter
• Isolated DC-DC requires isolation transformer
• Two types: Linear and Switched-mode Power Supply (SMPS)
• Advantages of switched mode over linear power supply
-Efficient (70 – 95%)
-Weight and size reduction
• Disadvantages
-Complex design
-EMI problems
• However above certain ratings, SMPS is the only feasible choice
• Types of SMPS
-Flyback
-forward
-Push-pull
-Bridge (half and full)
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Linear and SMPS Block Diagram
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Linear and SMPS Block Diagram
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High Frequency Transformer
Basic function:
1) Input - output electrical isolation
2) Step up/down time - varying voltage
Basic input - output relationship
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Flyback Converter
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Operation: Switch Closed
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Flyback Converter
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Operation: Switch Closed
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Flyback Converter
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Operation: Switch Opened
Current flows in different

direction at the Primary..
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Flyback Converter
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Operation: Switch Opened
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Flyback Converter
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Output Voltage
 Input output relationship is similar to buck-boost converter.

 Output can be greater of less than input, depending upon D.
 Additional term, i.e. transformer ratio is present.
 Positive output voltage polarity
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Flyback Converter
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Flyback Waveforms
Average
Inductor
Current
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Max., Min. Inductor Current
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Max., Min. Inductor Current
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Example :
The Flyback converter has these specifications:

DC input voltage: 40 V
Output voltage: 25 V
Duty cycle: 0.5
Rated load: 62.5 W
Max peak-peak inductor current ripple: 25 % of the
average inductor current.
Maximum peak-peak output voltage: 0.1 V
Switching frequency: 75 kHz
Based on the abovementioned specifications, determine
a) Transformer turns ratio
b) Value of magnetizing inductor Lm.
c) Maximum and minimum inductor current.
d) Value of capacitor C.
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Example :
The Flyback converter has the following:

Input voltage: 24 VDC
Output voltage: 5 V
Transformer turn-ratio (N1/N2): 3
Load resistance: 5
Magnetising inductance: 500 μH
Output capacitor: 200 μF
Switching frequency: 40 kHz
Based on the abovementioned specifications, determine
a) duty ratio
b) average inductor current in Lm.
c) maximum and minimum inductor current.
d) output voltage ripple.
0.39, 540 mA, 770 mA, 310 mA, 48 mV
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Example :
For a Flyback converter, consider all components are ideal.

The parameters are shown as follows:
Based on the abovementioned specifications, calculate

a) The range of duty ratios, D
b) The minimum value of Lm , to ensure continuous current if
the input voltage varies from 10 V to 40 V.
c) The required capacitor if output voltage ripple is 0.2 Vp-p.
0.123<D<0.4, 4.08 uH, 57.12 uF
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Forward Converter
• Derived from Buck Converter, but Dmax = 0.5
• Transformer magnetizing current must be taken into account
• Assume transformer ideal, when switch ON, D1
forward biased and D2 reversed biased, VL positive and iL
increases linearly
• When switch OFF, D1 reversed biased and iL circulates

through D2 . VL negative and iL decreases linearly
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Forward Converter
• Equating the integral of inductor voltage over one time
period to zero,
• It shows that the output voltage is proportional to the duty

ratio, D, similar to buck converter
• Practically transformer magnetization current must be
considered in converter operation to avoid converter failure
due to energy stored in its core.
• A third/reset/demagnetizing winding is required so that
energy in transformer core can be transferred back to the
supply when switched turned OFF.
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Forward Converter
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Forward Converter
• When switch ON,
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Full-bridge Converter
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Full Bridge: Basic Operation
• Switch “pair”: [S1 & S2]; [S3 & S4].
• Each switch pair turn on at a time as shown. The other
pair is off.
• “AC voltage” is developed across the primary. Then
transferred to secondary via high frequency transformers.
• On secondary side, diode pair is “high frequency full wave
rectification”.
• The choke (L) and (C ) acts like the “buck converter”
circuit.
• Output Voltage
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Half-bridge Converter
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Half-bridge
Converter
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Industry Favorites SMPS
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Example :
Q1 Referring to Figure Q1,

a) Sketch the waveforms for the inductor voltage and current (per
cycle) with fs = 25 k Hz. (5 marks)
b) With the assumption that the switching device operates as a fixed
frequency switch with a duty ratio D and the inductor current is
continuous, show that the output voltage Vo = Vd / (1 – D).
(10 marks)
c) If the switching device operates at a duty ratio of 0.4, calculate the
output voltage and the average inductor current when the input
voltage is 60 V and the resistive load is 10 . Determine the inductor
value such that peak to peak inductor ripple current is 4 A.
(10 marks)
Ans: 100 V, 16.67A, 240 uH

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Example :
Q2 Referring to Figure Q2, and assuming converter operates in CCM

a) Sketch the waveforms for the inductor voltage ,inductor current
and capacitor current(per cycle).
b) Prove that the peak-to-peak output voltage ripple
c) The converter in Figure Q2 required to provide a 400V
regulated output from a variable DC source, ranges between 150
V < Vd < 300 V. The output power varies over the range of 100 W
to 1 kW and the switching frequency is 50 kHz. If the converter
operates in CCM,
i) Calculate the range of the duty ratio, D
ii) Determine the capacitor value that results in the maximum
peak-to-peak ripple voltage of 3 V
iii) Determine the minimum value of inductance to ensure CCM
of current over all condition
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Ans: 0.25<D<0.63, 10.4 uF, 2.37 mH
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Example :
Q2 (a)Draw and label a block diagram of a switched mode power supply

(SMPS).Briefly state the function of each element in the diagram. (8 marks)
(b) Figure Q3 shows a boost converter with the inductor current waveform in
steady state. The key quantities of the waveforms are labeled. The circuit uses
a feedback controller to regulate the output voltage at 12V by varying the duty
cycle, D. It was found that, for this condition, the peak-peak output voltage
ripple, vo, is 0.08V. Based on the circuit condition and its waveform
determine:
(i) The duty cycle D and the input voltage, Vs. (3 marks)
(ii) The values of R, L and C. (6 marks)
(iii) The maximum value of R to keep the converter operation in a continuous
conduction mode. All other parameters are kept constant. (3 marks)
(iv) Draw the voltages across MOSFET, vm and diode, vd. Suggest the
minimum voltage rating for the diode and MOSFET. (3 marks)
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Ans: i)0.4, 7.2V, ii)2.5 , 7.2u, 240uH, iii)10
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The End
of Chapter 3
Thank You
75

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UTM

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA

DR MOHD JUNAIDI BIN ABDUL AZIZ

DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY CONVERSION

• General block diagram:

• The transistor can be conveniently

• Power loss is high at high current

 When switch is open, no current flow in it

Since P=V.I, no losses occurs in the

 Switching regulator is the basis of all

• Diode is reversed biased.

Average inductor current = Average current in RL

From previous analysis,

For continuous operation,

This is the minimum inductor

• Calculate D to obtain required output voltage.

• Calculate Lmin. Choose L >>10 Lmin

• The output voltage may be controlled by the duty-

• Boost converter produces output voltage that is greater or equal

• The output voltage is always greater or equal to the

A boost converter has an input voltage of 5 V. The average

The boost converter has the following parameters:

Assuming no power loss in the

But average source current is related

A buck-boost converter has input voltage of 12 V. The duty cycle

• The voltage conversion ratio depends solely on duty-

Current flows in different

 Input output relationship is similar to buck-boost converter.

The Flyback converter has these specifications:

The Flyback converter has the following:

For a Flyback converter, consider all components are ideal.

Based on the abovementioned specifications, calculate

• When switch OFF, D1 reversed biased and iL circulates

• It shows that the output voltage is proportional to the duty

Q1 Referring to Figure Q1,

Ans: 100 V, 16.67A, 240 uH

Q2 Referring to Figure Q2, and assuming converter operates in CCM

Q2 (a)Draw and label a block diagram of a switched mode power supply

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