CA-Foundation - BCR Notes - SR - 29

Table of Contents
Chapter 1: Communication 2
Chapter 2: Sentence Types and Direct-Indirect, Active-Passive Speech 20
Chapter 3: Vocabulary 57
Chapter 4: Comprehension Passages 77
Chapter 5: Note Making 82
Chapter 6: Introduction to Basics of Writing 95
Chapter 7: Precis Writing 104
Chapter 8: Article Writing 111
Chapter 9: Report Writing 117
Chapter 10: Writing Formal Letters and Official Communication
Part I: Formal Letters 131
Part II: Official Communication 146
Chapter 11: Writing Formal Mails 151
Chapter 12: Resume Writing 158
Chapter 13: Meetings 173
BCR www.indigolearn.com 1
CHAPTER 1: COMMUNICATION
Contents
• Process of Communication
• Types of Communication
• Structures & Network in Communication
• Techniques of skilled communication
• Barriers of Communication
1 Introduction
1.1 Communication is simply the act of transferring information from one place,
person or group to another.
Communication is a process which involves

• exchange of information, ideas, thoughts, feelings and emotions
• through speech, signals, writing, or behaviour.
1.2 Communication Process happens between two parties

• Sender (encoder)
▪ encodes a message
▪ sends message to the receiver (decoder) using a medium/ channel
• Receiver (decoder)
▪ decodes the message
▪ sends back appropriate feedback/ reply after processing
information, using a medium/channel.”
1.3 Main steps in the process of communication are
• Determining the purpose for communication
• Deciding the contents of the message
• Choosing the medium for conveying the message
• Transmitting (or sending) the message
• Receiving the message by receiver
• Decoding or deciphering and interpreting the message
• Sending the feedback if required
Figure : ICAI Material
1.4 Problems in Communication

• Wrong person or audience
• Wrong method or medium
• Timing of the message
• Too much of information
1.5 Importance of Communication

• Communication makes giving directions to the team easy and without ambiguity
• It is the basis of co-ordination of various resources effectively.
• Decision making make effective due to correct information at the right time is
made available
1.6 Levels of Communication
Communication for people happens only at one level i.e. person to person but for an
organisation, it happens at various levels and each level of communication contributes
to the overall effective functioning of the organisation.
1.6.1 Interpersonal
1.6.2 It is the process of exchange of information, feelings, and ideas through verbal
and non-verbal messages between two or more individuals. It is face-to-face
communication.
1.6.3 Intragroup
1.6.4 Communication amongst a small group of people or between teams of the
same department within an organisation is called Intragroup level of
communication.
1.6.5 Intergroup
In an organisation there are various departments which need to communicate
regularly. Such communication between different departments or functions of
the organisation is called Intergroup.
1.6.6 External
Every organisation has to communicate with external agencies like statutory
bodies, competitors, stake holders, suppliers, debtors, etc. The communication
between the organisation and such external agencies is called as external level
of communication.
2 Types of Communication
Communication
Basis
Purpose & Style Process
Formal Informal Verbal Non-verbal Visual
• Vertical • Written • Physical

• Horizontal • Oral • Paralanguage
• Diagonal • Aesthetic
• Appearance
• Symbols
2.1 Verbal & Non-Verbal Communication
2.1.1 Verbal Communication
Verbal communication involves the use of words and language in delivering the
intended message.
• Written Communication – written communication between people
Medium Usage Inherent skills

required
• Letters & • Formal Business • Writing style

documents ▪ Interactions • Grammar
• E-mails ▪ Contracts • Vocabulary
• Handbooks ▪ Memos • Clarity
• Brochures ▪ Press releases
• Chat ▪ Formal Business
platforms proposals
• SMS • Legal instructions
• Legal documentation
• Oral Communication – communication through spoken word
Medium Usage Inherent skills

required
• Clear speech
• Formal • Tone
• Face to face
▪ Lectures • Speaking
talk
▪ Conferences volume
• Telephonic
▪ Seminars • Speed of the
• Voice chats
▪ Meetings speech
• Video
• Informal conversations •
conferencing
• Chit chat & gossip
Verbal Communication is the easiest, fastest, and the most successful form of
communication. Yet, it comprises of only 7% of all human communication
2.1.2 Non-verbal Communication
It is the process of sending and receiving wordless messages. Mostly used to
o complement and illustrate,

o reinforce and emphasize,
o replace and substitute,
o control and regulate, and
o contradict the denoted message.
• Physical nonverbal communication: It involves an individual’s body language,

such as
▪ facial expressions,
▪ stance, gestures,
▪ tone of voice,
▪ touch, and
▪ other physical signals
Leaning Crossing
Forward - Arms -
Friendliness/ Antagonistic /
Acceptance Defensive
Physical communication accounts for 55 % of all communication. Smiles,

frowns, pursing of lips, clenching of hands etc. transmit emotions which
are not expressed through verbal communication. It is the easiest, fastest,
and the most successful form of communication
• Paralanguage: The way you say something, more than the actual words used,
reveal the intent of the message.
The attributes used under this are voice quality, intonation, pitch, stress, emotion,
tone, and style of speaking which communicate approval, interest and lack of
interest.
Research estimates that tone of the voice accounts for 38 % of all

communications
• Aesthetic communication: Art forms such as dancing, painting, sculptor, music

is also a means of communication. They distinctly convey the ideas and thoughts
of the artist.
• Appearance: Appearance is usually the first thing noticed about a person. A well
dressed and groomed person is presumed to be organized and methodical,
whereas a sloppy or shabby person fails to make a favourable impression.
Therefore, dressing appropriately in all formal interactions is emphasized.
• Symbols such as religious, status, or ego-building symbols.
• Visual Communication: It is through visual aids such as signs, typography,

drawing, graphic design, illustration, colour, etc.
Print and audio-visual media makes effective use of visuals to convey their
message. Visuals like graphs, pie charts and other diagrammatic presentations
convey clearly and concisely a great deal of information.
2.2 Formal & Informal Communication
2.2.1 Formal Communication
Formal communication follows certain rules, principles and conventions in conveying

the message. The hierarchy in the organization has to be followed. Formal format, style
and language have to be used. The communication pattern can be vertical, horizontal
or diagonal.
• Vertical: Information can flow upwards or downwards in the organization. For

example, from manager to supervisor and vice-versa
▪ Data that is collected flows up to the top levels of management for
review and decision making,
▪ Instructions and orders are passed down from the management/ seniors
to the subordinates for implementation.
General Manager
Manager Manager Manager

Sales & Marketing Operations Administration
Administrative
Sales Executive Junior Engineer
Executive
Sales man Supervisor Staff
• Horizontal: Horizontal communication that involves communication between two

parts of the organization at the same level. For example, the managers of a project
in a company may hold a regular daily, weekly or monthly meeting to discuss the
progress of the project.
General Manager
Manager
Manager Manager
Sales &
Operations Administration
Marketing
Administrative
Executive
• Diagonal: It is the cross-functional communication between employees at different
levels of the organizational hierarchy. Diagonal communication is increasingly
common in larger organizations. It reduces the chances of distortion or
misinterpretation by encouraging direct communication between the relevant
parties. For example, a junior engineer reports directly to the General Manager
regarding the progress on the project.
General Manager
Manager Manager Manager

Sales & Marketing Operations Administration
Administrative
Executive
2.2.2 Informal Communication
It is unofficial form of communication. It is casual, spontaneous & friendly in nature. It

is and involves exchange of information without conforming to the prescribed official
rules, processes, systems, formalities and chain of command.
Informal communication is between family, friends, neighbours, members of the
community and other social relations. The basis of communication is not the hierarchy,
it is based on common interests, tastes and dispositions. Information can flow from
any source in any direction.
Grapevine – It is the informal form of communication Grapevine is

amongst the employees, outside the formal domain, in an nothing but gossip
organization.
• Employees of different departments and varied levels meet and discuss matters
casually and informally.
• The grapevine satisfies the social needs of the people and helps in building
relationships.
• It is also useful in addressing certain requirements and grievances of employees
which cannot be addressed by formal communication.
3 Network in Communication
A communication network - method and pattern used by members of an organisation

to pass on information to other employees in the organization. Managers create
various types of communication flow as per requirement using these networks. The
requirements depend upon the
• size of the organisation,

• type of communication channels in the organisation and
• the number of persons involved in the process.
There can be many patterns of communication network. The usefulness of all networks
depends on the structure and size of the company, and the manner of communication
between the employees.
The most common networks followed in organisations are the following
3.1 Vertical Network

▪ A formal network.
▪ Between a senior employee and a subordinate.
▪ It is a two-way communication.
▪ Immediate feedback is possible.
3.2 Circuit Network

▪ Two persons (at same level of hierarchy or not) are
involved.
▪ Communication happens between each other
sending messages and feedback.
3.3 Chain Network
▪ It follows the chain of command from the senior to the
junior.
▪ Communication starts at the top, like from a CEO, and
works its way down to the different levels of employees.
▪ The supervisor/ manager/ CEO gives commands or
instructions to those working under him/her in the
organization.
▪ The chain network often takes up time, and
communication may not be clear.
3.4 Wheel & Spoke Network

▪ A single controlling authority gives
instructions and orders to all
employees working under him/her.
▪ All employees get instructions directly
from the leader and report back to
him/her.
▪ It is effective for a small
business/company, not for large
organization, as decision making would be delayed.
▪ The decision making and execution is hugely affected by the competence of
the leader alone.
3.5 Star Network

▪ Multiple channels of communication open between all members.
▪ This network propagates group
communication and is essential where
teamwork is involved.
▪ The members communicate and exchange
information with each other freely, and
without hindrance or hesitation.
Network Figures: ICAI Material
4 ESSENTIALS OF COMMUNICATION
The sender must encode the message (the information being conveyed) into a form
that is appropriate to the communication channel, and the receiver(s) then decodes
the message to understand its meaning and
significance.
Misunderstanding can
Effective communication involves minimising
occur at any stage of the
potential misunderstanding and overcoming any
communication process.
barriers to communication at each stage in the
communication process.
An effective communicator understands their audience, chooses an appropriate

communication channel, hones their message to this channel and encodes the
message to reduce misunderstanding by the receiver(s). They will also seek out
feedback from the receiver(s) as to how the message is understood and attempt to
correct any misunderstanding or confusion as soon as possible.
The following are the essential features for Effective Communication:
4.1 Clear:
• State the purpose of message clearly.
• The language should be simple
• Use short sentences
• Each idea or point must be explained in a separate bulleted points or paragraphs.
4.2 Concise
• Avoid using too many irrelevant words or adjectives, for example, ‘you see’, ‘I
mean to say’, etc.
• Ensure that there are no repetitions.
4.3 Concrete
• Base content on facts and figures, make it more tangible
• Avoid abstract ideas and thoughts which lead to misinterpretation
• Focus on main message
4.4 Coherent
• Connect main idea with sub points with logical bridge and flow.
• Don’t jumps from one idea to another.
• Sequentially organize all the facts and use only relevant information.
• Present the information logically for easy understanding
4.5 Complete
• Provide all facts and information required by the recipient.
• Consider receiver’s intellect and attitude.
4.6 Courteous
• Sender should be polite, considerate, respectful, open and honest with the
receiver.
• Consider the viewpoints and feelings of the receiver of the message.
• Avoid offensive or with hidden negative tone.
4.7 Listening for Understanding

• Apart from hearing the words spoken, observes carefully the nonverbal cues to
understand the complete message.
• Sender should absorb information, be objective and practical while forming an
opinion.
• Understand the context and meaning of the information given.
• Form an accurate, reasoned, intelligent response.
4.8 Focus and Attention

• Avoid distractions
• Do not overlook important and main aspects or cues in the interaction.
4.9 Emotional Awareness and Control

• Do not let intense emotions affect rational decision-making.
• Understand the emotions of the recipient.
• Ensure smooth interaction and avoid breakdowns in the process.
• Make informed decisions, not emotion-based decisions.
5 BARRIERS IN EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
Barriers result in distortion and misunderstanding of the intended message.
5.1 Physical barriers

They are the most obvious barriers to effective communication. These barriers are mostly
easily removable in principle at least. The following are the various physical barriers
which cause hindrance in flow of communication:
• Noise
• Technical issues
• Outdated equipment
• Distant locations
• Doors & spaces
Although modern technology often serves to reduce the impact of physical barriers,
the advantages and disadvantages of each communication channel should be
understood so that an appropriate channel can be used to overcome the physical
barriers.
5.2 Organisational barriers

Effective communication largely depends upon sound organizational structure. There
are different types of network which facilitate the communication in an organisation,
if the structure is complex involving several layers of management then there is a
higher possibility of more barriers. The following are few of them:
• Unclear chain of command
• Inappropriate transmission
• Lack of supervision
• Unclear role
5.3 Language barriers

Language is made of words and symbols, and same words have different meanings for
different people and different circumstances. People from different regions and
backgrounds can interpret the same word differently. If the sender of the message and
receiver of the message interpret or understand differently, the communication is not
effective. Some people are very proficient with a language but some people in the
same group know basic language. It’s important to communicate in simple and easily
understandable language. Some of the language barriers are as follows:
• Different interpretations
• Difficult words
• Jargon (terminology)
• Unfamiliar expressions
• Ambiguous words
• Multiple meanings
5.4 Cultural barriers

With globalisation, every organisation has become a culmination of various cultures.
Dressing, Religions or lack of them, food, drinks, pets, and the general behaviour will
change drastically from one culture to another.
Understanding various cultures and the significance of aspects peculiar to a culture is very
important in today’s world where every organisation is filled with cross culture people.
Inference to any of such aspect will have to be made carefully understanding the particular
culture. Every country, region, tribe or religion have different symbols, mannerisms, words,
etc…. misunderstanding these or wrong interpretation or wrong usage of these can cause
a barrier in effective communication
Some multinational organisations offer special courses or documents to employees to get

familiarise with such aspects before they take up projects or work in such regions or
countries.
Even within the organisation every unit or department might have different work cultures.
Every department or unit should be aware such issues so that intra-departmental and
inter-departmental communication is effective.
For example, the ‘V’ hand gesture meaning victory and peace may be considered as
insulting in certain cultures.
At some work places workers are accustomed to workplaces where seniority and status
are emphasized, they may find it difficult to adapt to more fluid environments, where job
titles are de-emphasized and production methods do not always follow a predetermined
set of guidelines.
5.5 Emotional Barriers
Emotions have a strong influence on people’s behaviour. Different emotions have
different effects, some positive and some negative.
compassion, anger,
empathy, fear of criticism,
kindness anxiety,
mistrust,
hatred
But excess of any emotion will influence the communication in an inappropriate way.
A person who is emotionally mature will be able to communicate effectively. On the other
hand, people who let their emotions take over and who is upset and disturbed cannot
pass on or receive information appropriately and objectively.
5.6 Attitude related barriers

A certain way of thinking or feeling about someone, something or some situation is
called attitude. Different people have different attitudes –
• some are introvert (talk and interact less) and some are extrovert (talk and mingle
excessively);
• some are proactive (always come forward or take initiative) where as some are
reactive (only respond when asked for are expected to);
• some are optimist (who always are hopeful and positive) and some are pessimist
(always negative and cynical).
• Some are self-motivated (with a drive to achieve or work) and some are
unmotivated (always need an encouragement or benefit to go ahead)
Attitudinal barriers are behaviours or perceptions that prevent people from

communicating effectively. Attitudinal barriers to communication may result from
personality conflicts, poor management, resistance to change, or a lack of motivation.
Effective receivers of messages should attempt to overcome their own attitudinal
barriers to facilitate effective communication.
5.7 Perceptual barriers
Anything which inhibits or prevents us from understanding something is a perceptual
barrier. It always results from pre-conceived ideas which we hold about people and
situations. These include filtering, selective perception, information overload,
emotional disconnects, lack of source familiarity or credibility, workplace gossip,
semantics, gender differences, differences in meaning between Sender and Receiver,
and biased language.
5.8 Physiological barrier

Ill health, poor eyesight, hearing difficulties or any other physiological problems can be
hurdles in effective interaction with others.
5.9 Technology barriers
Technology has helped reduce and even overcome distance, allowing people to share
information without needing to meet in real life. But technology is developing fast and
as a result, it becomes difficult to keep up with the newest developments. Hence
sometimes the technological advance may become a barrier.
In addition to this, the cost of technology is sometimes very high. Most of the
organizations will not be able to afford a decent tech for the purpose of communication.
Hence, this becomes a very crucial barrier.
5.10 Gender based barriers

Men and women express themselves and interpret differently.
• Men • Women
Men talk in a linear, Women use both

logical and logic and emotion,
compartmentalized and are more
manner verbose
Men can be held Women may be
guilty of providing blamed for providing
insufficient too much detail
information
Societal stereotypes, assumed gender roles, and interpersonal differences can
contribute to a communication gap between the sexes. Due to traditional mindsets,
many men find it difficult to take orders from, or provide information to women.
Recognizing these differences in communication will allow us to prevent these

misunderstandings when communicating with the opposite sex. Empathy and
awareness can help overcome this barrier
Sample Questions
1) State the types of communication channels used by humans. Explain each in a

couple of sentences? (Refer: Point 2-page 5)
2) What are main steps in process of communication? (Refer: Point 1.3-page 3)
3) Mention the networks used in communication. Which is the most effective for
team work and why? (Refer: Point 3-page11)
4) What are the disadvantages of the wheel network? (Refer: Point 3.4-page12)
5) According to you which are the most important characteristics of effective
communication? Give reasons for your answer. (Refer: point 4-page13)
6) What are barriers in communication? In an organization which barrier,
according to you, impedes communication the most? (Refer: point 5-page 15)
7) How do cultural barriers affect communication? Explain with examples of your
own? (Refer: Point 5.4-page16)
CHAPTER 2: SENTENCES TYPES
ACTIVE-PASSIVE VOICE & DIRECT -INDIRECT SPEECH
Contents
• Importance of grammar in language learning
• Phrase vs Clause vs Sentence
• Types of Clauses
• Components and Types of a Sentence
• Active and Passive Voice
• Direct and Indirect Speech
1 COMMUNICATION & LANGUAGE
The whole system and structure of a language or of languages in general, usually

consists of syntax and morphology (including inflections) and sometimes also
phonology and semantics.
1.1 Parts of Grammar
1.1.1 Syntax - arrangement of words and phrases to create well-formed sentences

in a language.
1.1.2 Morphology - study of the forms of things, in a particular form, shape, or

structure
1.1.3 Pragmatics - branch of
linguistics dealing with
language in use and the
contexts in which it is used Phonology
& Semantics
1.1.4 Semantics
• Logical semantics - It is
concerned with matters such as
Pragmatics
sense and reference and
presupposition and implication
Syntax &
• Lexical semantics - It is Morphology
concerned with the analysis of
word meanings and relations
between them.
1.1.5 Phonology – The science of

speech sounds including especially the history and theory of sound changes in
a language or in two or more related languages
1.2 Essentials of Grammar

Grammar is simply a set of rules that people follow to interact at a particular time.
Knowledge of grammar of a language is not very necessary for speaking but it is
essential when one needs effective written communication. The basic aspects of
grammar which one needs to be aware of are
Grammar
Parts of
Tenses Sentences
Speech
Noun Past Punctuation

Elements Parts Voice Speech
marks
Pronoun Present
Verb Future Phrases Clauses Direct Indirect
Adjective
Subject Predicate Object Active Passive
Adverb
Preposition Direct Indirect
Conjunction
Interjection
1.3 Parts of Speech
Noun Name of Person, thing, animal or place.

• Eg: Neelima is an extremely beautiful girl. She lives in Mumbai and studies in
school. Wow! What a beautiful city it is.
Pronoun Replaces noun

Verb Action word or state of being

Adjective Describes quality of noun

Adverb Describes adjective or verb

Shows location, position, direction or time in relation to

Preposition noun or pronoun.
Conjunction Joins group of words or senteces

Interjection Shows strong emotion, surprise or emphasis

1.4 Tenses
Verbs come in three tenses: past, present, and
future.
• Past tense is used to describe things that have Tenses give us the
already happened (e.g., earlier in the day, timeline of the action. It
yesterday, last week, three years ago). is based on the form of
• Present Tense is used to describe things that the verb used.
are happening right now or things that are
continuous.
• Future tense describes things that are yet to happen.
The following table gives briefly the when to use which tense.
Tenses Present Past Future
Simple Universal truths, Action started in the Only when the
planned and past and got over in possibility of the
scheduled activities, the past activity happening,
description of not certainty
routines Eg: I watched a Eg: I will watch movie
Eg: I watch movies movie
Continuous When an activity that An activity is going There is certainty of
started some time on. Before it is over, the activity
ago, is continuing as it is interrupted by happening in the
we speak another activity. future
Eg: I am watching a Eg: I was watching Eg: I will be watching
movie movie a movie
Perfect When an activity is An activity started in Refers to activity 1,
over, but it still has an the past and was which will have been
effect on the present concluded. Another completed, by the
activity also time activity 2
happened. Refers to happens
Eg: I have watched activity 1.
the movie Eg: I had watched Eg: I will have
the movie watched the movie
Present An activity started in An activity started in Not used in
Continuous the past but we are the past and it is conversations
not sure when it will continuing
conclude / end Eg: I had been Eg: I will have been
Eg: I have been watching the movie watching the movie
watching the movie
2 Structural Units of Language
Phrase, Clause and Sentence are the three structural units that create meaning in
language. Phrase and clause form parts of a sentence but they are very different from
each other
Sentence Trees near river are healthy

and strong
Clause Trees near river are healthy
Phrase Trees near river
Phrase: A phrase is a group of words that make sense but not complete sense. It
cannot stand alone but can be used as a part of a sentence.
Clause: A clause can make complete sense on its own or may form a part of a sentence.
If it does not stand on its own, it must be part of a sentence which consists of two or
more clauses.
Sentence: A sentence is a group of words that make complete sense to a reader. It

may be a statement, question, exclamation, or command, and consists of one or more
clauses. It begins with a capital letter and ends with a full stop.
2.1 Phrases
Phrases
Prepositional
Noun Phrase Verb Phrase
Phrase
A verb phrase consists

A prepositional phrase
of a main verb and
Noun phrases are is a group of words
one or more helping
composed of a noun that begin with a
verbs linked together.
(or pronoun) and its preposition and are
They serve as the
modifiers. They are followed generally by a
predicate of a sentence
used as subjects, noun or pronoun or
or clause. The verb
objects, or anything that acts as a
phrase defines the
complements. noun, for example, a
different times of the
gerund
action
2.2 Clause
A clause is a part of the sentence that contains a verb. A typical clause consists of a
subject and a predicate, the latter typically a verb phrase, a verb with any objects and
other modifiers. There are two categories of clauses.
Clause
Main/Independent Sub-ordinate or
clause Dependent Clause
Adjective Clause Adverb Clause Noun Clause
2.2.1 Main or Independent Clause
A main clause has a subject and a predicate and can stand by itself as a complete
sentence.
2.2.2 Subordinate or Dependent Clause

A subordinate clause also consists of a subject and predicate but does not make
complete sense on its own. It is dependent on the main clause for the reader to
understand it fully.
Examples: the following are few sentences which have both main clauses and
subordinate clauses
• I got the tests done, while I waited for the doctor.

• The bird chirped, during the sunset.
• Children pointed out at the joker, the minute they saw him.
• The robber tried to escape but the police caught him.
• The night came on, the rain fell heavily, and we all got very wet.
In few sentences, subordinate clauses function within the sentence as adjectives,

adverbs, or nouns.
• Adjective Clause
A dependent clause that functions like an adjective i.e. it modifies or describes a noun.
Examples:
▪ The star performer at the concert chose dresses which would look good on
her.
• Adverb Clause
A dependent clause that functions like an adverb i.e. it modifies or describes a verb, an
adjective or another adverb. Example
▪ When the food arrived, the children ate everything,
• Noun Clause
A dependent clause that functions like a noun; a noun is a person, place, or thing.
Example
▪ That it will rain, seems likely
2.3 Sentences
A sentence is a group of words that make complete sense to a reader. It consists of a

main clause and sometimes one or more subordinate clauses. The main components
of a sentence that categorise the group of words to be a phrase or clause are
• “Subject – what is being spoken about” and
“Verb – the action/activity done by or to the subject”.
It may be a statement, question, exclamation, or command. It begins with a capital

letter and ends with a full stop. A finite verb is an essential component of a sentence.
Finite Verb & Structural Units of Language
• A Phrase does not have a finite verb

• A Clause has only one finite verb A finite verb is a verb
• A finite verb is an essential component of a that has a subject and
sentence. shows tense.
If a sentence has only one finite verb, it means that it consists of only one clause.
If a sentence has more than one finite verb, it is made up of more than one clause.
A sentence is made up of as many clauses as the finite verbs is has.
3 Components of Sentences
A sentence is a group of words a set of words that is complete in itself. Subject and
predicate are the two primary structures on which a sentence stands. The basic
components of a sentence are:
• Subject
• Predicate
• Direct object
• Indirect object
• Object of the preposition
• Verbs
• phrases
• Complements
3.1 Subject
The subject is the person or thing about which something is stated.
3.2 Predicate
The predicate is the part of a sentence that has verb in it and tells us something about
the subject.
Examples
Sentence Subject Predicate (has the verb)

Mahesh sings romantic songs Mahesh sings romantic songs
My son is a doctor for eyes My son is a doctor for eyes
Radha cooked the meal Radha cooked the meal
Radha cooked the meal with Radha cooked the meal with
vegetables and fruits vegetables and fruits
How to identify the subject?

• First identify the verb (action word).
• Then the answer to the question “Who/what is doing/performing the
action” will be the subject.
3.3 Direct Object
A direct object is a person or thing that is affected by the Direct object receives
the action of the verb
action(verb) of the subject. It follows the verb and
answers the question ‘what’.
Example:
• Radha cooked a meal (Subject : Krishna, Verb: cooked, Direct object: meal)
• Krishna gave a gift (Subject : Krishna, Verb: gave, Direct object: gift)
Sentence structure (placement of components) ➔ Subject, verb, direct object
3.4 Indirect Object
An indirect object is a person or thing that the action is done to or for. The indirect
object usually comes just before the direct object and can be called the receiver of the
direct object. It directly follows the verb.
Example:
Indirect object
• Radha cooked me, a meal (Subject : Krishna, Verb: answers the question
cooked, Direct object: meal, Indirect object: me) ‘whom’.
Sentence structure (placement of components) ➔ Subject, verb, Indirect object

and indirect object
How to identify Direct & Indirect Object?

• Step 1: Identify the verb
• Step 2: Who is performing such action is the subject
• Step 3: The purpose or outcome of such action is the direct object
• Step 4: For whom/ whose benefit is the direct object will be the indirect
object
Examples
Sentence Verb Subject Direct Indirect
object object
I made Neha pasta for lunch. made I pasta Neha
We built him a castle on the beach. built We a castle him
Preethi is writing me a letter right writing Preethi a letter me
now.
I have made my mom a promise. made I a promise mom
Ms.Nair teaches us English teaches Ms.Nair English us
grammar
3.5 Object of Preposition
The object of the preposition is a noun or noun

phrase or a pronoun that follows a preposition and Preposition shows
completes its meaning. location, position,
direction or time
Identification of preposition is important to identify
“object of preposition”
Examples
• We built him a castle on the beach.
• We built a castle for him.
• Radha cooked a meal, for me.
Indirect object vs The Object of the preposition

• The object of the preposition comes immediately after the preposition.
• The indirect object does not come immediately after a pre-position
• The indirect object is usually followed by the direct object, whereas the
object of the preposition does not follow this principle
3.6 Verbs
A word used to describe an action, state, or occurrence, and forming the main part of
the predicate of a sentence. Identification of verb is very important for identification
of all the components of the sentence and also identifying phrase and clause.
Verb
Based on Based on Based on

form nature doability
Finite Infinite Auxilliary Modals Transitive Intransitive
Infinitive Participle Gerunds
3.6.1 Finite Verb
A finite verb is limited by or directly related

its subject. It is a verb which changes in Finite verb can change
accordance with the person related to the according to the noun and
subject and shows the tense. It forms the main tense and can be indicative of
clause. passive or active voice and also
the number (singular or plural)
3.6.2 Infinite Verb
A nonfinite verb is a form of the verb that does not change according to the person,
number or tense of the sentence. It cannot stand alone as the main verb in a sentence.
There are three kinds of non-finite verbs
• Infinitive:
It is a form of the verb used generally like a noun. The word ‘to’ is frequently used with
an infinitive.
• Participle - (past and present)
A participle is that form of the verb which has the nature of both a verb and an
adjective.
1 Present participle ends with “ing”,
2 Past participle ends with “ed” (walked) or past form of the verb (burnt).
Gerunds
A gerund is that form of the verb which ends in –ing, and has the features of a noun
and a verb.
3.6.3 Auxiliary Verb
These are the helping verbs. The forms of verbs ‘be’ (am, is, was, etc.), have and do,
when used with ordinary verbs to make tenses, passive forms, questions and negatives
are called auxillaries or helping verbs.
Examples - am, is, are, was, were, has, have, had, does, do, did
3.6.4 Modals
They are used before ordinary verbs and express or indicate meanings such as
permissions, possibilities, certainty and necessity.
Use Ability Indicative of
Ability Can Indicates ability to do something – it means to be
able to, be capable of, know how to
Could Suggest ability in the past and also general ability
Be able to Indicates ability to do something which is more
possible than ‘can’
Obligation / Should Used to make a suggestion or to give an advice
Advice/ Must Suggests strong obligation, compulsion and the
Suggestion desire of the speaker. Also suggests necessity
Ought to Conveys a sense of moral duty and suggests the
right thing to be done
Permission May Suggests permission which is formal in nature and
polite
Can Suggests permission which is less formal than ‘may’.
‘Can’ is informal
Could Suggest permission in the past ‘more polite’ than
‘may’
Possibility May Indicates a possibility which is stronger than ‘might’,
in other words a good possibility
Might Indicates a weak possibility, past tense of ‘may’ and
used as conditional
Can Indicates general and occasional possibility
Could It is used when there is a very weak possibility, past
tense of ‘can’ and used as conditional
Prohibition Must not Indicates that something should not be done
because it is a rule
Ought not Indicates that something should not be done
to because it is a duty
Request Would Used to make a polite request. It is more polite than
will
Wont Used to make a request
Can Used to make an informal request
Could Used to make a polite request but it is uncertain
whether it will be accepted or not
3.6.5 Transitive Verb
Transitive verbs are action verbs that always express doable activities. These verbs
always have direct objects, meaning someone or something receives the action of the
verb.
3.6.6 Intransitive Verb
It denotes an action that does not pass over to an object. It may express a state or
being.
3.7 Phrases
A phrase is a group of words that make sense but not complete sense. It cannot stand
alone but can be used as a part of a sentence. The three main kinds of phrases are:
• Noun Phrase
• Verb Phrase
• Prepositional Phrase
3.8 Complements
A word or word group that completes the meaning of a subject, an object, or a verb is
called a complement.
Example: I found assignment difficult.
3.8.1 Subject complement
It follows a verb and modifies or refers to the subject. It may be a noun or an adjective.
3.8.2 Object complement
It follows and modifies or refers to a direct object.
3.8.3 Verb complement
This is a direct or indirect object of a verb. It may be a noun, pronoun, or word or word
group acting as a noun.
4 PARTS OF SPEECH vs COMPONENTS OF SENTENCES
Identification of parts of speech are essential to identify the components of sentences

and identifying the components of sentences will help in forming correct sentences
which ultimately leads to effective communication
Parts of Speech Components of Sentence
• Noun • Subject
• Pronoun • Predicate
• Verb • Direct Object
• Adjective • Indirect Object
• Adverb • Object of Preposition
• Preposition • Verb
• Conjunction • Phrase
• Interjection • Complements
5 TYPES OF SENTENCES
A sentence can be short and sweet, or long and complicated. Adding objects,
complements, phrases and clauses to sentences can lengthen them and make them
structurally and semantically complicated.
Sentences
Based on Based on
Function Structure
5.1 Based on Function
5.1.1 Declarative Sentences
Declarative sentences simply make a statement or express an opinion. In other words,

they make a declaration. These sentences can be positive or negative statements, a
proverb, a universal truth or a suggestion. These sentences end with a full stop.
Example: Child is going to the school.
5.1.2 Imperative Sentences
Sentences that express an order, command, advice, request, proposal or a suggestion

are called imperative sentences. They can end in a full stop or exclamation, depending
on the imperative mood.
Example: Send the child to the school?
5.1.3 Interrogative Sentences
Sentences that ask a question are interrogative sentences. Usually ‘wh’ words are used
to frame questions, e.g. which, what, when, where, who, why, whom but the question
can also start with have you, how, are, etc. but it should be a question form. They end
with a question mark “?”.
Example: Is the child going to the school?
5.1.4 Exclamatory Sentences
Sentences that express strong feelings or emotions such as joy, sorrow, regret, surprise,
wonder etc., are called exclamatory sentences. They end with an exclamation mark “!”.
Example: Wow! The child is going to the school.
5.2 Based on Structure
5.2.1 Simple Sentences
A simple sentence structure consists of only one subject and one predicate. It has just
one finite verb. In other words, it consists of a single main clause.
5.2.2 Compound Sentences
A compound sentence is composed of two or more main/independent clauses. It does

not have a dependent clause. The clauses are joined by a coordinating conjunction, a
comma, a semicolon and even a colon.
• Coordinating conjunctions join grammatically similar elements-two nouns,
two verbs, two modifiers, two independent clauses. Examples:
F A N B O Y S
For And Nor But Or Yet So
• Correlative conjunctions work in pairs to join words and groups of words of

equal weight in a sentence. Examples: neither...nor, both...and, whether...or, just
Either or
Not only
But also
Neither nor
Both and
Whether or
Just as so
No sooner than
Rather than
5.2.3 Complex Sentences
A Complex sentence has one main clause and

one or more dependent clauses (also called In complex sentences,
subordinate clauses). subordinate clauses function
The subordinating conjunction performs two within the sentence as
important functions within a sentence. adjectives, adverbs, or nouns.
• demonstrate the importance of the

independent clause and
• provide a link between two ideas in the same sentence by indicating a time, place,
or cause and therefore affecting the relationship between the clauses.
Subordinating conjunctions indicate:
• Time: after, before, since, when, whenever, while, until, as, once, as long as.
• Place: where, wherever.
• Manner: as if, as though, how.
• Reason: because, since, so that, why, in order that, now that, as, so.
• Condition: if, unless, until, in case (that), provided that, only if/ if only, that
• Concession: although, though, even though, while, whereas, rather than
5.2.4 Complex Compound Sentences
A sentence with two or more independent clauses plus one or more dependent clauses
is called compound-complex or complex-compound.
How to identify sentences

Simple sentence has only one finite verb (it can have two subjects but only 1
finite verb i.e. only 1 clause)
Compound sentence has minimum two main clauses (main clause means it can
make sense on its own independent not depending on any other clause)
Complex sentence will have one main clause and at least one subordinate
clause (dependent clause)
6 ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE

Voice is that form of the verb which shows whether what is denoted by the subject
does something or has something done to it.
6.1 Types of Voice
6.1.1 Active Voice
A verb is said to be in active voice when its form shows that the person or thing
denoted by the subject does something. Under
active voice, subject is the doer of the action.
Active voice should be used when Active voice is more clear,

• Message has to be simple and clear concise and conveys
message more effectively
• When time to convey message is limited
• When subject is relevant and significant
Example: Ram is kicking the ball. (Active voice)
In the active voice, the subject of the sentence DOES the action
6.1.2 Passive Voice
A verb is said to be in passive voice when its form shows that the person or thing
denoted by the subject has something done to it, that is, it is the receiver of the action.
Example: The ball is being kicked by Ram.

(Passive voice)
In the passive voice, the subject of the sentence The object of the active
RECEIVES the action. sentence (house) became
the subject of the passive
sentence.
6.2 Reasons to use passive voice
▪ To emphasize the action rather than the actor
▪ To keep the subject and focus consistent throughout a passage
▪ The speaker is being discreet by not naming the person/ persons responsible
for any deed/ action.
▪ To describe a condition in which the actor is unknown or unimportant
▪ To create an authoritative tone
▪ In most newspaper headlines as the news/ action is more important than the
doer.
6.3 Rules for changing Active into Passive
• Change position of subject and object
Active Voice Passive Voice
• Rohit wrote a story on the • A story was written on the wall

wall. by Rohit.
• Sanya sang a song. • A song was sung by Sanya.
• Radha hit the boy. • The boy was hit by Radha.
• Amit read the letter. • The letter was read by Amit.
• Have you done anything about • Is anything being done about
a room? the room by you?
• We have booked a room for • A room has been booked for
you in the Grand hotel. you in the Grand hotel by us
• Change verb form – change active voice verb into “be+past participle” of the verb.
• John is kicking the football[s]. • The football[s] is/ are being

kicked by John.
• John was kicking the football[s]. • The football[s] was/ were being
kicked by John.
• John has kicked the football[s]. • The football[s] has / have been
kicked by John.
The following table is helpful to understand the changes for all the tenses:
Tense (or Modal) + base Active voice Passive voice
Simple present throw am thrown

throws is thrown
are thrown
Present continuous am throwing am being thrown
is throwing is being thrown
are throwing are being thrown
Present perfect has thrown has been
have thrown thrown have
been thrown
Simple past Threw was thrown
were thrown
Past continuous was throwing was being thrown
were throwing were being thrown
Past perfect had thrown had been thrown
Simple future will throw will be
shall throw thrown shall
be thrown
Future continuous will be throwing will be thrown
shall be throwing shall be thrown
Future perfect will have thrown shall will have been
have thrown thrown shall have
been thrown
Can/may/must etc. +base Can throw can be thrown
Must throw must be thrown
• Change pronouns from nominative / subjective case to accusative / objective case.
Nominative/ subjective case: I, you, he, she, it, we, you, they
changes to
Accusative/ objective case: me, you, him, her, it, us, you, them.
▪ The nominative case is used for the subject of the verb, i.e. the word which
denotes who/what does what the verb says.
▪ The accusative case marks the object of the verb, i.e. the word which receives
the action of the verb (when there is such a receiver).
(Nominative / Subjective case) (Accusative / objective case)
• I will get vegetables from market. • Vegetables will be brought from

• I like T.V programmes with market by me.
positive content. • T.V. programmes with positive
• She is cleaning in the park. content are liked by me..
• The park is being cleaned by her.
• Addition of “by” – The passive voice verb

has to followed by the word “by” and the
doer. Only transitive verbs can be
changed into passive form,
intransitive verbs remain in
the active form only
Active to Passive:
• When there are two objects in an active sentence, there are two possible passive
sentences
• Prepositions in the active voice of a statement do not change their place in
passive voice.
• Modals like Can, could, should etc do not change when changing active into
passive.
• The farmer gave the cows some • The cows were given some hay
hay and oats. [Two objects - and oats by the farmer. (or)
(1)cow , (2) hay & oats] • Some hay and oats were given
to the cows by the farmer.
6.3.1 Interrogative sentences (active to passive)
• The primary auxiliary verbs (do, does or did) which do not appear in the passive
form get converted to the form of the verb ‘to be’
• The verbs, has, have, had, will, shall, can, may etc. do not change their position at
the beginning of the sentence.
• The question words like when, why, where, how or what also do not change their
position at the beginning of the sentence. Note that who changes to by whom and
whom into who.
• Did she recognise you? • Were you recognised by her?

• Can anyone cure it? • Can it be cured by anyone?
• Who wrote this book? • By whom ws this book written
• Have you finished your • Has the work been finished by
homework? you?
• Will you help him? • Will he be helped by you?
6.3.2 Imperative sentences (active to passive)
• Sentences which have “Please” in them in active voice, start with ‘You are requested
to’ in the passive form.
• Sentences containing advice start with ‘You are advised to’ in the passive voice
• Sentences containing command or order generally start with ‘Let’ in the passive
form.
• Carry it home • Let it be carried home.

• Do it at once. • Let it be done at once.
• Open the door. • Let the door be opened.
• Please play the music. • You are requested to play the
music.
• Do your illustrations on time. • You are advised to do your
illustrations on time.
• Respect elders in the family. • Elders in the family should be
respected.
6.4 Rules for changing Passive into Active
• Identify the doer by locating the ‘by the’ phrase and interchange the position of
the subject and object.
• Appropriate changes in the form of the verb must be made.
• Change pronouns from accusative / objective case to nominative / subjective case.
At times, the ‘doer’ is not identified in the sentence. In such cases you have
to presume a doer from the context of the sentence.
7 DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH
Speech is the way or form in which the message of a speaker is reported. We may
report the words of a speaker in two ways-
• Direct Speech - Quote the actual words spoken by the speaker.
• Indirect Speech - Reporting what was said without quoting the speaker’s exact
words.
7.1 Uses of Direct Speech
7.1.1 When to use – To report via
• Eyewitness accounts in news stories.
• Inserting dialogues in narratives and stories
• Minutes of meetings
• Speeches
• Scripts of plays and films
7.1.2 Why to use
• To convey the exact words of the speaker
• To supplement and clarify the information that is being reported.
• To report the most significant points that have been made or decided.
• To bring variety and inculcate interest for the reader. A narrative without dialogues
often becomes dull and boring
• To convey the essence of the speaker’s message.
7.2 Uses of Indirect Speech
7.2.1 When to use
• Conversations
• Most Personal/office interactions.
• Reports of speeches during Annual General Meetings/ other meetings
• Newspaper reports.
7.2.2 Why to use
• To avoid lengthy and confusing documentation.
• To bring in clarity and preciseness to the reporting.
7.3 Rules for changing Direct Speech into Indirect Speech
• When the reporting or principal verb is in the past tense, all present tenses of the
direct words are changed into the corresponding past tenses. Like simple present
to simple past, present continuous to past continuous, etc.
Rule Direct Speech Indirect Speech
Simple present changes to “I always drink coffee”, She said that she always
simple past she said drank coffee
Present continuous “I am reading explained a He explained that he was
changes to past continuous book”, he explained. reading a book.
Present perfect changes to She said, “He has finished She said that he had
past perfect his work” finished his work.
Present perfect continuous “I have been to Spain”, he He told me that he had
changes to past perfect told me. been to Spain.
continuous
Simple past changes to “Bill arrived on Saturday”, He said that Bill had
past perfect he said. arrived on Saturday
Past perfect remains past “I had just turned out the He explained that he had
perfect light,” he explained. just turned out the light
Past continuous changes to “We were living in Paris”, They told me that they had
past perfect continuous they told me. been living in Paris.
Future changes to “I will be in Geneva on He said that he would be in
present conditional Monday”, he said Geneva on Monday
Future continuous changes She said, “I’ll be using the She said that she would be
to conditional continuous car next Friday.” using the car next Friday.
Exception to this rule:
▪ A universal fact, or a scientific truth - the tense of the verb does not change
even if the reporting verb is in the past tense.
Direct Speech Indirect Speech
• He said, “Honesty is the • He said that honesty is the

best policy.” best policy.
• The teacher said, “The earth • The teacher said that the
revolves around the sun.” earth revolves around the
sun. .
▪ Relevance of statement - we can choose whether to keep the original tense

or change it.
• Sheila said, “French is easy to • Sheila said that French is/was

learn.” easy to learn.
▪ Reporting verb is in the present tense - the tenses of the Direct Speech do
not change.
• He says, “I like classical music". • He says he likes classical

music.
• Rohit says, “I watched a movie • Rohit says he watched a
at night.” movie at night. .
• Words expressing nearness in time or place like today, yesterday, now, etc are
generally changed into words expressing distance like that day, the day before,
then, etc.
• "I saw him yesterday", she said. • She said she had seen him that
day.
• He said, "I have an appointment • She said that she had an
next week". appoitment the following week.
Direct Indirect
Here There
Today That day
Yesterday The day before
Tomorrow The next day
Next week The following week
Next month The following
Now month
Ago Then
Thus Before
Last night So
This The night before
These That
Come Those
Go
• Pronouns are generally changed from first person and second person to the third
person. The pronouns of the direct speech are changed, where necessary, so that
their relations with the reporter and the hearer are indicated, rather than the
original speaker, are indicated.
• He said, "I like your new car." • He told her that he liked her new
car.
• I said, "I'm going to my friend's • I said that I was going to my
house." friend's house.
I/me/my/mine, you/your/yours ➔ him/his/her/hers

we/us/our/ours, you/your/yours ➔ they/their/theirs
Pronouns (direct speech to indirect speech)
• Ist person pronouns in the direct speech change according to the subject.
• IInd person pronouns change according to the object (nouns or pronouns) of
the reporting verb.
• IIIrd person pronouns remain unchanged when converted to indirect.
• Modals –
▪ can changes to could; Modals like would, should,

ought to, and might do not
▪ may changes to might;
change during the conversion.
▪ must changes into had to
7.3.1 Imperative Sentences (Direct to Indirect)
Imperative sentences have a command (or an order), a request, an advice or a

suggestion. To change them into indirect speech, some specific (i.e. requested, order,
advised, forbade, suggested) replace the verbs (said or told) of reporting verb.
• The verb in indirect speech is followed by the personal object and the ‘to’ infinitive.
• Don’t or do not are substituted by ‘not to’.
• Proposals and suggestions starting with ‘told’ and ‘said’ should be changed to
‘proposed to’ or ‘suggested to’.
• Grandfather said to him, "Don't • Grandfather advised him not to

waste your time". waste his time.
• Doctor said to him, "Avoid • Doctor advised him to avoid
unhealthy food". unhealthy food.
• He said to my servant , "Clean • He ordered his servant to clean
the room". the room.
7.3.2 Interrogative Sentences (Direct to Indirect)
• ‘Said to’ changes to ‘asked’, ‘demanded’ or

‘enquired’.
The interrogative sentence is
• Question beginning with helping verbs like converted in assertive sentence,
am, is, are, was, were, do, does etc changes to for that we place subject before
the reporting verb being followed by ‘if’ or the verb and the question Mark (?)
‘whether’ is replaced with full Stop (.).
• He said, "Do you like milk?" • He asked me if I liked milk.
• She said ,"What is your name?" • She asked me what my name

was.
• He said to my servant , "Clean • He ordered his servant to clean
the room". the room.
• She said, "Are they waiting for • She asked whether they were
me?" waiting for her.
7.3.3 Exclamatory Sentences (Direct to Indirect)
An exclamatory sentence expresses state of joy, sorrow or wonder. To change them

into indirect speech, specific words (i.e. exclaimed with joy, exclaimed with sorrow,
exclaimed with wonder) are added to the sentence.
• Exclamatory sentences change into assertive sentences.
• Interjections are removed.
• Exclamation marks change into full stops.
• What and when change into adjectives.
• Changes also depend on the mood of the sentence.
• She said, "Hurrah! I got first • She exclaimed with joy that she
rank". got first rank.
• He said, "Alas! I lost my wallet". • He exclaimed with sorrow that
he lost his wallet.
• She said "Wow! What a • She exclaimed with wonder that
beautiful garden it is". what a beautiful garden it was.
7.4 Rules for changing Indirect Speech into Direct Speech
• Use the reporting verb, “say” or “said to” in its correct tense.
• Remove the conjunctions ‘that, to, if or whether etc’ wherever necessary.
• Insert quotation marks, question mark, exclamation and full stop, wherever
necessary.
• Put a comma before the statement.
• Change the past tense into present tense wherever the reporting verb is in the past
tense.
• Convert the past perfect either into past tense or present perfect as required.
• Change the pronouns as per the context of the sentence based on the person.
Inirect Speech Direct Speech
• He asked me what I was doing. • He said to me, “What are you

doing?”
• Rama ordered Arjun to go • Rama said to Arjun, “Go away.”
away. • He said to him, “Please, open
• He requested him to open the the door for me.”
door for him. • Seema said to her father, “I
• Seema said to her father that would like to become a doctor.”
she would like to become a
doctor. • He said to me, “You are my best
• He said to me that I was/am his friend.”
best friend.
Sample Questions
1) Classify the given sentences as Simple, Compound, Complex or Compound-

Complex.
Rule:
• A simple sentence consists of only one clause.
• A compound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses.
• A complex sentence has at least one independent clause plus at least one
dependent clause.
S.No Sentence Answer
a. We decided to go fishing and camping out at the lake Simple
b. This summer our vacation should be both exciting and restful. Simple
c. After the tornado hit, my house was completed destroyed. Complex
d. Since we had only one plate, we had to take turns to eat our Simple
dinner.
e. Lata and Suman cooked and served people through the day. Compound
f. I wanted to go to the market today, but the thunderstorm Compound

prevented me from doing so.
g. The boys have completed the job as promised, so we should give Compound-
Complex
them credit and pay them accordingly.
h. The earlier mobile phones were bulky; the latest models, which Compound
complex
are sleek, have many more features.
i. Taxation without representation was a common complaint two Simple

hundred years ago.
j. Snowboarding looks like fun, but it requires a lot of practice Compound -

Complex
which is boring and dangerous.
k. Before I was born, my mother worked as a receptionist. Compound -

Complex
l. Go to the store and get some milk, as I must have your cake Complex
baked in time for the party.
m. Don’t tell me you can’t find your backpack! Complex
n. When you were renovating, did you hire contractors or did you Compound -
Complex
do the work yourself
o. Mr. Jones has a lot of books, he is well informed about current Compound
events
2) State which of the given sentences are compound and which are complex
sentences. In every sentence, identify dependent and independent clauses.
S.No Sentences Answer
a. The flash floods wiped out the town but luckily there were Compound
no casualties.
b. He swam across the channel in five hours and set a new Compound
record with his achievement.
c. If you cannot do this job, I will ask someone else to do it Complex

for me.
d. He said that he was so unwell that he could not even get Complex
up from his bed.
e. A man who serves his fellow human beings personally is Complex

more virtuous than a man who only donates money for
a noble cause
f. The soldiers were asked to carry out the orders which their Complex
commander had given them.
g. It is a stitch in time that saves nine. Complex
h. Neither is the architecture of the house appealing nor is Compound

the interior of the house done well.
i. He will come when it suits him. Complex
j. Anil not only did his own work, but also helped others Compound
complete theirs.
3) Change the given sentences to indirect speech
Rules
• Omit all inverted commas or quotation marks.
• End the sentence with a full stop.
• For the verb inside the inverted commas, if it is in the present tense, change it
into the corresponding past tense. If it is in the simple past tense, change it into
the past perfect tense. Exception being universal truth.
• Conjunction ‘that’ is added before the indirect statement.
• The first person of the reported speech changes according to the subject of
reporting speech.
• Reporting Verb like ‘said/ said to’ changes to asked, enquired or demanded
• Exclamatory sentence changes into assertive sentence and Interjections are
removed.
• Words expressing nearness in time or place in Direct Speech are generally
changed into words expressing distance in Indirect Speech.
Direct Speech Indirect Speech Remarks

He says, “Kashmir is the heaven He says that Kashmir is Universal truth, tense
on earth.” heaven on earth. doesn’t change
The Shopkeeper says, “Prices The shopkeeper says that Reporting verb in
are shooting up alarmingly.” prices are shooting up. present tense as its
relevant sentence
She said, “Nobody can solve the She said that nobody could Simple present ‘can’
problem.” solve the problem. changes to simple
past ‘could’ because
the reporting verb is
in past tense
Antony said, “Martin has gone Anthony said that Martin had Simple present ‘has’
home.” gone home. changes to simple
past ‘had’
She said, “I shall be taking a She said that she would be When the reporting
test.” taking a test. verb ‘said’ is in past
tense the auxiliary
verb ‘shall’ of the
direct narration
changes into past
tense ‘would’
The man said, “Is your father at The man asked me if my Interrogative
home?” father was home. sentence
The clerk asked his manager, The clerk asked his manager Interrogative
“Shall I email this letter again, if he should email that letter sentence with
Sir?” again. auxiliary verb shall
She said, “Will you tell me what She enquired/asked of David Interrogative
it means, David?” if he would tell her what it sentence
meant.
She said to me, “How have you She asked me how I had done Interrogative
done this sum? the sum. sentence. Person
changes
The policeman said to the The policeman asked the Interrogative
stranger, “Who are you?” stranger who he was. sentence. Person
changes
4) Rewrite the given sentences to passive voice.
Rules
• Make the object of the active sentence into the subject of the passive sentence.
• Use the verb “to be” in the same tense as the main verb of the active sentence.
• Use the past participle of the main verb of the active sentence.
Active Passive
Sue changed the flat tyre. The flat tyre was changed by Sue.
We are going to watch a movie tonight. A movie is going to be watched by us
tonight.
I ran the obstacle course in record time. The obstacle course was run by me in
record time.
The crew paved the entire stretch of The entire stretch of the highway was
highway. paved by the crew.
Mom read the novel in one day. The novel was read by mom in one day.
The critic wrote a scathing review. A scathing review was written by the
critic.
I will clean the house every Saturday. The house will be cleaned by me every
Saturday.
The staff is required to watch a safety A safety video is required to be watched
video every year. by the staff every year.
She faxed her application for a new job. Her application for a new job was faxed by
her.
Tom painted the entire house. The entire house was painted by Tom.
The Corporation’s sales and Service The country is covered by the

organization covers the country.
Corporation’s sales and service
organisation.
We enclose payment together with our Payment is enclosed together with our
order. order by us.
The customer should receive the delivery The delivery should be received by the
by Friday. customer by Friday.
They may have notified him before the He may have been notified by them
invoice arrived. before the invoice arrived.
FCS are only marketing their new dental Their new dental equipment is only being
equipment in Europe. marketed by FCS in Europe.
We would reduce costs if we used less Costs would be reduced by us if we use
paper. less paper.
5) Rewrite the given sentences to active voice.
Passive Voice Active Voice

The captain of the Indian cricket team was The crowd cheered the captain of the
cheered by the crowd. Indian cricket team.
His painting has been praised by the The critics have praised his painting.
critics.
The horse is being purchased by the The farmer is purchasing the horse.
farmer.
The new tax reforms will be implemented The government will implement the new
from July. tax reforms by July.
Food from road side vendors should not be We should not eat food from road side
eaten. vendors.
By whom has this building been Who has vandalised this building?
vandalized?
What was eaten by you for lunch? What did you eat for lunch?
The entire district was destroyed by the The cyclone destroyed the entire district.
cyclone.
He will be given a ticket for over speeding The police officer will give him a ticket for
by the police officer. over speeding.
The forest was going to be cut down for They were going to cut down the forest for
the new hydroelectric project. the new hydroelectric project.
They will be welcomed by the reception The reception committee will welcome
committee. them.
Where was the ferocious man-eating tiger Where did the hunter shoot down the
shot dead? ferocious man-eating tiger?
The man who saved the child from the The crowd of onlookers was cheering the
burning house was being cheered by the man who saved the child from the burning
crowd of onlookers. house.
The place where he lived had been The trustees had converted the place
converted into a hotel by the trustees. where he lived, into a hotel.
The first fax machines were installed in They installed the first fax machines in
1958. 1958.
The systems can easily be operated by Ordinary office staff can easily operate the
ordinary office staff. systems.
The new software can be mastered easily People can easily master the new software
in a couple of days. in a couple of days.
Software for head count is provided by SASTRA provides software for head count.
SASTRA .
Thapa cannot be stopped by injury. Injury cannot stop Thapa.
Seven movie goers were booked in city for The police booked seven movie goers in
disrespecting national anthem. the city for disrespecting the national
anthem.
CHAPTER 3: VOCABULARY
Contents
• New Words – Addition to vocabulary
• Roots of the words
• Word meanings based on textual content
• Techniques of skilled communication
• Barriers of Communication
1. INTRODUCTION
It is also called ‘word stock’, ‘lexicon’, and ‘lexis’. Vocabulary consists of the words we
understand when we hear or read them and words we speak or write. Vocabulary
knowledge requires not only knowledge of word meaning, but it requires the usage of
words in the appropriate context and in a natural way.
Vocabulary - The body of words used in a particular language.
1.1. Importance of Vocabulary
1.1.1. Comprehension
Vocabulary is key to reading comprehension. Comprehension improves when you
know what the words mean. Readers cannot understand what they are reading without
knowing what most of the words mean.
1.1.2. Articulation
Articulation is the act of expressing something in a coherent verbal form. The more
words we know the more precisely we can express the exact meaning we want to.
1.1.3. Better listeners
Unfamiliar words, prevent us from completely understanding what others have to say.
1.1.4. Effective Communication

Therefore, we have to overcome the lack of vocabulary knowledge in order to
communicate effectively
1.1.5. Better professionals

Vocabulary will keep you more informed on current events. Many people avoid reading
tough material because they don't understand all of the words that they are reading.
1.2. Words to learn

Every language has many words, and to learn all is near to impossible. The words which
need to be learnt are
Words
Subject related Heard frequetly Used frequently
• Words we know we will want to use regularly - Basic

• Words that we read or hear repeatedly – High frequency
• Words that are important to the subjects we are studying. – Subject related
2. Types of Vocabulary
Vocabulary
Listening Speaking Reading Writing
• Listening Vocabulary – Words we hear and comprehend

• Speaking Vocabulary – Words we speak
• Reading Vocabulary – Words we recognise when we read any text
• Writing Vocabulary – Words we use while writing to express
2.1. Communication & Vocabulary
Verbal
Communication
Oral Written
Listening Speaking Writing Reading

Vocabulary Vocabulary Vocabulary Vocabulary
2.2. Vocabulary – Use & Understanding
Depending on how we ‘use’ or ‘understand’ vocabulary, we can categorize word
knowledge into expressive or receptive vocabulary.
2.2.1. Expressive vocabulary – words that we use to express our thoughts and
feelings
2.2.2. Receptive vocabulary - words that we need to know to understand what we

read or listen.
Vocabulary
Expressive Receptive
Speaking Writing Listening Reading

Vocabulary Vocabulary Vocabulary Vocabulary
Summary
Oral
Vocabulary
Listening Speaking
Receptive Expressive
Vocabulary Vocabulary
Reading Writing
Written
Vocabulary
2.3. Vocabulary – Categories
Words can be categories into the following:
• Synonyms: words that have similar meanings

• Foreign Words: words that have been borrowed from other languages
• Connotations: words that invoke an idea or a feeling when read or heard
• Antonyms: words that mean the opposite of other words
• Collocations: words that are used together or form fixed relationships
• Idioms: a group of words that have a meaning different from their literal
meaning
• Phrasal Verbs: multi- word verbs
2.4. Effective ways of build vocabulary
Expanding the knowledge and use of words will help in
• communicating (speak and write) more clearly and concisely,

• people will understand you more easily, and
• you will have a better perception of the situation
The following are few tested methods of building vocabulary:
• Read voraciously
• Use a dictionary
Do not avoid new words.
• Maintain a journal
• Use new words Try to understand the
• Engage in conversations meaning from the context.
• Understand the roots of the words
• Play word games
3. Connotations
Connotation refers to a meaning that is

implied by a word apart from the thing Connotation – Feeling or
which it describes explicitly. Words carry emotion associated with words.
cultural and emotional associations or
meanings, in addition to their literal meanings Denotation - Literal meaning of
or denotations. the word.
Connotation - commonly understood cultural or emotional association that

some word or phrase carries, in addition to its explicit or literal meaning, which is
its denotation.
3.1. Importance of Connotations

A connotation is frequently described as either positive (undertone) or negative
(overtone), with regard to its pleasing or displeasing emotional connection.
understanding a word’s literal and suggestive meaning is of extreme importance to
every speaker and writer. Connotation depends on
• Context in which it is used

• Reader or listener
The choice of words can change the meaning of the sentence significantly.
Denotation Connotation
Fat Obese/Chubby
Group Clique/Club
3.2. Examples
Positive Neutral Negative
Connotation Connotation Connotation
Interested Questioning Nosy
Employ Use Exploit
Thrifty Saving Stingy
Steadfast Tenacious Stubborn
Sated Filled Crammed
Courageous Confident Conceited
Unique Different Peculiar
Meticulous Selective Picky
Vintage Old Decrepit
Elated Happy Manic
Youthful Childlike Childish
Challenged Disabled Crippled
Easy going Relaxed Lackadaisical
Economical Cheap Miserly
Innocent Adolescent Immature
Slim & slender Thin Skinny
Confident Secure Egotistical
Chatty Conversational Talkative
4. SYNONYMS & ANTONYMS
4.1. Synonyms
Words that have similar definitions or meanings are known as synonyms. These are
words that can be used interchangeably without changing the intended meaning of
the message.
Synonyms Words that have similar definitions or meanings
Synonym does not always carry a meaning that is exactly the same as the word. As a
matter of fact, no two words ever mean exactly the same. There will be subtle
differences in emphasis, suggestion or use. Therefore, it can be said that the words
that are listed in a dictionary as synonyms cannot always be interchanged in the same
context.
4.2. Antonyms
Pairs or groups of words that are the notionally opposite (or nearly the opposite) in
meaning.
Antonyms
Relational Graded Complementary
4.2.1. Relational Antonym

Pairs of words that refer to a relationship from opposite points of view, such as
parent/child or borrow/lend.
4.2.2. Graded Antonym

Pairs whose meanings are opposite and which lie on a continuous spectrum. Pairs
which are responsible for showing variation between the two opposites such as hot
and cold are antonyms but you will observe a lot of changes before you get to the
opposite meaning. (hot, warm, lukewarm, cold).
4.2.3. Complementary
Pairs that have no degree of meaning. There is only availability of two opposite in a
possible manner. (push-pull; dead-alive ).
4.3. Advantages of knowing Synonyms & Antonyms

• Improves vocabulary
• Clarity in expression
• Avoids monotony or repetition of expression (words)
• Makes speech or script interesting
• Audience are engaged
5. Roots of Words
A root is a word or word part from which other words Root is the heart
grow, usually through the addition of prefixes and of the word
suffixes.
When you strip off the affixes from words, what is left (with slight spelling
modifications) is the root.
Even though the root is the basis of a new word, it may not typically form a stand-
alone word on its own. For example, the word reject is made up of the prefix re-
and the Latin root ject, which is not a stand-alone word.
5.1. Rules
• Root words can have more than one meaning.
• Words that look similar may be derived from different roots.
• Most English root words came from the Greek and Latin languages.
Examples:
Root Examples Root Word Examples

Word
appear reappear, appearance, fear fearless, fearful, fearing
disappear
Break breakable, breaking, friend friendly, friendship,
unbreakable unfriendly
Build rebuild, builder, unbuild happy happiness, unhappy,
unhappiness
Care caring, careful, careless hope hopeful, hopeless, hoped
comfort discomfort, comfortable, joy joyful, enjoyment,
uncomfortable overjoyed
Count counting, counter, countless kind unkind, kindness,
unkindness
employ unemploy, employment, love loveable, lovely, loved
unemployment
Faith faithful, faithfully, unfaithful pack unpack, packed, packing
Use misuse, useful, used play replay, playful, played
worth worthy, read readable, reading, reader
unworthy, worthless
• Examples: Root Words – origins (Greek and Latin)
Root Word Meaning Origin Example
astro star Greek astronaut
aud hear Latin audio
auto self Greek automatic
bene good Latin benevolent
cred believe Latin credible
dict say Latin dictate
meter measure Greek kilometer
micro small Greek microscope
form shape Latin formation
graph write Greek autograph
hydr water Greek dehydrate
liter letter Latin literature
multi many Latin multiple
pend hang Latin appendix
port carry Latin transportation
sect cut apart Greek dissect
struct build Latin construct
Tele from afar Greek telephone
therm heat Greek thermometer
Vac empty Greek evacuate
References (for more practice)

https://www.learnthat.org/pages/view/roots.html
6. Prefix & Suffix
A prefix is a letter or a group of letters that appears

at the beginning of a word and changes the word’s Prefixes and suffixes
original meaning. They can make a word negative, show are collectively
repetition, or indicate opinion. known as ‘affixes’
A suffix is a letter or a group of letters that is usually
added onto the end of words, to change the way a word fits into a sentence
grammatically. Others can signal the word’s part of speech or indicate verb tense.
6.1. Prefix
Some of the most common prefixes in the English language are
• dis-, in-, and un-, which make words negative. For instance, adding the prefix
un- to the word kind creates the word unkind, meaning not kind.
• re-, indicates repetition. For example, adding re- to the word build means “to
build again.”
• Other prefixes can indicate position: Sub (meaning under or below) is found in
common words like subway and submarine. Supra- (which means above) often
appears in medical terminology, such as supraclavicular nerves, which lie on top
of veins and bones.
6.1.1. Rules
Don’t change the spelling of the original word or the prefix
use a hyphen when joining a prefix to a proper noun, as in pro-American. There should
always be a hyphen after the prefix.
Prefix Meaning Sample words

ambi-, both ambiguous, ambidextrous, amphibian,
amphi- amphitheatre
a- without atypical, apathy, aback
ante- before antecedents, antediluvian
bene- good benevolent, benediction, benign
bi- two bicycle, bicameral, biannual
circum- around circumference, circumlocution, circumspect
di- two dichotomy, diurnal, dilemma
dys- faulty dysfunctional, dyslexia
epi- on, upon, over epigram, epitaph, epidermal, epicene,
epilogue
extra-, more than, beyond extra-curricular, extra-terrestrial, extrovert,
extro- extravagant, extraordinary
intra- within intravenous, intramural, intra class
inter- across inter-house, interval, intermediate
macro- big macro-economics, macrocosm, macro level
mis- inappropriate, improper, misbehave, misdemeanor, misappropriate,
bad misnomer
mono- one monolith, monologue, monogamy, mono
acting
multi- many multitasking, multi facet, multilingual,
multilevel
neo- new neo-natal, neophyte
omni- all omnipresent, omniscient, omnivorous
para- related, extension, beyond para-olympics, paragraph, paraphrase,
para- gliding
poly- many polygamy, polygon, polythene
proto- first of its kind, original protozoa, prototype, protocol
re- again, back repeat, restate, restore, rewind, reduce
semi- half, partly semi-finals, semiconscious, semicircle
super- over, above normal, too supernatural, superstar, superb
much
tetra- four sides tetra pack, tetragon, tetrachloride
trans- across, over, beyond limit trans- atlantic, transgender, transfusion,
translate
un- not, opposite unwilling, unkempt, unusual
6.2. Suffixes
Some common suffixes are
• -ed The suffix -ed & -ing changes verbs to the past tense.
• -ing The -ing suffix makes the verb take place in the present
• -ly The suffix -ly is commonly added onto adjectives to form adverbs (words
that describe verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs). Examples of adverbs with
the -ly suffix include joyfully, quickly, and loudly.
• -s and -es make words plural, as in foxes, lamps, and chairs.
Suffix Meaning Sample words

-able, -ible can be done (verb) capable, readable, convertible
-acy, -cy office of, state of, condition infancy, privacy, agency
(noun)
-age action, process (verb) pilgrimage, bondage, pilferage
-arian person librarian, humanitarian, grammarian
-ation state of (noun) refrigeration, occupation,irritation
-ectomy surgical removal of (verb) hysterectomy, colectomy, polypectomy
-fic making, doing, form of (adj) beatific, terrific, scientific, calorific
-iferous bearing, carrying, producing vociferous, calciferous,lactiferous
-ism beliefs, faith, doctrines (noun) theism, antagonism, regionalism, fanaticism,
heroism, baptism, plagiarism
-ist person, one who believes in racist, theist, misogynist
-ine characterized by, pertaining feline, supine, serpentine
to (adj)
-oid resembling to (adj) steroid, anthropoid, ovoid
-ose full of (adj) jocose, verbose, lactose, maltose
-logy science of, study of biology, geology, zoology, psychology,
astrology
-ly in the manner of motherly, fatherly, timely, rarely, beautifully
-ship state of, manner (noun) friendship, censorship, hardship
-osis condition (noun) neurosis, osmosis, psychosis
-ster in the likes of (adj) monster, youngster, prankster
-tude state of (noun) attitude, altitude, gratitude
-wise by, means of clockwise, otherwise, lengthwise
7. Phrasal Verbs
A phrasal verb is a group of words that functions as a

verb. It consists of a verb that is combined with a Phrasal verbs are
preposition or adverb or both. The preposition in a less appropriate in
phrasal verb is called a particle. formal language
Examples:
Verb Preposition/adverb
get Up
go Through
write Down
take After
Verb Preposition / adverb 1 Preposition / adverb 2

look forward to
put up with
sit in for
Phrasal verbs are phrases that indicate actions. They are generally used in spoken
English and informal texts. Phrasal verbs are phrases that indicate actions. They are
generally used in spoken English and informal texts. Examples of such verbs include:
turn down, come across and run into. Examples of such verbs include: turn down,
come across and run into.
The meaning of a phrasal verb most often is different from the meaning of its separate
parts. When added to the verb, particle (i.e. the preposition or adverb) can change the
meaning of the verb completely.
Examples:
Phrasal verb Meaning Example

look for search/seek He is looking for his keys
look up to have a great deal of His father is his model. He is the
respect for a person person he looks up to.
look forward await eagerly/anticipate She is looking forward to visiting
to with pleasure Paris.
look up to try to find a piece of She didn't understand the word. So
information by looking in a she looked it up in her dictionary
book or on a computer:
Put me up Keep me (figurative or Can you put me up for tonight
idiomatic)
Bring up a) raise a child; b) cause Do you want to discuss, bring it up.
something to be
considered; c) vomit
Bring down cause to be lower Don’t bring the company down
Bring out cause to appear clearly; The director brought out the impact
publish of recession
Put away place an object in its Put away the books once exams are
proper location over.
Put back return an object to the Put back the back report back at the
location where it came manager’s office.
from.
Put down • To write on a piece of Cinderella was put down by her
paper mother at the party.
•To criticize and humiliate
Take back To admit wrongdoing The opposition leader had to take
back his words against the minister.
Take To allow someone to stay Will you please take this orphan in
someone in in your house
Take in To include something or Refugees were taken in after the war.
someone
To mean To be serious in what you The chairman meant business when
business say he said no paid leave from now on.
Off and on Occasionally I am on dieting off and on.
Play around Fiddle with things/ Be Don’t play around, these artefacts are
irresponsible precious.
8. Collocations
A group of words that often go together or that are likely to occur together.
Examples – quick shower, fast food
8.1. Why learn collocations?

• Makes language more interesting and natural and more easily understood.
• More alternatives and richer ways of expressing yourself.
• Easier to remember and use language in chunks or blocks rather than as single
words.
8.2. How to learn collocations

• Recognize them when you see or hear them.
• Treat collocations as single blocks of language. Think of them as individual blocks
or chunks, and learn strongly support, not strongly + support.
• When you learn a new word, write down other words that collocate with it
(remember rightly, remember distinctly, remember vaguely, remember vividly) and
practice them regularly.
• Read as much as possible.
• Learn collocations in groups that work for you. You could learn them by topic (time,
number, weather, money, family) or by a particular word (take action, take a chance,
take an exam).
• You can find information on collocations in any good learner's dictionary. And you
can also find specialized dictionaries of collocations.
8.3. Types of Collocations
Collocations
Noun + Adjective + Adverb + Verb +

Noun + Verb
Noun Noun Adjective Adverb
Eg: Eg: Eg:

Eg: Eg:
Sumptuous Completely Performed
Tea leaf Dogs bark meal satisfied magically
9. Idioms
Every language has its own collection of wise sayings. They offer advice about how to
live and also transmit some underlying ideas, principles and values of a given culture
/ society. These sayings are called "idioms" - or proverbs if they are longer.
Idiom - a phrase or expression that typically presents a figurative, non-literal

meaning attached to the phrase
Idioms add flavour and style to the language. A right idiom used in the right place not
only shows the user’s knowledge but also puts forth the thought more convincingly.
The important aspect is to know the idioms, their meanings and use them often in
language.
9.1. Examples
Idiom Meaning
A blessing in disguise a good thing that seemed bad at first
A dime a dozen Something common
Beat around the bush Avoid saying what you mean, usually because it is
uncomfortable
Better late than never Better to arrive late than not to come at all
Bite the bullet To get something over with because it is inevitable
Break a leg Good luck
Call it a day Stop working on something
Cut somebody some Don't be so critical
slack
Cutting corners Doing something poorly in order to save time or
money
Easy does it Slow down
Get out of hand Get out of control
Get something out of Do the thing you've been wanting to do so you can
your system move on
Get your act together Work better or leave
Give someone the benefit Trust what someone says
of the doubt
Go back to the drawing Start over
board
Hang in there Don't give up
Hit the sack Go to sleep
It's not rocket science It's not complicated
Let someone off the To not hold someone responsible for something
hook
Make a long story short Tell something briefly
Miss the boat It's too late
No pain, no gain You have to work for what you want
On the ball Doing a good job
Pull someone's leg To joke with someone
Pull yourself together Calm down
So far so good Things are going well so far
Speak of the devil The person we were just talking about showed up!
That's the last straw My patience has run out
The best of both worlds An ideal situation
Time flies when you're You don't notice how long something lasts when it's
having fun fun
To get bent out of shape To get upset
To make matters worse Make a problem worse
Under the weather Sick
We'll cross that bridge Let's not talk about that problem right now
when we come to it
Wrap your head around Understand something complicated
something
You can say that again That's true, I agree
Your guess is as good as I have no idea
mine
A bird in the hand is What you have is worth more than what you might
worth two in the bush have later
A penny for your Tell me what you're thinking
thoughts
A penny saved is a penny Money you save today you can spend later
earned
A perfect storm the worst possible situation
A picture is worth 1000 Better to show than tell
words
Actions speak louder Believe what people do and not what they say
than words
Add insult to injury To make a bad situation worse
Barking up the wrong To be mistaken, to be looking for solutions in the
tree wrong place
Birds of a feather flock People who are alike are often friends (usually used
together negatively)
Bite off more than you Take on a project that you cannot finish
can chew
Break the ice Make people feel more comfortable
By the skin of your teeth Just barely
Comparing apples to Comparing two things that cannot be compared
oranges
Costs an arm and a leg Very expensive
Do something at the Do something without having planned beforehand
drop of a hat
Do unto others as you Treat people fairly. Also known as "The Golden Rule"
would have them do
unto you
Don't count your Don't count on something good happening until it's
chickens before they happened.
hatch
Don't cry over spilt milk There's no reason to complain about something that
can't be fixed
Don't give up your day You're not very good at this
job
Don't put all your eggs in What you're doing is too risky
one basket
Every cloud has a silver Good things come after bad things
lining
Get a taste of your own Get treated the way you've been treating others
medicine (negative)
Give someone the cold Ignore someone
shoulder
Go on a wild goose chase To do something pointless
Good things come to Be patient
those who wait
He has bigger fish to fry He has bigger things to take care of than what we are
talking about now
He's a chip off the old The son is like the father
block
Hit the nail on the head Get something exactly right
Ignorance is bliss You're better off not knowing
It ain't over till the fat This isn't over yet
lady sings
It takes one to know one You're just as bad as I am
It's a piece of cake It's easy
It's raining cats and dogs It's raining hard
Kill two birds with one Get two things done with a single action
stone
Let the cat out of the bag Give away a secret
Live and learn I made a mistake
Look before you leap Take only calculated risks
On thin ice On probation. If you make another mistake, there will
be trouble.
Once in a blue moon Rarely
Play devil's advocate To argue the opposite, just for the sake of argument
Put something on ice Put a project on hold
Rain on someone's To spoil something
parade
Saving for a rainy day Saving money for later
Slow and steady wins the Reliability is more important than speed
race
Spill the beans Give away a secret
Take a rain check Postpone a plan
Take it with a grain of Don’t take it too seriously
salt
The ball is in your court It's your decision
The best thing since A really good invention
sliced bread
The devil is in the details It looks good from a distance, but when you look
closer, there are problems
The early bird gets the The first people who arrive will get the best stuff
worm
The elephant in the room The big issue, the problem people are avoiding
The whole nine yards Everything, all the way.
There are other fish in It's ok to miss this opportunity. Others will arise.
the sea
There's a method to his He seems crazy but actually he's clever
madness
There's no such thing as Nothing is entirely free
a free lunch
Throw caution to the Take a risk
wind
You can't have your cake You can't have everything
and eat it too
You can't judge a book This person or thing may look bad, but it's good
by its cover inside
CHAPTER 4: COMPREHENSION PASSAGES
Contents
• How to attempt passages
• Blooms Taxonomy
• Develop reading speed
1. Strategy – Comprehension Passages
How to attempt?
• Read the whole passage quickly

▪ Understand the main idea
▪ Underline main points
▪ Identify key words and statements
• Scan through all questions
▪ Underline information asked
▪ Identify fine differences between MCQ options
• Reread the passage
▪ Mark specific information related to
specific questions Read the passage every
▪ Identify specific options/ answers from time there is a doubt
the paras of the passage with respect to the
• In case of ambiguity for any specific question, answer.
reread the specific related para.
• Review before moving on to another question.
• Infer meaning of unfamiliar words from the context

• Differentiate between main ideas and specific details
• Differentiate between facts and opinion
• Identify author’s tone and purpose.
• Infer, predict, analyse and evaluate content in the text
•
2. Blooms Taxonomy
Blooms taxonomy gives the students an idea of higher and lower order thinking skills.
It is a classification of the different objectives and skills that educators set for their
students (learning objectives). The students will be tested on all areas depicted in the
pyramid.
Bloom's taxonomy – A classification system used to define and distinguish

different levels of human cognition—i.e., thinking, learning, and understanding.
The taxonomy was proposed in 1956 by Benjamin Bloom, an educational psychologist

at the University of Chicago. The terminology has been recently updated to include
the following six levels of learning. These 6 levels can be used to structure the learning
objectives, lessons, and assessments of your course:
Create
Evaluate
Analyse
Apply
Understand
Remember
2.1. Taxonomy - Hierarchical
2.1.1. Remembering
Retrieving, recognizing, and recalling relevant knowledge from long‐term memory.
2.1.2. Understanding
Constructing meaning from oral, written, and graphic messages through interpreting,
exemplifying, classifying, summarizing, inferring, comparing, and explaining.
2.1.3. Applying
Carrying out or using a procedure for executing, or implementing.
2.1.4. Analysing
Breaking material into constituent parts, determining how the parts relate to one
another and to an overall structure or purpose through differentiating, organizing, and
attributing.
2.1.5. Evaluating
Making judgments based on criteria and standards through checking and critiquing.
2.1.6. Creating
Putting elements together to form a coherent or functional whole; reorganizing
elements into a new pattern or structure through generating, planning, or producing
Bloom’s is hierarchical, meaning that learning at the higher levels is dependent on

having attained prerequisite knowledge and skills at lower levels. Bloom’s taxonomy
is a powerful tool to help develop learning objectives because it explains the process
of learning:
• Before you can understand a concept, you must remember it.

• To apply a concept, you must first understand it.
• In order to evaluate a process, you must have analysed it.
• To create an accurate conclusion, you must have completed a thorough
evaluation.
2.2. Types of questions

. A variety of questions are framed to cover the above listed areas of Bloom’s
taxonomy. The following are examples of the types of questions that are based on
the passage.
• Asking specific details from the content/body of the passage - remember and
understand
• Determining the meaning of words/phrases/idioms used in the passage (from
the context) - understand and apply
• Drawing inferences and conclusions - analyze, evaluate
• Identifying the tone of the speaker /author/ passage - evaluate
• Main idea/theme of the passage - understand, apply, evaluate
• Suitable title for the passage - understand, evaluate, create
3. How to read quickly
Several techniques can be applied to improve reading speed.
• Read at that time of day or night, whenever you are the most receptive, and
• Read in a quiet environment where there are no distractions.
• Do not read aloud. It hampers speed. It will slower the speed initially but always
read in the mind, not aloud.
• Cover the text you have already gone through to prevent your eyes from
straying to the previously read content.
• Set a speed faster than you can understand. You may not comprehend the
material at first, but stay focused on the text, and keep your eyes moving.
Gradually your speed will increase and you will begin to comprehend the text.
• Set yourself a time limit.
• Set comprehension levels based on the purpose of reading - If you want to get
a gist or general idea skimming through the subject matter helps. If you want
the details read the total text.
▪ Read the main and sub heading, tabular material and table of contents
to get an idea of the information contained in the text.
▪ Reading the first and last paragraphs and lines gives an idea of the
content. If you are familiar with it, reading becomes faster.
• Underline/ highlight important words in the text.
• Practice often and time your reading speed.
▪ Get an idea of number of words in a
page by counting the words in a line and Average reading speed
thereafter multiply it with number of of most adults is around
lines in the page. 200 to 250 words per
▪ Put a time limit for yourself, minute.
▪ Assess speed per minute.
Adopting the strategies mentioned above will definitely help you improve. Sometimes
people even double their speed in a few weeks.
Self-motivation and regular practice is the best way to attain your goal.
Want to read faster!

• Preview the text.
• Don't read every word
• Don't read every section.
• Write a summary. ...
• Practice timed runs.
Avoid distractions
Don’t let speed get affect comprehension while practicing speed
.
CHAPTER 5 : NOTE MAKING
Contents
• What is Note Making
• Strategies of Effective Note Making
• Note Making vs Note Taking
• Styles of Note Making
• Mechanics of Note Making
1. Introduction
Note Making is a way of recording important details from a source. This source can be
• book,
• article,
• meeting or
• oral discussion.
In note making, the writer records the essence of the

information, which helps us to understand and clarify Note making
thinking. One can get a glimpse of a lot of information saves a lot of time
from a short note.
1.1. Advantages of Note Making

• It has great importance in exams or in academic writing.
• The points made can be saved for future use very conveniently.
• It helps in concentrating, understanding and provides a permanent record,
which can be used for recollecting and revising when required.
• Saves lot of time as one can go through bulky documents / books quicker.
• It helps in easy understanding a material in technical jargon
• It distinguishes between main points and details; it brings out the essence.
2. Strategies for Effective Note Making
2.1. How to read
• Read the text at least twice.

▪ First time - get an overview or identify the
main idea Title / Heading
▪ second time - mark important points. should be short.
• Frame a heading / title based on the main idea. Avoid using long
• Identify the subordinate / associated ideas. sentences as a title
.
▪ Frame subheadings based on these.
• Ignore information or points which are less important. Be as brief and specific as
possible. Leave out examples and other unnecessary details. Make a rough note
while reading.
• Divide the important information systematically, write the points in logical
sequence.
2.2. How to write
DO NOT change the

• Choose the appropriate format.
author’s intended
• Write the heading for the note
meaning.
• Write briefly and specifically the points required,
not necessarily in author’s words but retaining the essence and
intent.
• Ensure the information is complete, though you write in phrases or points only.
• Follow a logical and systematic sequence, as per the source.
• Indent, i.e., suitably space and number the sub-headings and sub-sub points
• Leave no space for ambiguity
• Abbreviate often-repeated terms or lengthy words. Any abbreviation used should
not hamper comprehension.
3. Note Making vs Note Taking
Note Making Note Taking
• Objective – make notes to makes

more sense or leads to more • Objective – Just take notes
connections between them • Passive activity – listening, and
• Active and focused Activity – writing
listening, processing and writing • Information taken directly from
• Information is presented in crisp source
layout and in own words /phrases • Information written in similar
• Distinguishes between main idea layout as the source
and details Covers as much as information
• Selective – only main points and as possible, no selective
ideas are taken involved
4. Styles of Note Making
Styles of
Notemaking
Linear Non -Linear
Mind mapping Table Flowchart Tree diagram
4.1. Linear Note Making
Notes presented here is in a very structured manner i.e., one line after the other. Here,
a person writes a note in the form heading, subheading, and points. It also includes
keywords, indention, and abbreviations. It is one of the most common form of note
making.
4.2. Non-Linear Note Making

Notes presented here are in an unstructured as the diagrammatical representations
of ideas and details. It includes mind maps, tree diagrams, tables, and flow charts. It
quickly helps us go through the details much quickly and clearly. There is no fixed
format for it.
They reflect the internal workings of your brain, rather than the external event, the
lecture. Each time you get a new idea, your mind makes several links to your existing
ideas, links that have not existed before. The more links you can make to existing
knowledge and then create as you listen, the better you will have captured knowledge
and made it your own.
4.2.1. Mind Mapping

Mind Maps allow you to create a visual representation of ideas and concepts on any
particular study topic. The main points and all the related points are presented through
a map. It contains text and images both. For a clear understanding, the information is
linked in the proper sequence.
Each of these is comparable to the sub-heading and details in linear note making. Mind
maps can include images, words, symbols and other visual representations of concepts
Figure: Mind mapping

Source: theguardian.com/careers/mind-mapping
4.2.2. Table
A table is most commonly used to make comparisons. This form of note making is an
extremely simple and effective way of presenting differences and similarities with
clarity. (refer to Note making vs Note taking)
Figure: Country wise information

Source: right2info.org
4.2.3. Flowchart
A table is most commonly used to make comparisons. This form of note making is an
extremely simple and effective way of presenting differences and similarities with
clarity.
Figure: Process flow chart
Source: pcforexcel.com/knowledge/process-improvement/process-flow-diagrams
4.2.4. Tree diagram

A tree diagram, if turned upside-down, resembles a tree. They are used to show
classification. (refer to network for communication)
Animal
Wild
Pet
Animal
Dog Cat Horse Lion Elephant Snake
German
Pomeranian Labrador
Shepard
5. Mechanics of Linear Note making
Linear note-taking is the process of writing down information in the order in which
you receive it. Paper is itself two-dimensional so linear notes follow the natural
sequence of time: page 1, 2 and so on, beginning, middle and end. Time order and
page numbering can help you check something later, as your recall prompts are going
to be in terms of time or sequence and position on the page.
5.1. Format
Heading
I. Sub Heading I
a. sub point I
b. sub point I
c. sub point
(i). sub – sub point I c
(ii). sub - sub point
II. Sub Heading II
a. sub point
(i). sub – sub point II a
(ii). sub - sub point II a
(iii). sub – sub point
b. sub point II
c. sub point
III. Sub Heading III

a. sub point III
b. sub point III
c. sub point
(i). sub – sub point
Key:
Abbreviations used Symbols used

Symbols used
5.2. Heading / Title
A suitable heading/title makes it easy to connect with the topic, or
subject of discussion for which the notes have
been made. You can choose a title for the notes Title usually will answer
by identifying the main idea or theme of the given the question ‘What is the
passage or text. Keep the title as short as possible. article / text / report
Avoid using long sentences. Titles for notes have to about?
be direct and to the point.’ .
5.3. Sub-heading
It is a subordinate division of the main topic. In other words, it is the heading given
to the sub-section of an article, report, or any event. Under the sub-heading would
follow details of the sub-section/topic, which is part of the main topic.
• Try to keep the notes (sub-headings, sub-points and sub-sub points) as

brief as possible. Most texts or essays can be divided into the following
sub- headings:
• I) Facts, causes, benefits, and suggestions (for positive content)
• II) Facts, causes, consequences, and solutions (for negative content)
• III) Facts, advantages and disadvantages
• IV) Past, Present, and Future
5.4. Indentation
Indentation is the act of proper alignment and
spacing of written content. It is used because
Too many indents/pointers
▪ Offers a well-defined structure. make the content
▪ Makes it readable and comprehensible. complicated to
▪ Increases the objectivity of the content. understand.
In linear note making indenting, i.e., shifting from the margin is used to clearly indicate
subheadings, sub–points and sub-sub points. Similarly, sub-headings, though
separated by points are placed below one another. Sub - points and sub-sub points
too, come below one another.
5.5. Abbreviations/ Acronyms / Symbols
Abbreviations, acronyms and symbols are used in order to save time and space
Moreover their use can make your notes easier to read.
Abbreviations - a shortened form of a word or phrase.
Acronyms - an abbreviation formed from the initial letters of other words and
pronounced as a word
Symbols -a mark or character used as a conventional representation of an

object, function, or process
5.5.1. Ways to abbreviate

Almost any word can be shortened during note-making.
Abbreviations
Beginning
Use beginning First letter & Shortern suffix
letters + Last Omit Vowels
letters last letter at end
letter
govt. or gov’t pblm – processg -

info - - government problem processing
mt - mount
information dept. or dep’t schl - school decrg -
qt - quart decreasing
max. – – department yrs – years
maximum gl - girl ckg - checking
intl. or int’l – bsns –
stat. – statistics international business Mr. – mister
5.5.2. Common Symbols & Acronyms Common
Common Symbol Meaning Common Symbol Meaning

→ leads to & And
← caused by % Percent
↑ Increase $ Money
↓ Decrease @ At
> greater than ′ minutes/feet
< less than ″ seconds/inch
es
∴ Therefore ♂ Male
∵ Because ♀ Female
Common Full Form Common Full Form

Acronyms Acronyms
CAO Chief Accounting EPS Earnings per Share
Officer
CFA Chartered Financial MTD Month to date
Analyst
CFM Certified Financial YTD Year to Date
Manager
CFO Chief Financial NAV Net Asset value
Officer
CIA Certified Internal P&L Profit and Loss
Auditor
CISA Certified Information ROE Return on Equity
Systems Auditor
CMA Certified ROI Return on
Management Investment
Accountant
CMO Chief Marketing ROCE Return on Capital
Officer Employed
COO Chief Operating WC Working Capital
Officer
CPA Certified Public IASSB International
Accountant Auditing and
Assurance Standards
Board
CPP Certified Payroll MIS Management
Professional Information System
CSO Chief Security Officer NGO Non-Government
Organization
CTO Chief Technology O&M Operation &
Officer Maintenance
CMO Chief Marketing RBI Reserve Bank of
Officer India
MD Managing Director PSU Public Sector
Undertakings
BOD Board of Directors GST Goods and Services
Tax
NCLT National Corporate IT Information System
Law Tribunal
SEBI Securities Exchange GAV Gross Annual Value
Board of India
5.5.3. Tips to use
• Judicial and controlled use of abbreviations should be made.
• While using self-made abbreviations, adhere to a pattern so that while
going through the notes, one can recall what
the abbreviation meant.
• According to a general rule, headings should Use standard acronyms
not be abbreviated. Sub headings may/may not while making notes.
have abbreviations. However, there can be
• Avoid forming a sentence with only more flexibility while using
abbreviations and symbols. It would not be abbreviations
comprehensible for others.
• Include a key listing the abbreviations, symbols and acronyms
used.
5.6. Summarising
Summarising is writing a paragraph using the main points listed in the notes.
Purpose of writing the summary is to give a basic idea of the original text, what it was
about and what the author wanted to communicate.
• A summary must include all the points from the notes.

• Do not add or subtract any piece of information.
• Do not make assumptions.
• Use your own words to express briefly the main idea and relevant details
• Complete sentences are used while summarising. They are logically and
cohesively linked together with the help of suitable
linkers.
• It should not be long (it is not a redraft of the Summary should
original text). not exceed 25 %
• Do not use abbreviations and symbols. of the original text.
• Abbreviations must not be used while summarizing
notes.
• Conclude if required
Example of Note-making
If you are looking for ways to improve your writing skills there is one sure-fire way
to accomplish this. Every time we sit down to write an article the intention should be
to try and keep things short and sweet. Good articles are short articles that get a point
across with the minimal amount of words used. All too often however we find ourselves
going off on tangents thereby increasing the length of the article. Effective writing
skills include the ability to write less and say more but without repetition this skill can
be hard to develop.
Here are ways which can make you a better writer. Why say something in 100 words
that can be said in just 50? Your readers will greatly appreciate this. It is always a good
idea when writing to finish your composition and then let it sit for a while. With a little
thought and a fresh perspective, you can always edit out words, phrases, and
even paragraphs that are not needed. Getting your point across using as few words
as possible will give those words you do use more impact.
Your ability to stick to the subject and get to the point is something every reader will
appreciate. A common tendency for most writers is to sometimes deviate from the
main point of their articles. In fact, meandering away from your intended subject can
irritate readers to the point where they don’t even finish reading what you wrote. The
additional content does not necessarily add any value to the article itself and
therefore can and should be left out when possible.
Learn to write so everybody understands you and don’t try to impress them with
your vocabulary
The need for a dictionary is not what your readers are looking for since this takes
additional time and is inconvenient. Always write to and for the general audience
and never assume that they have an appreciation for a verbose vocabulary. This only
makes their reading all the more difficult and less enjoyable.
The best way to improve your writing skills is through repetition. One of the most
effective writing talents a person can develop is the ability to write less and say more.
This is particularly true when you write an article since you want to capture the readers’
attention without boring them. As a rule of thumb good articles are short articles.
Improve your writing skills
I) Cnsldt your thoughts.

a) use few words
b) give the topic some thought
c) edit unwanted words, phrases, and even paras
II) Stick to the subj.
a) get rt. to the pt.
b) do not dvt. from the main pt.
c) addn content doesn’t necsrly add any val.
d) dvting from the topic irritates readers
III) Write plainly
a) write for the general public
b) ensure everybody undrstnds you
c) use easy vocab
Key
1. cnsldt - consolidate
2. paras - paragraphs
3. rt. - right
4. pt. – point
5. sub. – subject
6. val. – value
7. addn – additional
8. vocab. – vocabulary
Summary
If you are looking for ways to improve your writing skills, then there are a
few things you must keep in mind. The first step is to stick to the subject.
Do not divert from the topic. Getting your point across using as few words
as possible will give those words you do use more impact. Additional
content does not necessarily add value to the article and may irritate the
readers. Remember to write for the general public. Use easy vocabulary to
ensure that everybody understands you. The final step of writing your
article is to let it sit for a while. Give it a little thought and edit out words,
phrases, and even paragraphs that aren’t needed.
CHAPTER 6 : INTRODUCTION TO BASICS OF
WRITING
Contents
• Developing writing skills
• Styles of writing
• Significance of writing
• Characteristics of Good Business writing
1 Introduction
Writing is the most complex component of Language learning. The easier components
being listening, speaking and reading.
Writing is a complex activity that requires vast vocabulary, knowledge of varied

sentence structures, and correct grammatical usage. Presenting content in a logical
and sequential manner is another essential aspect of writing.
1.1 Requirement for developing writing skills

• It is an important medium of communication, used to express ideas, opinions
and exchange information.
• It is essential to content development and composing any kind of text, creative
writing is an art form.
• Official and personal records are maintained in the written form.
• Writing down ideas helps in bringing clarity to the thought process.
• It is a means of saving information, a permanent documentation available for
ready reference.
• Helps in knowledge creation and
propagation, which happens largely
through carefully documented research Most of the official
procedures and their outcomes. communication
• It is the most used form of official happens through
communication, an essential part of good written form
communication skill.
2 Steps for Writing
2.1 Selecting a topic

The first step is to have an idea, theme, issue or any subject matter clearly stated.
2.2 Brain Storming

Note down all the points that come up. Note down random thoughts, ideas,
information related to it, begins to crowd your mind. You may also search for content
related to the topic.
2.3 Organising your content

• Select the format.
• Make a list of the main sub points you wish to include.
• Decide the sequence or order of the points.
• Put all the subject matter that can be included in that point, under the
subheading.
Tools for organising
Diagrammatic presentations bring a great deal of clarity in organisation of content.

The following presentations can be used
2.3.1 Ray Diagram

The main topic is written in the circle and related characteristics/ features at the end
of the lines.
Notes Books &

Reference Material
Subject wise Exam Daily Schedule
Revision
2.3.2 Sequential form
Listing the points in the sequence in which the content is to be presented.
Exam preparation
1) Collect all books & reference

material
2) Make Notes
3) Maintain Daily schedule
4) Adequate revision subject wise
2.3.3 Comparison & Contrast

Similarities and dissimilarities or advantages and disadvantages can be written in
different columns adjacent or parallel.
Books vs Notes
Similarities Dissimilarities
2.3.4 Problem & Solution

Write the issue or problem identified on one side and write the solution or
recommendations next to it, this gives a clarity.
Problem Solution
2.3.5 Cause & effect

The situation and its cause and its effect can be written together to keep it more logical.
Effect 1
Cause Effect 2
Effect 3
2.4 Writing
• The most important part is writing the article.
• Choose the right words
Main objective of
• Start with an interesting beginning, which will
writing is to make an
attract the attention of the reader
impact on the reader
• Divide the total content into paragraphs
• Include anecdotes, dialogues, illustrations and
examples, wherever possible without diluting the seriousness of the topic and
the medium.
• Check once written, delete and rewrite wherever required.
2.5 Revising
At this stage you can add or delete content, reorganise matter, and improve upon
certain sections of your work.
2.6 Editing & proof reading

Once the text is ready, it is time to proof read it for spelling, grammar, punctuation,
and sentence structure errors. This can be done by an expert in the field.
2.7 Publishing & Printing

Once the text is ready, it is time to proof read it for spelling, grammar, punctuation,
and sentence structure errors. This can be done by an expert in the field.
3 Styles of Writing
Every writer has his/ her own style of writing. It is a reflection of the author’s mood,
tone, perspective, personality, and objectives of writing a particular piece.
There are four main types of writing.
Styles
Persuasive
Expository Descriptive Narrative
/Argumentative
Each of these writing styles is used for a specific purpose. A single text may include
more than one writing style.
3.1 Expository
It is one of the most common types of writing. Under this style author tries to explain
a concept, spreading information to a wider audience. Expository writing does not
include the author’s opinions, but focuses on accepted facts about a topic, including
statistics or other evidence. The following are few examples
• Textbooks
• How-to articles
• Recipes
• News stories (not editorials or Op-Eds)
• Business, technical, or scientific writing
Expository Style
The Taj Mahal (/ˌtɑːdʒ məˈhɑːl, ˌtɑːʒ-/;[4] lit. 'Crown of the Palace', [taːdʒ ˈmɛːɦ(ə)l])[5] is an
ivory-white marble mausoleum on the southern bank of the river Yamuna in the Indian city
of Agra. It was commissioned in 1632 by the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan (reigned from 1628
to 1658) to house the tomb of his favourite wife, Mumtaz Mahal; it also houses the tomb of
Shah Jahan himself. The tomb is the centrepiece of a 17-hectare (42-acre) complex, which
includes a mosque and a guest house, and is set in formal gardens bounded on three sides by
a crenelated wall.
3.2 Persuasive / Argumentative

It is the main style of writing you will use in academic papers. Under this style the
author tries to convince the audience of a position or belief.
It contains opinions and biases, as well as justifications and reasons given by the author
as evidence of the correctness of the position. The following are few examples:
• editorials
• speeches
• business idea
• complaints
• critical analysis
• reviews (books, films, events)
• advertisements
Persuasive style
India’s government has been dragged into a bizarre row over whether the Taj Mahal, widely
seen as a masterpiece of Muslim architecture, should be converted into a Hindu temple. A
legal case, first brought by six lawyers in Agra in April, claims that the monument famously
built by a seventeenth-century Mughal emperor as a tomb for his beloved wife was
originally an ancient shrine to the Hindu god Shiva.
The petition, which was accepted by the Agra Court, names a Hindu deity as its main
plaintiff. In his 1989 book Taj Mahal: The True Story, revisionist historian PN Oak claimed
the monument was built in 1155, decades before the Muslim Invasion in India. He said its
name is a corrupt form of the Sanskrit term “Tejo Mahalay”, signifying a Shiva Temple.
However, Oak is the author of many outlandish and discredited theories including bizarre
claims that the Hindus once conquered Italy, and even that Westminster Abbey was once
also a Shiva temple.
3.3 Descriptive
Under this style, description of a particular action,
object, person, place, event, or sense is presented. The Author does not try to
expository and descriptive writing both explain about convince the audience
– merely describes
what is being written about, but Descriptive style is
things as they are.
more detailed, personal, and subjective. It is vivid, uses
figures of speech and allows the reader to sense, see,
and feel everything that a particular phenomenon evoked in the writer.
• Poetry
• Diaries
• Parts of larger stories
• Novels
• Travelogues

Descriptive style
The Taj Mahal is located on the right bank of the Yamuna River in a vast Mughal
garden that encompasses nearly 17 hectares, in the Agra District in Uttar Pradesh. It
was built by Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his wife Mumtaz Mahal with
construction starting in 1632 AD and completed in 1648 AD, with the mosque, the
guest house and the main gateway on the south, the outer courtyard and its cloisters
were added subsequently and completed in 1653 AD. The existence of several historical
and Qur’anic inscriptions in Arabic script have facilitated setting the chronology of Taj
Mahal. For its construction, masons, stone-cutters, inlayers, carvers, painters,
calligraphers, dome builders and other artisans were requisitioned from the whole of
the empire and also from the Central Asia and Iran. Ustad-Ahmad Lahori was the main
architect of the Taj Mahal.
The Taj Mahal is considered to be the greatest architectural achievement in the whole
range of Indo-Islamic architecture. Its recognised architectonic beauty has a rhythmic
combination of solids and voids, concave and convex and light shadow; such as arches
and domes further increase the aesthetic aspect. The colour combination of lush green
scape reddish pathway and blue sky over it show cases the monument in ever changing
tints and moods. The relief work in marble and inlay with precious and semi-precious
stones make it a monument apart.
Expository Descriptive
• Objective • Subjective
• Impartial and based • Personalised
on facts account by author
• Purpose – spreading • Purpose – Captivate
information the reader

3.4 Narrative
Narrative writing is used in almost every longer piece of writing, whether fiction or
nonfiction. It is a style about story telling/narrating a tale, complete with characters,
actions, dialogue, plot, and setting.
It is usually fictional, but can be non-fictional as well if it depicts real life events and
stories. Narrative writing is mostly personal and imaginative. It is original and self-
expressive. Author attempts to relate universal truths through poetry and telling
stories. The following are few examples
• Plays & songs

• Novels
• Poetry (especially epic sagas or poems)
• Short Stories / Autobiographies
• Anecdotes
Narrative style
Taj Mahal. (Mahal is the word in urdu language used for Palace) How can I describe The
Taj Mahal? You can’t it’s impossible. You just have to experience it.
To gaze in wonder at that magnificent dome and elegant gardens will be a moment that
you remember for the rest of your life. It is one of the greatest sights in the world, some
say the greatest, and like Victoria Falls, The Grand Canyon, and Macchu Picchu, it simply
is one of those things you have to see in your life. The architectural grace and symmetry
of the Taj Mahal just takes your breath away.
We had chosen our visit carefully--the sun was setting and the light that washed over the
Taj was golden in colour. The minarets were now stark against the setting sun. The actual
dome was a surprise, it is not yellow-white but blue-white and covered in inscriptions and
detail. From below it looked like something out of "Arabian Nights." But inside were the
tombs of Mumtaz Mahal and Shah Jahan. The central tomb is a lofty chamber with light
streaming through fine latticework, and hanging above was an elaborate lamp. Words
cannot describe its beauty when you stand on that marble platform overlooking the
Yamuna, with the setting sun turning it into a golden ribbon.

4 Significance of Writing
• Improves communication skills as expressing ideas, thoughts and feelings

becomes easy.
• Helps students review and remember recently learned material
• Easy assessments: They are the primary tools for grading learners.
• Encourages creative expression and exploration
• Essential for self-understanding: As you begin to search for relevant content and
organize it logically, the concept becomes clear.
• Future Career prospects
5 Characteristics of Good Business Writing
Businesses in almost every field need skilled writers. Advertisements, applications,

reports, contracts, manuals, proposals, and memos are composed, revised, published
and read in thousands of businesses across the nation.
Why do we need good business writing skill?
• A written message can be sent to a large number of people at once.

• Writing provides a record that can be filed for future reference.
• Written communication carries more weight and is taken more seriously than a
spoken conversation
• Writing allows the audience time to think things through and comprehend in
the exact way it is intended to.
• Written content can be used as reference wherever required and acts like
evidence.
The following are the essential characteristics of Good Business Writing
• Purpose should be clear

• The writing should be clear and concise or Business communication
brief, Creative figures of speech and poetic should not be based on
phrases are not be used in business personal opinions and
correspondence. emotions.

• Ascertain the target audience, tailor your content and words keeping in mind
what your reader needs and wants to hear.
• Suitable tone Always be polite and courteous in your communication. Do not
be overly informal or friendly.
• Use appropriate format
• Business communication should be based on facts and figures

CHAPTER 7 : PRECIS WRITING
Contents
• What is Precis Writing
• Precis writing vs Summary in Note making
• Qualities of good Precis
• Precis writing procedure
1 INTRODUCTION
A precis is the gist of a passage expressed in as few words as possible. A precis should
give all essential points so that anyone reading it will be able to understand the idea
expressed in the original passage.
French word Précis meaning ‘precise’
It gives an accurate and concise description of the substance (or the main idea)
contained in the text without losing its meaning. In fact, it is an exact reproduction of
the logic, organization, and emphasis of the original text.
Note: that precis writing is different from paraphrasing.
There are no rigid rules regarding the length of a precis. But as a general rule, it should
not contain more than a third of the total number of words in the original passage.

1.1 Precis Writing vs Summary
Precis Summary
• Short account of longer

• Brief Statement of a writing
pieces like novel or thesis
like report, article, etc
• Author is free to change the
• follows the order and
order and proportion if he
proportion of the material in
wishes to do so.
the original
• Can be the interpretation of
• states only the thought of the
the material and to comment
original text
on it
1.2 Qualities of Good Precis
1.2.1 Clarity
Ideas presented in the précis should be clear and comprehensible. By using simple
language and structures, the writer should ensure that there is no ambiguity.
1.2.2 Objectivity
The writer should be able to write a précis that is unbiased and purely a summary of
the original text.
1.2.3 Correctness
The writer must ensure that not just the facts, but also the grammar and sentences are
without flaws. Such errors can obscure the meaning of the message.
1.2.4 Coherence
A good précis should be coherent i.e. the ideas must be presented in a way that shows
the connections clearly.

1.2.5 Completeness
The writer should include all the important facts from the text in the précis. No
important fact can be omitted to make the summary short.
1.2.6 Conciseness
Conciseness is a desirable quality of a good précis. A piece of writing is considered

concise if it conveys the message in the fewest possible words. But the writer should
not omit essential facts to achieve conciseness.
2 Precis Writing Procedure
2.1 Read the passage
Understand the passage well, if required read more Précis has to be written
than once. While reading underline the main points. in own words and not
those of the author.
2.2 Identify
.
Identifying the main idea behind the passage is the crucial point. Only when main
idea is understood and identified, the main points and details can be identified.
2.3 Suitable Title
Select a suitable title, which projects the main idea in the passage.
2.4 Draft
Collect all the key points and prepare a first draft of the précis, it should be one-third
the length of the original message.
The main thoughts expressed in the passage, the ideas it contains, the opinions
presented and the conclusion arrived at should be a part of the rough draft.
2.5 Read the Draft
If it’s too long than one third of the passage, then shorten it by
• strike all that is not required

• remove all repetitive ideas
• rephrase the sentences

2.6 Write the Second/ Final Draft
Write the second draft and read it and ensure minimum words required are used and
all spellings are sentence formation are correct. Check to make sure that the précis has
been written in words that are your own and not those of the author.
Identify
Read passage points & Select title
details
Make
Prepare draft Read draft
corrections
Write second Make

Finalise
draft corrections
• Every précis should have a short and appropriate title.

• The main ideas of the original text should be presented in the same order in
the précis.
• Do not introduce ideas of your own in the précis.
• Do not criticize or change the author’s ideas.
Always use the third person, reported speech and past tense
while writing a précis. Only universal truths should be written
in the present tense.

Sample Exercises:
1) A life of action and danger moderates the dread of death. It not only gives us
fortitude to bear pain, but teaches us at every step the precarious tenure on which we
hold our present being. Sedentary and studious men are the most apprehensive on
this score. Dr. Johnson was an instance in point. A few years seemed to him soon over,
compared with those sweeping contemplations on time and infinity with which he had
been used to pose himself. In the still life of a man of letters there was no obvious
reason for a change. He might sit in an arm chair and pour out cups of tea to all eternity
would it had been possible for him to do so. The most rational cure after all for the
inordinate fear of death is to set a just value on life. If we mere wish to continue on the
scene to indulge our head-strong humour and tormenting passions, we had better be
gone at once,; and if we only cherish a fondness for existence according to the good
we desire from it, the pang we feel at parting which it will not be very server.
Main points
• People who spend much time sitting and studying are the most afraid of death.
Because they lead a peaceful life and want no change.
• The most sensible way of getting rid of the fear of death is to value life properly.
• We should know that our control on life is very risky and that we may die any
moment.
• From this passage we learn that Dr.Johnson was afraid of death.
• He led a peaceful life and wanted no change.
• He was fond of tea.
Difficult words (need to look up in the dictionary);

• Precarious Tenure — Uncertain period, life
• Inordinate fear — Unreasonable fear, fear of death
Final Draft
The Fear of Death
If we lead an active life facing dangers, we will fear death less. People, who lead a lazy
and peaceful life and fear change, are most afraid of death. The most sensible way of
getting rid of the fear of death is to value life properly. If we do not give unnecessary
importance to our life, we will not feel the pang of death.

2) The issue of war and peace has always been a focal issue in all periods of history,
at all levels and in almost all periods of international relations. The concern of the
humankind for peace can be assessed by taking into account the fact that all religions,
all religious scriptures and several religious ceremonies are committed to the cause of
peace and all this advocate an elimination of war. The Shanti Path recited by the
Hindus, the sermons of Pope and the commands of all the holy scriptures of the
Christians, Muslims, Hindus, Sikhs and other communities hold out a commitment to
peace.
Yet the international community fully realized the supreme importance of the virtue of
peace against the evil of war only after having suffered the most unfortunate and
highly destructive two World Wars in the first half of the 20th century. The blood-
soaked shreds of humanity that lay scattered in several hundred battle grounds,
particularly on the soils of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, cried for peace, peace and peace
on the earth.
Main points
• War and peace main issues in history

• All religions, all religious scriptures and several religious ceremonies are
committed to the cause of peace
• Everyone wants to an eliminate war
• international community fully realized the supreme importance of the virtue of
peace
• Because international community has suffered because of two world wars
Final Draft
All religions preach Peace
All religions across the globe have one common teaching “Peace on earth”. Religious
scriptures and ceremonies aim towards eliminating the war and spreading the cause
of humanity. Realisation happened little too late, only after the occurrence of major
destructive events i.e. world wars.

CHAPTER 8 : ARTICLE WRITING
Contents
• What is Article Writing
• Objective of Articles
• Format of an Article
• Steps in Article Writing
1 Introduction
Article writing is the process of creating a non-fiction text about current or recent news,
items of general interest or specific topics. They are published in print formats, such as
newspapers and magazines, or online.
Articles can discuss areas such as current issues or topics of general interest such as
health, politics, entertainment, environmental concerns, etc.
Since it is written for a wide audience, it is essential that the language used is
• interesting, yet simple, and

• includes stories, anecdotes and facts
to keep the readers engaged.
The language used in an article can be formal or informal depending on the target
audience, but it must be less formal than a report.
1.1 Purpose or Objectives of Articles

• Offer suggestions and advice.
• Provide information on various topics/subjects – more clarity, better
perspective.

• Help audience in forming opinions or making judgements by bringing out
comparison, offer expert opinions, arguments/counter arguments. It enables
readers to think, hence it can influential.
• Describe a location, person, object, technology, etc. for general awareness
• Amuse and bring a smile on the readers face for entertainment purpose.
2 Format of an Article
The “format” of an article is the way an article i.e. the way it's constructed. The purpose
of the format is to arrange the ideas being expressed in a logical sequence. There are
no rules or techniques to abide by while writing articles, yet an organized structure is
preferred. Hence, a basic outline of the format needs to be studied.
2.1 Format
Eye catching, illustrate

the central theme
Heading
Establish context
Writer’s name
& draw attention
Introduction
Details of various
aspects.
Body
Para 1…Reasons & Causes…

Para 2 …Effects & Limitations…
Para 3 …Merits & Demerits / Advantages & Disadvantages…
Conclusion
Formal & logical
end in a summarised
form

2.2 Points to remember
Identify
Know Target Select eye-
audience objective of catching title
writing
Have striking Make Write in

opening assertions simple
sentence consistent language
Read the Remove Conclude &

article repititve points finalise
• The topics should be unique and relevant considering the present situation.
• Keep the article brief; unnecessary repetitions and irrelevant information
makes it boring.
• Break the article into paragraphs;
• Choose voice and tense appropriately
3 Steps in Article Writing
• Select your audience

• Know the needs of the audience
• Research on the topic and gather information

• Organise the information sequentially & logically
• Choose the tone and type of writing.
• Write a Draft
▪ Beginning / Introduction Author should not
o Start with a quote or startling statistic talk / boast about
himself.
o Add compelling anecdote wherever
appropriate
▪ Body
o Use specific language, based on purpose & audience
o Divide into logical paragraphs
▪ Conclusion
o Conclusion must remind the reader why Conclude with
the article is written strongest point.
o Avoid clichés
• Make corrections and remove all that is repetitive and unnecessary.
• Write another draft and repeat the above steps till it is satisfactorily presentable.

Sample Article
Card payment on a high after demonetization.
Points
• On Nov. 8, 2016 – govt. announced discontinuation of Rs. 500 and Rs. 1000
notes
• The move forced people to use options such as Internet banking, mobile
banking, credit and debit cards, mobile wallets and other prepaid payment
instruments.
• Digital transactions have grown by 400 to 1000%
• This figure does not include transactions done through Master and Visa cards
• People to be educated about digital payments through websites and television
• Increased transactions on e- wallet.
• Volume of transactions using Rupay card has increased from 3.85 lakh per day
to 16 lakh per day.
• These digital transactions will ensure money comes into the system.
Demonisation has made contactless and cashless transactions the preferred choice of
many among us. It has given opportunities to digital wallets, quick response (QR) codes,
near field communication (NFC) technology, sound wave systems, virtual cards, unified
payment interface (UPI) and Aadhaar Pay and other secure payments options.
The historical announcement by the Govt. of India on Nov. 8, 2016 about the
discontinuation of Rs. 500 and Rs. 1000 notes lead to digital wallets and credit/debit
cards as the alternative to cash to cope with the cash crunch. Digital transactions have
grown by 400 to 1000%. This figure does not include transactions done through Master
and Visa cards.
"There was a surge right after demonetisation. After cash circulation was back in the
market the peak has come down but the numbers are almost 35% higher than what it
was pre-demonetisation" says Praveen Dhabhai, COO of Payworld. A lot of people use
cards on a daily basis for a wide range of services including online recharges, utility
payments, travel bookings and movie ticket among others.
There are many advantages of using cards low costs, saves time, convenience, low risk,
user-friendly, helps in controlling expenses because it leaves trail.

Demonetisation has given the much-required push to digital transactions. But there is
still a long way to go for the digital payment system to become mainstream. With the
government pushing for it and increased adoption by consumers, companies and experts
are hopeful that it will continue to rise in the future. Volume of transactions using Rupay
card has increased from 3.85 lakh per day to 16 lakh per day.
"We (Indian economy) are in a transition phase, digital mode of payments and cash will
continue to co-exist, and presumably, even flourish simultaneously moving India towards
becoming a 'less-cash' economy" says, Ravi B Goyal, Chairman & MD, AGS Transact
Technologies. People have to be educated and made aware of digital payments through
websites and television.
Demonetisation is definitely a good decision in the long run as these legitimised digital
transactions will ensure money comes into the system.

CHAPTER 9 : REPORT WRITING
Contents
• What is a Report
• Types of Report
• Report Formats
• Steps in Report Writing
1 Introduction
A report is an account given of a particular event, issue, subject, especially in the form
of an official document, after thorough investigation or consideration by an appointed
person or body.
It is written for a defined purpose and for a specific audience. Information and evidence
are presented objectively and in a clear and concise manner.
1.1 Key elements of a Report

• Title
• Table of contents
• Executive summary
• Introduction
• Discussion
• Conclusion
• Recommendations
• References
• Appendices

2 Kinds & Types of Report
2.1 Kinds of Reports
There are various kinds of classifications.
Reports
Based on Based on Based on Based on Based on Based on

length Circulation forum information purpose Periodicity
Infomation
Long & Internal& Vertical & Formal & Proposal & Annual/
&
Short External Lateral Informal Functional Half yearly
Analytical
2.2 Type of Reports

• Newspaper report
• Magazine report
• Official reports for various organisations
o Functional Reports (Sales, Budget reports, Performance reports, Board
Reports, Annual Reports, etc)
o Proposals
o Project Reports
o Auditor’s report
3 Report - Formats
3.1 Newspaper format

These are accounts of current events and happenings
Title / Heading
Written by :
Place, date
Body
3.2 Magazine format
These are written to give account of specific events that have taken place, for example,
India International Fashion Week, School Annual Day etc
Title / Heading
Written by :
Body

3.3 Official Report
These are complex documents often of important Official report writing as

projects and proposals, eg. results of studies and such does not have a
experiments, proposals for launching a new product specific, fixed format.
etc.
Many organizations have their own formats and styles that are used by their
employees. Moreover, there are differences in types of official reports, for example,
company annual reports, audit reports, financial reports etc
Long winding sentences, vague

Reports cannot have personal information and irrelevant
opinions, perceptions, material must not be included
emotions and feelings.
in report writing.
3.3.1 Format 1
Heading
To:
From:
Date:
Subject:
Introduction:
Give details of the task and the reasons for it
Main Body:
• Information, resources and material used,
• Description of task
• Results
Conclusion
Your evaluation and suggestions.

3.3.2 Format 2
Bibliography Main Report Summary Table of Title Page

•Give a list of all •Introduction •Major points Contents •To: name of
the sources you •Findings •Conclusions & •Sections person report
have referred •Conclusions recommendati •Sub-sections being
within your ons to give submitted to
•Recommendati
text. general idea of •From: name
ons
report and
department
•Date of
submission
•Acknowledgem
ents:
Main report should include
• Introduction: Explain the problem and make clear to the reader why the report
has been written.
• Findings: Give details of the information collected, material used, methods
utilized, and results arrived at.
• Conclusions: Include implications and inferences of your findings based on the
facts described in your main body. The importance of the study is discussed in
this section.
• Recommendations: Give suggestions and proposals based on information and
data collected.

3.4 Points to remember
• All reports are objective. Suggestions and recommendations are based on

facts, data and not subjective views.
• Personal pronouns in first and second person (I, me, we, us, you,) are
generally not used in a report.
• Passive voice is preferably used only in writing newspaper and magazine
reports. Active voice can be used in official reports.
• Past tense is mostly made use of in report writing since we are reporting
happenings, which have already taken place.
• Avoid technical & subject specific terminology but if necessary, add a
glossary for it.
• Information should be organized logically and coherently.
• Ensure no grammar and syntax errors are made.
3.5 Characteristics of Report writing
Process What to Target Purpose of Where

followed report Audience Article Published
Observes / Event / General To bring Mainly in
Collates Happening Reader knowledge / newspapers and
information information to magazines
public domain
Researches / Particular issue Specific For specific Published for
investigates / Problem / /Defined purpose select audience
information Phenomenon Reader (Eg: Annual
reports)

4 Steps in Report Writing
All reports need to be clear, concise and well structured.
Identify
Understand Collect
authentic
purpose information
sources
Organise Analyse Write Report

Content content (Draft)
Finalise &
Read &
Redraft Check
Review
presentation
4.1 Step 1- Understand the purpose of the report

• Keep in mind who the report is for, and why it is being written.
• Understand all the instructions or requirements.
4.2 Step 2- Gather and select information

• Choose appropriate sources, read them and select only relevant information.
• Ensure that your sources are authentic and reliable.
4.3 Step 3- Organize your content

• Sort out and select the content relevant to your report.
• Group together the points that are related under sections or chapters.
• Decide the sequence (logical and easy to follow) in which they have to be
presented.
4.4 Step 4- Analyse your material

• Analyse the material you have gathered critically.
• Identify and discard conflicting data compromising evidence.
• Ensure conclusions that can be drawn are verifiable.
•
4.5 Step 5- Write the report
• Write the first draft of your report clearly and concisely.
• Avoid irrelevant, lengthy and confusing explanations or content.
4.6 Step 6-Review and redraft

• Take a break before you review your first draft.
• Rewrite or reorganize certain sections after the review, if required till final draft
is written.
• Assess, without any bias, the report from the perspective of a reader in terms of
clarity, simplicity and relevance.
4.7 Step 7: Presentation

• Check the presentation of the
report.
Errors in presentation or
• Ensure wording of each expression create a poor
chapter/section/subheading is clear impression and cannot gain the
and accurate. trust of the reader and can make
• Ensure proper sequencing in the report difficult to read.
numbering of chapters, sections and
appendices.
• Mention all your sources and references.
• Check for errors of spelling or grammar.

Sample: The Hindu Newspaper
Fresh personal details leaks detected on dark web
Gautam S. Mengle MUMBAI, MAY 24, 2020 22:05 IST
These include 2,000 Aadhaar cards and data of 18 million Indian job-seekers
Even as cybercrime agencies and experts are investigating the leak of millions of Indian
job-seekers’ personal details on the dark web, two more similar instances have come to
light in the last 12 hours.
The fresh leaks include nearly 2,000 Aadhaar cards and details of 18 million Indians, all
available for free.
The leak of nearly 2.9 crore job-seekers’ details was discovered by Cyble Inc., a U.S.-based
cyber intelligence firm, which has been trying to trace the source of the leak and identify
the perpetrators. Cyble founder Beenu Arora said the Aadhaar cards were posted on the
dark web sometime in the last 12 hours.
“We are not sure of how this leak happened. There is a known perpetrator who just
decided to drop this. In terms of the leak itself, it has approximately 2,000 Aadhaar cards.
A large number of files appear to have originated from 2019, and several IDs were
scanned from mobile cameras, and often transferred to other parties via WhatsApp. It’s
highly likely that more IDs may have been compromised, and the perpetrator decided to
share only a small subset. We are still looking into this further,” Mr. Arora told The Hindu.
Cyble researchers said the Aadhaar cards and the job seekers’ details were posted by
different entities, both with a different level of reputation on the dark net.
Second leak
“The Aadhaar leak actor also published a second leak whereby they dropped details of
18 lakh residents of Madhya Pradesh for free on May 19. We identified this leak during
our investigations into the jobseeker data,” Mr. Arora said.
State and Central cybercrime agencies have also initiated their own investigations into
the matter, sources confirmed.

Meanwhile, Cyble researchers have received an anonymous tip off according to which
the jobseekers’ data leak was the result of an unprotected Elasticsearch instance — a
tool that collects data from a wide range of locations on the Internet in accordance with
the requirements of the person conducting the search, and allowing the user to analyse
large troves of data in real time from all over the Internet.
“The claim made by the anonymous entity that unprotected Elasticsearch instance was
the root cause behind the jobseeker data leak is unverifiable at this stage, as we haven’t
been given the technical evidence yet. We are approaching other research communities
to gather more facts,” Mr. Arora said.

Sample 2: Femina Magazine
Here’s How to Lose Weight at Home
by Aishwarya Sati | November 4, 2019, 4:49 PM IST
Post-October, one is often ridden with anxiety about piling on those extra kilos. After all,
we tend to get carried away by the festive fervour. With constant dos and parties around
this season, it's easy to go off the mark with your daily exercise schedules and meal
planning. The office scenario doesn't help either. Modern corporate lives have led most
people to spend a lot of time at their desks, fervently typing on their computers or pouring
over documents. While a sedentary job can lead to several issues related to weight and
the heart, it can also have an impact on your mental health. Poor posture is one of the
culprits, but there are other issues as well. Most think that hitting the gym is the only
solution to lose weight, some get bogged down due to paucity of time, while some find
the idea simply boring. But it's simply a myth that one needs to undergo an intensive
workout at the gym to lose weight. It can be achieved within the confines of your home
with a few alterations to your lifestyle. We bring you a list of activities and that can help
you build your physical strength and lose weight at home. Read on to know how to lose
weight at home while battling all these challenges.
1. Yoga to the rescue weight at home

2. Don't skip breakfast
3. Do more around the house to lose weight
4. Nurture your green thumb to lose weight
5. Watch your nutrition for weight loss
6. Limit your sugar intake
7. Get enough sleep
8. Eat fibre-rich food to lose weight
9. Drink plenty of water
How to lose weight at home: FAQs
Q. Is it healthy to include protein in every meal?
A. Adding a source of lean or low-fat protein to each meal and snack will help keep you
feeling full longer so you're less likely to overeat. Try low-fat yogurt, a small portion of
nuts, peanut butter, eggs, beans, or lean meats. Experts also recommend eating small,
frequent meals and snacks (every 3-4 hours), to keep your blood sugar levels steady and
to avoid overindulging.
Q. Do I need to count calories and be strict about portion control?
A. It is not necessary to count calories as long as you keep the carbs very low and stick
to protein, fat and low-carb vegetables. The main goal is to keep carbs under 20–50
grams per day and get the rest of your calories from protein and fat.
Sample 3: Financial Report
Reliance Industries https://www.ril.com/ar2018-19/index.html
Sample 4: Research Paper
Indian Education Sector https://www.ibef.org/industry/education-sector-india.aspx

Note vs Precis vs Article vs Report
Notemaking Precis Article Report

Objective Make note of the Make reader Piece of original Formal style of
essence of understand the writing for a writing
information essence of a large audience presenting facts
paragraph by to be published and
summarizing but in either information
tone, newspapers or specifically, but
proportions, and magazines or no opinions,
meaning of the journals. elaborately on a
original text are topic.
maintained.
Features • Records • Short • Writing • The
important details summary of a to provide structure is
from a source in paragraph information, very crisp and
a specific without losing opinions, clean, using
format. the essence of suggestions, pointers and
• Distinguis the paragraph stories, numbered
hes between and fixed developments, headings and
main points and length. etc. sub-headings
detailed • Doesn’t • An article • Has
explanation. use must be summary,
• Uses key abbreviations organized in a appendices,
words & • Written in proper way so glossary of
abbreviations to own words but as to draw the important
make it easy and not own opinion attention of the words, tables,
short is not added. readers. graphs, charts,
• It has to etc
be based
completely on
information from
paragraph
Where • Exams. • Books, • Newspap • Projects

used
Organisations articles, ers or & Organisations
bulky speeches, magazines or
documents. journals or

publishing
houses.
Target • Specific • Specific • General • Specific
Audien
(usually (usually readers of (only to those
ce
individuals or individuals or newspapers, who need to
small teams) small teams) magazines or take decisions
books based on
report)
Advantage • Saves • Saves • Provides • Helps in
s
time (especially time medium to decision
for bulky • Discrimin express making
documents) ates between opinions. • Very
• Future essential and • Creative informative and
reference non-essential writing factual.
points
• Easy to
understand
Limitation • Good • Good • Comman • Authenti
s
knowledge of vocabulary d over language city of facts is
abbreviations required required. crucial
required • Lot of • Informat
research ion provided
required for should be
using facts or correct and
quotes. unbiased
• Competit • Very
ion (lot of bulky most of
sources of the times
articles). • Decision
depends on the
reports

CHAPTER 10 : WRITING FORMAL LETTERS &
OFFICIAL COMMUNICATION
Contents
• Part A – Formal Letters
• Part B – Official Communication – Notes & Memos
Part A – Formal Letters
1 Introduction
Letters are a traditional and popular method and also means of communication. A
letter is a written message which is sent from one party to another and contains
important information.
Letters
Informal Formal
1.1 Informal Letters

• Informal letters are letters written to people we are familiar with, like relatives
and friends.
• They are used for casual and personal
communication.
• The language and tone of the letter depends There is no specific
format prescribed for
on the level of comfort and familiarity between
writing informal letters
the sender and the recipient but it is usually
personal and emotional tone

1.2 Formal Letters
• Formal letters are used for official and professional communication.
• They have a formal purpose
o Solve a problem in the organisation
o Address an issue, internally or externally
o Official record, acts as evidence for resolving a dispute
• and use formal language.
• They are written using a prescribed format.
• Examples - recommendation letter, a complaint letter, a job application, or a
letter to the editor.
2 How to draft Formal Letters
• Use specified format

• Leave space between paragraphs
• First paragraph to have reason for the letter
• Add details and information
• Provide reference to earlier communication or exchange of information
• Use a gentle, polite and courteous tone
• Check for grammatical or spelling mistakes
3 Format – Formal Letter

Formal letter writing is undoubtably one of the most challenging types of letter format.
Often formal letters are used to address a person or organisation with whom you are
not familiar and the quality of your content, will be strongly scrutinised. In general,
formal letters will have one of the following purposes:
• Make a complaint
• Request something
• Make an enquiry
Golden rule for writing formal letters is you try to write as simply and as clearly as
possible, and not to make the letter longer than necessary

Sender’s Address
Date:
Designation /Name of the Addresee

Address of the Address
Salutation
Subject:
Content
• Introduction
• Body
• Conclusion
Complimentary Close
Signature
Designation of Sender
3.1 Sender’s Address
The sender’s complete address or contact details must be added at the top. Letterhead
of the company usually has contact details on top of the letter.
3.2 Date
Date can make it easy for you keep a tab on your letters for future preference
3.3 Salutation
Salutation is an important part of the letter and must be added at the beginning.

3.4 Subject
It is a brief statement of the issue or matter the letter is Salutation must

related to. It must help him understand quickly what the attract the
letter is going to be about. attention of the
receiver.
3.5 Content
3.5.1 Introduction
The introductory paragraph of a formal letter should always be written in a
concise manner. It should quickly and simply summarize the point that you want
the reader to focus or act on. The sooner you do this, the better.
3.5.2 Body
The body of the letter should detail the key points or the message you want to
convey. Add all the required details but don’t exaggerate.
3.5.3 Conclusion
The conclusion is a declaration of the writer’s purpose of writing,
• expectations from the receiver,
• what he thinks the next step should be and
• further actions that he may take.
Moreover, the writer should always hope for a positive reaction or reply and
must use terms like ‘Thanking you’, ‘With warm regards’, etc. before signing off.
3.6 Complimentary Close
A complimentary close is the term prior to your signature in a letter. This sign-off
phrase shows your respect and appreciation for the person who is considering the
request in your letter. The following options are all good ways to close a formal letter:
• Yours respectfully – letter to a senior

• Yours sincerely – letter to superior
• Yours truly – letter to boss, who thinks you are trustworthy
• With appreciation – letter to external person
• With sincere appreciation or thanks

Salutation means the words used to greet the recipient. It depends upon the
relationship with the recipient. Usually words like Sir or Madam are used for
salutation. Complimentary close refers to the humble ending of the letter.
Usually words like Yours sincerely, yours truly are used.
Sample1
3rd March 2019
To, Ms. A Class Teacher

XYZ School New Delhi.
Dear Ms. A,
Sub: Leave of absence from school
I, Ms. B student of class X-A will not be able to attend school tomorrow
due to a scheduled medical check-up of my eyes. Therefore, I request you
to grant leave for tomorrow 4th March 2019.
Thanking you!
Yours sincerely,
Ms.B.

Sample 2
Sender’s Address : R-27, Block - A Greater Kailash Pune - 56

Date : 17 May, 20XX
Addressee Designation/Name: The Manager / Mr. / Ms.
Address of the Addressee : Shrishti Enterprises
247, Okhla Industrial Area
New Delhi -25
Salutation Sir/Ma’am
Subject Placing an Order for Office Furniture
Content:
Introduction After going through your catalogue of office
furniture, I wish to place an order for the
following items for our office.
Body S. No. Item Quantity
1. Chairs (Steel) 25 Pieces
2. Tables (Wooden) 15 Pieces
3. Stool (Wooden) 20 Pieces
4. Computer Table 10 Pieces
5. Filing Cabinets 05 Pieces
Conclusion All the items should be as per the specifications
mentioned in your quotation. Substandard
material will be returned. The delivery should be
made before May 25, 20XX failing which the order
will stand cancelled. Please send the bill after
deducting the discount as applicable. As agreed
upon earlier, payment of the bill will be made by
cheque in favour of the firm within 10 days after
the delivery of items.
Complimentary Close Yours truly / sincerely
Signature Rohan Sinha

Designation of Sender Manager
(if applicable) KD Infotech

4 Types of Business or Official Letters
Sales Promotion Letters
Letter of Enquiries
Order letters
TYPES
Sales letters
Recovery Letter
Complaint Letter
Reply to letter of complaint
4.1 Sales Promotion Letter
Promotional content refers to letters written to customers primarily to apprise them of

some new development, like opening of a new branch, offers and deals extended by
them, or new facilities available.
They may even be used to inform customers of new schemes or upgradation from a
normal to a privileged category, or to offer promotional discounts. It is to influence
the existing or prospective customers about the products or services.

For Promotional Letters
• Adhere to formal language and avoid fancy jargon.
• Subject should be clear and precise.
• Discuss only promotions.
• Personal topics should not be included.
4.2 Letter of Enquiries
These letters are written to gather information from various sources about
• people seeking jobs,

• prices of services and products,
• availability of stocks
• business proposals / build business relations, etc.
They help the receiver decide whether they should give jobs and promotions, grant
credits or enter into contracts.
When writing a letter of enquiry, you should:

• Give a brief introduction about yourself with the name of your organization.
• Provide the details about the subject of inquiry.
• Present queries in bullet points if you require a lot of information.
• Mention the deadline by when you require the information.
4.3 Order Letters
An order letter is written by a buyer to the seller requesting him to deliver goods. These
letters include three major types of information.
4.3.1 Details about the item or product being ordered:

• Name of product
• Name of brand
• Unit price

• Quantity
• Other specifications (such as catalogue number, model number, colour, size,
weight, etc.) if required
4.3.2 Information relating to shipping:
• Desired receipt date
Absence of shipping
• Desired shipping location
information, can lead to
• Mode of shipping (rail, road, or waterways) misunderstanding
4.3.3 Information relating to payment:
• Mode of payment (cash, cheque, draft)
• Payment date
4.4 Sales Letters
Sales letter helps in sales promotional

Pay attention to the target
schemes and presenting introductory offers. It audience, each letter might
strengthens business ventures and partnerships. need a different phrasing
• Use formal language; spoken English and slangs should be avoided

• Salutations should be formal and personalised comments excluded.
• Content should be sales specific and extra details avoided
• For a new product launch, mention its features, uses, benefits
4.5 Recovery Letters
Recovery letters are addressed to customers or clients from whom money needs to be
collected for the goods or services provided to them.
It should include
• the amount of outstanding payment and

• the last date for the payment of the Objective is to ‘recover’
outstanding amount money without annoying or
alienating the customers.
• legal action that could be taken in the event
of further delay or non-payment of dues.

• Use polite formal language, as in a gentle reminder.
• Accusatory or threatening language should be used only when things are
beyond control.
• State the reason for dispute, error, pay back.
• State the legal action that could possibly be taken.
4.6 Complaint Letters
A letter of complaint letter can be written in an individual capacity or on behalf of a

company notifying an individual, company or business that the consumer is dissatisfied
with a product purchased or a service received from them.
While writing a letter of complaint, you should:
• Give a clear and detailed description of the problem and expectation.

• Include important dates – order date, purchase (invoice) date, problem
occurrence date, previous complaint date.
• Give details of what action you have taken up till now to solve the problem and
future course of action if not resolved.
• Ask for a response giving a reasonable time limit to respond to your request.
• Attach documentary evidence – copy of invoice, warranty, etc
• Never make personal accusations/allegations.
• Avoid discussing any other concern besides the complaint issue.
4.7 Reply to letter of complaint

• Address clearly and specifically the problems and issues brought up by the
customer.
• Acknowledge and apologise for any error that occurred on your end.
• Explain to the customer plan of action or steps taken to resolve the problem.
• Assure the customer that he will never experience such problems in the future and
propose how you will improve his experience.

Formal letter types - Examples
Letter Type Body

Sales Promotion Dear Sir
Subject: New branch at XYZ Nagar
We are happy to announce the launch of new product AAA

in the laptop segment. The product is ___ version, ____
capacity.
As a privileged customer, we are pleased to provide you extra
discount of 20% for first sale after launch.
Kindly visit the showroom. It would be our pleasure in

providing service to you.
Contact details are given below:
87, _____Nagar
Just 2 km from main bus stop. Ph: xxx-xxxxxx
Enquiries Subject: Enquiry about laptops
With reference to your advertisement dated October 20,

20XX, we wish to enquire about your product range of
laptops. Our organization is recruiting new employees and
will need reliable and user-friendly laptops. We are expecting
at least 20 new recruits.
Kindly provide us with details about the following:
Delivery schedule
Offers and discounts available
Payment modes
Warranties & guaranties
After sales services
We shall be grateful if you could furnish the above-

mentioned details along with your quotations as soon as
possible.
Reply to Enquiry Subject: Enquiry about laptops

With reference to your enquiry letter dated _________, we wish
to clarify about the following issues with respect to laptops
we sell.
Technical Specifications:
Delivery schedule :
Offers and discounts available:
Payment modes:
Warranties & Guaranties:
After sales services:
Kindly let us know your requirement and we assure you the

services will be diligently provided as promised. Looking
forward for an early response.
Order Subject: Placing an order for Laptops
Dear Sir
As discussed telephonically and reference to our letter dated
_____ , we wish to place an order for the supply of the
following laptops.
S.No Item Quantity Specifications

Required
1) Laptop 10
5Q
2) Laptop 10
6Q
The above-mentioned items should reach us latest by _______.

Kindly ensure that the items delivered should match with the

specifications in the order. Advance payment of 50% is
enclosed (cheque no.123456 for an amount Rs. 3,50,000/-).
As discussed telephonically, the 30% payment will be made
at the time of delivery in the form of a demand draft and the
balance 20% will be paid after adjusting the applicable
discount after a month after delivery.
An early delivery would be appreciated
Sales Subject: Sales of laptop
Dear Sir,
I would like to take the opportunity to thank you for your

business with our organization. It has always been a pleasure
working with you.
I would like to inform you that the 20 laptops ordered (Order

letter No.___ dated _____) will be delivered as per the mutually
decided date. In addition, our experts would come to install
the software and give a detailed demo of its working. We
would also provide a free service for the next two years. The
product has two-year warranty period.
For any other query regarding the laptops ordered and its
functioning, please feel to contact me. We would be happy to
serve you at the earliest.
Recovery SUBJECT: Pending dues
This letter is a gentle reminder for the dues amounting to Rs

1,50,000 that your company is due to us against 20 laptops
supplied against order dated __________. As per the credit
terms, the amount mentioned above is due on ______.
I request you to kindly do the needful before due date.
Kindly acknowledge the receipt of this letter

Recovery (long SUBJECT: Pending dues
dues)
This letter is a gentle reminder for the dues amounting to Rs
1,50,000 that your company is over due to us against 20

laptops supplied against order dated __________. As per the
credit terms, the amount mentioned above has been due
since ___________.
As the payment is due since long, we would appreciate if you

send the cheque immediately.
I request you to kindly do the needful within the next six
working days, failing which strict legal action will be taken.
Kindly acknowledge the receipt of this letter.

Complaint Subject: Complaint against the order no. ________
This is with reference to Order no. _______ made on __________.

The order comprised 10 laptops (5Q) and 10 laptops (6Q). As
per the agreement, the products were to be delivered and
representative was to be sent for installation of software and
demo. Unfortunately, only half the order has been delivered
and no representative has visited for installation or demo.
The fact that you have taken undue time and have not yet
delivered the order, has caused us great embarrassment and
inconvenience. In addition, we have received no
correspondence from your side explaining the delay.
Kindly ensure that the remaining items of the order are

delivered to us before ______ failing which payment will be
stopped or the order cancelled.
I sincerely request you to look into the matter and do the

needful as soon as possible.
Thanks, and Regards.
Reply to Complaint Subject: Reply to complaint dated ________
This is in regard to your order no. ________which you placed

with our company vide your order letter dated ________. The
order comprised 20 laptops (10 items of 5Q and 10 items of
6Q).

We sincerely apologize to you for the delay in delivery of the
products you ordered with us. Due to problems with supply
from the manufacturers’ end, this inconvenience has been
caused to you. We are also flooded with a large number of
unexpected orders this month leading to this delay.
We are trying our best to minimize the delay as much as

possible to reduce your trouble. We promise that your
shipment will be delivered before ___________.
You have been a loyal and supportive client of our company
for years, and we are grateful to you. As a small token of
honour and as a mark of apology we will be providing 10%
discount to you on your next purchase order with us.
Whenever you place your next order with our company, you
can avail this discount on the final bill value.
To ensure that a similar problem does not occur in the future
again, we have taken all precautionary steps. Once again, we
apologize to you for the inconvenience caused to you. We
would appreciate your support on this matter.

Chapter 10 Part B– Circulars & Memos
5 Circulars
Circulars or fliers are a highly effective way to communicate with employees or
customers. Many companies use circulars as notices in business communication to
enforce dress codes and policies or invite employees to meetings or luncheons.
Circulars can also be used as an advertising tool.
Office circulars are generally those letters which are circulated to a huge number
of employees in an office in a simultaneous manner, conveying a special message
or an instruction that needs to be followed in the future.
It is a user-friendly and a cost-effective method. It primarily focuses on the business

issues and hold a certain degree of importance amongst the employees in an office.
Circulars can be used to convey
• an invitation to a meeting
• impending meetings,
• new rules that are going to crop up in the immediate future.
Format
Date: _________
Circular No.___________
Title (Issue / Reason)

For All Employees / Departments
Message / Information / Content
Signature
Designation of the signatory

Example 1)
Housing Society
XYZ Nagar, Hyderabad
Ab/xx/123 Date: xx/xx/xx
Circular
All the society members are hereby intimated that the society is organising “FLAG
HOISTING CEREMONY” on the occasion of Independence Day to be held on 15th
August at 0830 hours in the community hall premises. All members are invited
and expected to attend the ceremony along with the families and the ceremony a
grand celebration.
Dress Code: Traditional / National

Signature
President
Housing Society
Example 2)
Official Dress Code

For All the employees
Factory
The uniforms are not going to be issued from this calender year 2019. All the
employees are expected to strictly adhere to the following dress code: The dress
code approved by the management and agreed by the labour union is
Category Men Women
Assembly Cotton pants and full sleeve shirt Cotton pants and full
unit with hat and thick sole black shoes sleeve shirt with hat and
thick sole black shoes
Stores Pant and full sleeve shirt with Saree or Salwar kameez
formal shoes with closed shoes
Security Khaki pants and full shirt with N.A.
black formal shoes
Non-adherence to the above dress code shall be strictly reviewed and penalised.
All employees are hereby requested to follow the dress code from 1st Jan 2019
Signature
Manager Factory

Example 3)
Circular No. xxx123 xx/xx/xxxx

Cultural Event for Charity
For All Employees
This is an official communication informing about a cultural event being

organised in the office premises on the xx/xx/xxxx. The events planned are as
follows:
Singing competition
Dance competition
Team sports
Prize Distribution
Participation fees is Rs. ____ per member. Family and friends are cordially
invited. The proceeds of the event will be donated to XYZ Charitable Trust,
benefiting the senior citizens.
Please get in touch with the HR team for registration process. Looking forward
to an active participation.
Signature
Name
Manager - HR

6 Memos
A memo is another means of official communication within a company or an
organization. It is frequently used to inform the people within the organization about
policies, procedures, etc.
Memo or memorandum means ‘reminder’
It is often written from a one-to-all perspective (like mass communication),

broadcasting a message to an audience. They too are very cost-effective way of mass
communication. They also serve as evidence in case of a dispute
A memo typically has five functions or purposes:
• To remind
• To highlight
• To recount
• To keep a record
• To inform or instruct briefly
In all the above scenarios, memos should use an easy language, with short and crisp
statements.
Format:
Company Name
Interoffice Memo
Date: _________
To: ________
Reference No.___________
Subject: _____________________________________________
Message / Information / Content
Signature
Designation of the signatory

Sample 1
(A memo letter informing the Office Manager about the purchase of office
furniture.)
ABC Technopolis Ltd.

65, Nehru Nagar, New Delhi Interoffice Memo
Date : 25 July, 2016

To : Office Manager
From : Mr. Ashok Reddy, Purchase Officer Reference : 216/BM
Subject : Purchase of Office furniture
As desired, the order for the supply of office furniture (chairs and tables, sofa sets)
has been placed with Shivshakti Furniture Mart, Kirbi place, New Delhi. The chairs
and tables will be supplied in multiple lots. The order will be completed in ten
days.
Sample 2
(A memo letter apprising the employees of all branches about the suspension
order of an employee of the same office.)
Date : 05 September, 2016

To : All Branch Managers
From : Mr. Naresh Kochar, General Manager Reference : 114/LT
Subject : Appraisal of Cashier’s Dismissal
This is to inform you all that Mr. XYZ, Cashier of Samriddhi Bank, Vilas Nagar
Branch, has been suspended on charge of misappropriation of fund. All concerned
are requested to abstain from transaction with him. The bank authorities will not
be responsible for any sort of mishap.

CHAPTER 11 : WRITING FORMAL MAILS
Contents
• What is an Email
• Informal vs Semi-formal vs Formal Mails
• Format
• Effective Email
• Email – Advantages & Disadvantages
1 Introduction
The most common and preferred method of informal and formal communication in
the modern world, is the Email (electronic mail).
Electronic mail is a method of exchanging messages between people using

electronic devices.
An email can be used as an inter-office or internal written communication tool or it

can be sent to someone outside the company or institution
1.1 Informal mails

• They are sent to friends and relatives.
• There are no rules to be followed.
• Casual/ informal language (slangs/ abbreviations) can be used.
• No particular style of writing is required to be followed.

Subject: CONGRATULATIONS!!
Hi Amit,
We just got the SUPER news of your promotion. I am so excited and thrilled. A big
party is due from you and, of course, gifts for your loving sis.
Mom and Dad too are overjoyed. They are very proud their hardworking son. They
send you their love and blessings.
We are all looking forward to your visit home so that we can have a grand
celebratory party.
Yours affectionately,
Jyoti
1.2 Semi- Formal mails

• These are addressed to colleagues functioning within a team and at the same
seniority level.
• It can be brief and the language can be casual and friendly.
• But maintaining decorum is essential and the purpose of the mail
• Message should be clear to the recipient/ recipients.
Subject: Congratulations on Your Promotion
Hi Amit,
I just got to hear of your promotion to the post of Senior Manager. Please accept
my heartiest congratulations.
Your hard work and dedication have been rewarded. You surely deserve the
recognition and responsibility of the position. All team members are elated that
you have been selected from our team (out of the members of ten teams.)
We are surely looking forward to a party from you at your earliest convenience.
Regards,
Sumit Choudhary
(Team member)

1.3 Formal mails:
• They are addressed to people within and outside the organisation.

• Style and language should be formal.
• Purpose should be clear and content lucid and precise.
• Rules and etiquettes of formal communication should be followed.
Subject: Promotion to the Post of Senior Manager

Dear Amit Suri,
I am pleased to apprise you of your promotion to the post of a Senior Manager in

the Production Department.
You have been with Hindalco Industries for the past seven years and have proved
your worth time and again. Your dedication, hard work and willingness to take
on new initiatives has been recognized and appreciated by your seniors You have
implemented procedures which have improved efficiency in your department and
been recognized for outstanding achievement.
Please accept my congratulations on your promotion.
Regards,
Prateek Chopra
General Manager Hindalco Industries

2 Format
From:
To:
Cc:
Bcc:
Subject: _____________________________________________
Attachments
Salutation
Main Body
• Introductory paragraph
• Details (facts and information)
• Closing (recommendations & suggestions)
Signature Line
(Signature, Name & Designation, Email address & telephone)
2.1 From: Name of person sending the mail.

2.2 To: Name of recipient
2.3 Cc: Carbon copy-the same mail being sent to other individuals with their email
Ids visible to all in the group
2.4 Bcc: Blank carbon copy – the names and email IDs of the Bcc receivers is not
visible to the recipient of the mail, but his/her ID is visible to the Bcc receivers.
2.5 Subject: Clear and crisp
2.6 Salutation: Dear Sir/ Madam/ Dear Mr. Gupta/ Hi Kapil (if you know the
receiver well), Hi all (if addressed to a group of people)
2.7 Main body: contains main content of the mail
• Opening paragraph should outline the main idea/ reason for the mail
• Following paragraphs give relevant details.
2.8 Closing: make a concluding statement/ suggestion
Recommendations to address the issue or problem

Suggestions on the timeline for resolving the issue and delegating responsibility
to selected individuals.
2.9 Attachments: give a list of documents attached
2.10 Signature Line: includes signature, name and designation of sender. It may
include email address and telephone number for convenience of recipient
3 Effective Email
3.1 Rules
• Purpose of writing the Email should be clear. Main purpose of
writing the mail should be clearly stated in the
opening paragraph
• Tone and language should be suitable for the Use your official id
intended recipients. It should never be for all work related
derogatory and provocative. mails.
• Mail should be short and simple using short
sentences to convey your message clearly and concisely.
• The content of the mail should be logically and systematically organized.
• Proof read your mail before you send it.
• When framing a reply to a received mail, ensure you answer the queries or
requests in it.
3.2 How to write

• Use separate paragraphs for stating different points.
• Include pie charts, graphs, flow charts etc. to present information and
bring lucidity to the content.
• Do not write the entire mail in capital
letters. Do not use slang,
• Highlight/ underline the key points so that incomprehensible
abbreviations and SMS
the reader can skim through the mail and get
language in your mails.
an idea of the content.

4 Advantages & Disadvantages of Email
4.1 Advantages
• Sends information to, or contact a large group of people.
• Send bulky documents or detailed information about any

project/ course/ product very easily in the form of electronic
attachments.
Advantages
• Easier to contact people despite of distances, busy schedules,

differing time zones etc.
• Enables daily communication on varied matters in an

organization very easily.
• Acts as evidence and reference in future.
4.2 Disadvantages
• Not appropriate for complicated and repeated lengthy

Disadvantages
discussions.
• Involves risk of access to unauthorised people.
• Cannot be used for confidential information.

Sample
From: manager@axion.com
To: admin@xyz.com
Cc: hr@xyz.com
Bcc: seniormanager@axion.com
Subject: Introducing Digital Notice

Board________________________________________
Attachments
Dear Sir/Madam,
Greetings for the day. I would like to introduce our new product Digital Notice
Board. The product will improve internal communications, increase workforce
awareness about the company policies, goals and key initiatives, and can also be
used to enhance visitor communication and engagement and convey emergency
alert messages thus preventing systems malfunctioning.
The “Interactive Display” feature can be fixed at strategic locations such as

Reception, Lobby, Meeting Rooms, etc.
Benefits:
• Display notices, news, achievements, images, videos, etc

• Convey messages to employees, customers, visitors
• Platform to inspire & motivate workforce
• Can be remotely managed and updated
• Return on investment achieved by using for advertisements
We are offering attractive discounts on bulk orders (minimum _____ units)
For more information / demonstration of the product, please write to us. Looking
forward for your kind response.
Warm regards,
Product Team Manager
Axion Electronics

CHAPTER 12: RESUME WRITING
Contents
• What is a Resume
• Covering Letter
• Types of Resume format
• How to write
1 Introduction
A resume is a document that introduces you i.e. the applicant to your prospective
employer or trainer. It tells them who you are, what you have done, and why they
should hire you.
A résumé or resume is a document used and created by a person to present their

background, skills, and accomplishments.
While drafting your resume pick out those of your skills that are most suited for the
position you are applying for and present them in a manner that allows the prospective
employer or trainer to evaluate them quickly and easily.
1.1 Importance
It is as a tool for promoting yourself. The first Resumes are used to

impression that you make on a prospective trainer or make a favorable
employer depends on the content and presentation impression on a
of your resume. prospective employer.

It outlines your background, your skills, and your education so that a potential
employer is quickly and easily able to see how your individual experiences can
contribute to a company's success
2 Cover Letter
Cover letter is an attachment to the resume. The purpose A resume is

of cover letter is to introduce you to an organization, incomplete without
convey your interest in the company or a specific vacancy, a cover letter.
and draw attention to your resume. receiver.
A cover letter is a letter that accompanies the resume and reflects your
knowledge of the employer or trainer.
Since this letter is often the first contact you have with a prospective employer or
trainer, a neat, concise, well-written letter will increase your chances of getting an
interview.
Employers use cover letters as a way to screen applicants for available jobs
and to determine which candidates they would like to interview.
2.1 Format
Cover letters / Job applications a type of formal letter, therefore, they follow a similar
format
Sender’s Address
Date:
• Designation /Name of the Addressee
• Address of the Address
• Salutation
• Subject:
Content
• Introduction
• Body
• Conclusion
•
• Complimentary Close
• Signature

Sample (Covering Letter)
H.No. xxx, _____ Street, Jaipur

Sender’s Address:
xx/xx/xxxx
Date:
Mr._______
Name & Designation
H R Manager
Address of the receiver Plot No.123, _____ Building, ABC Ltd
Salutation
Respected Sir
Subject:
Subj: Job Application for Accounts Assistant
Content:
This is with reference to your advertisement given in
• Introduction
Newspaper on date for job vacancy. I wish to apply for the
accounts assistant vacancy.
• Body My four years’ experience in two esteemed organisations in the
•
finance industry has helped me gain knowledge of handling
various accounting techniques. My positive attitude and team
spirit will help me become an asset for the organisation.
I would wish to have an opportunity to meet in person and

• Conclusion explain the details. Thanking you for considering my
application.
Thanking you,
Complimentary Close Yours sincerely
Signature ______________
Name of Sender

3 Types of Resume Format
Resume Format
Chronological Functional Combination
3.1 Chronological Format
The chronological resume format is the most Chronological resume

commonly used. It lists your most recent work or emphasis on your job titles
education history in reverse chronological order i.e. and your employment
With your most recent work or education history is history over your skills.
listed on top. receiver.
Who should use – People with strong practical experience, and that
experience is aligned with the job you are applying to, and you have no
breaks between employment.
Format
For Students
Name and contact details

Objective:
Academic Qualifications and Achievements:
Co-curricular Achievements:
Training Programs attended/completed
Strengths:
Interests/Hobbies/ Skills (optional)
Personal Details (Name, DOB, )

Sample (Resume for Student Resume)
Mobile: +91 00000000
E-mail@gmail.com
Address: xxxxx
Objective
To work in a competitive environment that enhances overall learning and allows me to add value
to the organisation and my professionalism.
Profile Summary
An enthusiastic commerce fresher who capable to use technical skills for the betterment of the
organization. A degree in Commerce and my proactive attitude has enhanced my proficiency in
maintaining books of account and preparing financial statements and looking forward to work
in a competitive environment that enhances overall learning.
Academic Qualifications
✓ B.Com from XYZ COLLEGE in 2017 (CGPA 7.85/10)

✓ Intermediate from ABC Institute in 2014 with 84%
✓ 10th |from ABC Institute in 2012 with 90%
Technical Skills (Training & course completed)

• Tally
• Filing GST Returns
• MS Office
Internship
Organization: ABC Ltd., City
Title: Accounts Executive
Duration: 2 Weeks
Responsibility: Preparation of Financial statements in Tally
Key Projects
Financial Accounting System & its analysis (ABC Ltd.)
Personal Details
Date of Birth: xxxx
Languages Known: English and Hindi

For Job applicants
• Name and contact details:

• Objective
• Career summary
• Professional experience
o Company 1
▪ Job title
▪ Responsibilities/Achievements
o Company 2
▪ Job title
▪ Responsibilities/Achievements
• Educational Details
• Hobbies / Interests / Skills (optional)
• Personal Details

Sample (Chronological Format)
Aditya Bhattacharya
822, SFS Flats,
Santa Cruz Mumbai - 220045
Phone: 98XXXXXXXX
Email: adi.bhattacharya@abc.com
OBJECTIVE:
To be associated with an organisation that will offer to me tremendous opportunities for

growth in career and provide a challenging environment that will utilise my accounting
skills and abilities to the maximum.
SUMMARY:
• More than 13 years of experience in both practical and managerial aspects of the
job. Possess a flawless understanding of fundamental concepts in accounting.
• Exceptionally good at application of accounting concepts in a varied manner.
Extensive experience in accounting practices to explore the various facets of the
economy.
• Excellent communication and comprehension skills.
• In-depth knowledge of foreign policies and trade policies followed by various
nations across the world.
EXPERIENCE:
Period Designation Organisation Job Responsibilities
2004 – Chartered Audit and ✓ Dealing with different clients

present accountant Taxation to understand their trading
Department, scopes and status of accountings.
XYZ &
Associates, ✓ Managing their financial
Bandra, systems and budgets.
Mumbai ✓ Performing periodic financial
audit for.
✓ Preparation of reply to notices
of Income Tax Authorities.
✓ Preparation of Sales Tax,
Service Tax and Wealth Tax

Returns of various clients.
✓ Conducting regular meetings

with the senior management.
✓ Providing expert financial
advice for the decision making
process
2001 – INTER Direct ✓ Worked as a core team

2004 QUALIFIED Taxation member of engagement
CHARTERED Department teams for statutory
ACCOUNTANT Goel & audits, and Tax Audits to
Associates clients across varied
Chartered sectors of the industry.
Accountants ✓ Independently handled
Pitam Pura, assignments and
Delhi maintained liaison with
clients.
✓ Prepared financial
statements of various
companies and firms
QUALIFICATIONS
Year Qualification % Marks Institution / University
2004 CA - Final 65 Institute of Chartered

Accountants of India
2001 CA - PCE 64 Institute of Chartered
1998 CA – CPT 70 Institute of Chartered
2000 B.Com 85 ABC College, Delhi University
1997 Class XII (CBSE ) 90 XYZ School, Delhi
1995 Class X (CBSE) 88 PQR School, Delhi

SKILLS:
Well versed with MS Office

Working knowledge of Tally
250 hours of Computer Training as per ICAI curriculum schedule
Updated with latest computer applications and software
PERSONAL DETAILS:
Date of Birth : 15 July, 1980

Marital Status : Married
Languages Known : English, Hindi, Bengali, Marathi
Permanent Address : 822, SFS Flats, Santa Cruz Mumbai – 220045
Place
Date Signature

3.2 Functional Format
The functional or skill-based resume places more

importance on your skills and accomplishments. Job Functional resumes
titles and where you have worked previously take on focus on your skills
and accomplishments
secondary importance. These resumes showcase your
first.
skills and experiences and are most suited for people
who have gaps in their career.
Who should use – Fresh Graduates, people with breaks in employment, who
are in the middle of a career transition, or have a diverse background with no
clear career path.
Sample (Functional Format)

_____Name____
Phone: 917 – XXX – XXX
Email: ________@gmail.com
Address: H.No:___________ Street, Bangalore - 12.
CAREER OBJECTIVE
Seeking a challenging career with a progressive organization that provides an

opportunity to utilize my technical skills & abilities in the field of information technology
(IT).
TECHNICAL SKILLS
• Hardware troubleshooting
• Network troubleshooting
• Programming (Java, C++, Visual Basic, Android Programming Language)
• Microsoft Office (MS Word, Excel, Power point, Internet, etc.)

• Adobe Creative Suite (Photoshop, InDesign, After Effects, Dreamweaver)
PERSONAL SKILLS
• Excellent written and verbal communication skills

• Highly organized and efficient
• Ability to work independently or as part of a team
• Proven leadership skills and ability to motivate
EDUCATION
B.Tech. 2014 ABC Institute of Technology, 89%

(Information & Communications) Bangalore
Class XII 2010 XYZ School, CBSE 92%
ACHIEVEMENTS/RESPONSIBILITIES
• President, Association of Computer Students (2013 - 2014)

• Lay-out Artist, ABC Institute Student Magazine (2012 - 2014)
PRE-PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE
• Technical Support Intern - IT Department PQR Business Services, Mangalore,

Karnataka (June 2013 – Feb 2014)
• Provided Level 1 support, handled troubleshooting and maintenance as well as
monitoring and deployment of IT
REFERENCES: Will be provided upon request.
DECLARATION
I solemnly declare that all the above information is correct to the best of my knowledge
and belief.
Date:
Place: (__Signature__)

3.3 Combination Format
Combination resumes is a mix of

A combination resume
chronological and functional resumes, which
begins with the functional
lets you detail both your skills and experience,
format and finishes with
while also backing this up with a chronological
information of employment.
listing of work history. Flexible in nature, the
combination resume lets you tailor to the prospective job opening and tell hiring
managers a story.
Who should use – People with appropriate qualification and skill set and
also have adequate work experience to show hiring managers the type of
employee they could be.
Sample 3 (Combination Format)

Raghav Shetty
1207, Minto Road Pune, Karnataka.
Tel: 954XXXXXXX / email: r_shetty@ymail.com
Career Objective
Seeking to work for a progressive organisation at the post of a Laboratory Technician,
Junior Technologist or Quality Control Assistant within the Food Processing,
Pharmaceutical or Chemical Manufacturing industry which will provide opportunities to
utilize my skills & abilities.
Summary of Qualifications
In-depth understanding of the manufacturing process of Foods and Pharmaceuticals
including Research, Product Testing, In-Process Control, Production Planning, Process
Operations, Statistical Quality Control, Experimental Techniques, Product Development
and Technical Documentation.

Have a hands-on training and laboratory experience along with the competency to
conduct detailed experiments and testing, interpret their results and prepare written
reports for them.
I am an enthusiastic, industrious and creative individual and possess strong analytical,
investigative, decision making, and communication skills.
Education
Jindal college of applied arts (Pune, Maharashtra.)
B. Tech in Food and Drug Technology (3-year Undergraduate Programme)
Major Areas of Study:
• Practices of Food Manufacturing
• Processing Operations
• Statistical Quality Control
• Pharmacology
• Analytical Chemistry
• Food Science & Nutrition
Overview of skills and experience acquired through training

• Carried out detailed analysis of foods utilising modern instrumentation.
• Identified possible risk factors such as toxins, contaminations and foreign bodies
using practical applications of microbiology in testing pharmaceuticals and foods.
• Carried out tests on numerous products in a laboratory for quality and product
substitution.
• Studied in depth about the rules and regulations that control the market.
• Employed techniques of analysis involving electrochemical, spectroscopy, gas
chromatography, and high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC).
Employment
JB CHEMICALS, Pune, Maharashtra 2005 - 2017 Sales Manager (full – time)
• Ensured that excellent service was provided to customers after identifying their
needs and providing appropriate product information.
• Tracked, recorded and verified the shipping of products from warehouses across
the country.
• Was awarded “Most Promising Employee” and “Pinnacle Award” for reliability
and commitment to delivering great customer service.
Computer Skills
• Proficient in the use of advanced testing instruments including XYZ Testing Suite.
• Expert in the use of Microsoft Word, Excel and PowerPoint.
• Possess the ability to quickly and independently learn new computer applications.
References
Available upon request
Declaration
I solemnly declare that all the above information is correct to the best of my knowledge
and belief.
Date:
Place: raghav shetty
4 Essentials of Resume
4.1 Contact Information

It is extremely important to supply your contact details on your resume. It should
include
• postal mail address,
• telephone or mobile number
• email address.
4.2 Career Profile

A brief summary of your skills and areas of expertise should be included to give
the potential employer an idea as to what you can do.
4.3 Work Experience

As much as possible, include all your work history experience. It should include
• the company/ organisation name,
• job title,
• responsibilities and
• associated joining dates

4.4 Education
Include details of your education, including licenses or certifications you have
acquired.
4.5 Skills
Mention any relevant skills in terms of software and hardware systems and other
technical skills.
5 How to write a Resume
• Keep the format simple and readable.

• Restrict your resume to minimum number of pages.
• Clearly state your objective. Do not use a broad or vague or unquantifiable
objective statement.
• Provide correct and truthful information.
Avoid exaggerations and
• Organise the information in a manner that
untruths as the employers or
flows logically, either from academics to job trainers may verify what is
experience written in the resume.
• Tone should be neutral; no bias towards any
community/religion.
• Ensure there are no grammatical errors.
• Unless asked for, do not mention the
Highlight your achievements
expected salary in the resume.
instead of responsibilities.
There is nothing called an ideal length to a resume, so try to keep it short

and crisp to avoid boring your prospective employer or trainer.

CHAPTER 13: MEETINGS
Contents
• Meeting & its associated documents
• Agenda
• Minutes of a Meeting
• Action Taken Report
1 Meetings
A meeting is a coming together of (generally) three or more people to exchange

information in a planned manner and discuss issues set out before them to arrive
at decisions, solve problems
Meetings are conducted by people within an organization to
• resolve any problems and issues faced while completing any work,
• chalk out new strategies to promote business/
increase profitability,
• exchange ideas and information, A meeting can be
• ensure coordination on issues on the agenda and formal or informal.
effective communication within the group/
organization.
For any meeting to be successful, it needs the support of the group involved, or the
organisation behind it and it must have the intention of achieving some goal or
objective.

Identify Send
Set Agenda
Participants Intimation
Appoint Conduct Summarise

Facilitator meeting Discussion
Decide Distribute
Prepare
action to be Minutes to
Minutes
taken participants
1.1 Requisites of a Meeting
1.1.1 Select the Right Participants:

To engage in a purposeful meeting, participants must have
• a reason for attending;
• a point of view about the issue,
• the need to know,
• the authority to make a decision, or
any useful information, that will add value to the discussion and lead to some
conclusion.
1.1.2 Send Intimation to all participants:

Notice for meeting should
The notice for the meeting should be sent
include date, time, venue,
by a proper authority at least2-3 days before names of participants and the
the meeting so that participants have time to agenda of the meeting
gather information and data required for it.
1.1.3 Set an Agenda:

An agenda must be provided before the meeting. It communicates the subject
of the meeting, the speakers, time allotted to each speaker etc.
1.1.4 Appoint a Facilitator:

A facilitator is appointed to guide the meeting to its logical conclusion.
Facilitator of the Meeting

• He aids the group in reaching a consensus in taking a decision and
enables cooperative decision-making without conflict
• The members of the group are accountable and committed to the
resolution taken by them.
• He ensures purpose of the meeting is served by providing a structure to a
process.
1.1.5 Arrive at Clear Conclusions and Formulate Next Steps:

After deliberation on an agenda topic, it is necessary to
• summarize what was discussed;
• state the clearly decisions or analysis arrived at, and
• decide on the future steps that need to be taken.
At the conclusion of the meeting a briefly recount the proceedings and
summarize the future course of action.
1.1.6 Create Opportunities for Creativity and Participation:

A meeting should be opportunity to bring multiple perspectives into the room
in order to collaborate, debate, decide, and perform the real work of a team.
2 Agenda
An agenda is a list of meeting activities in the order in which they are to be taken
up
2.1 Need for Agenda
• States the objective/purpose of the meeting thus keeps the meeting focused on
the issue.
• Informs issues/ topics to be discussed to the participants beforehand, thus
participants are more prepared.

• It makes meeting more effective as it does not allow speakers to deviate from the
subjects and issues at hand.
2.2 Essentials of Agenda
• State purpose clearly

• Give time to the participants understand and prepare for their roles.
• Allot specific time to each speaker.
• Inform the sequence in which the members shall speak.
• Give references of documents or material required.
2.3 Format
Meeting Title - Agenda
Meeting Information
Objective:
Date:
Time:
Location
Agenda items Time
Other information:
Signature Date

Sample Agenda
Objective: Staff Matters

Date: 12/05/2020
Time: 10:00 AM
Location: Board Room
S. Time Topic Attendees Speaker Durati

No on
1 10:00 am Welcome i) Director - 15 min
Note ii) HR
iii)
2 10:15 am Change in -do- HR 30 min
HR policies Manager
3 10:45 am a) Supervis i) Branch 45 min
or ii) Manger
timings iii)
issue iv)
b) Transfers v)
c) Intern
appoint
ments
4 11:15 am Tea 10min
Signature Date

3 Minutes
Minutes are the instant written record of a meeting or hearing. They typically describe
the events of the meeting and may include a list of attendees, a statement of the issues
considered by the participants, and related responses or decisions for the issues
3.1 Need for writing Minutes
• Various participants may have different recollections of the meeting.

• Diverse interpretations of action plan possible.
• Important tasks can be forgotten.
• Dates of submission of subject matter/ report/ action taken plan overlooked/
achievement of specified tasks pushed forward.
• A written record is always available for ready reference.
• Used as reminders for oneself and others.
• Can be required for legal reasons.
3.2 Steps in writing Minutes
Make notes
Pre-plan during the Write Minutes
meeting
Signatures on Circulate
File Minutes
Minutes Minutes
3.2.1 Pre-plan
• Use a copy of meeting agenda as a guideline to take notes and prepare the
minutes.
• Use a similar order and numbering of items as on the agenda for the meeting.

• Note down the names of all people attending the meeting in advance.
• All documents and handouts used or given in the meeting should be filed for
future reference and to be shared with others.
• Get clear instructions of the expectations of your role during the meeting, as well
as the type of details expected in the minutes.
3.2.2 Record taking at the meeting
• Mention date and time of meeting.

• Names of all attending the meeting and also of the absentees.
• The correction and amendments made with reference to the previous meeting
minutes.
• The decisions taken about each agenda item.
• The necessary steps taken or will be taken with reference to the issue.
• The future plan of action.
• Date and time of next meeting, if decided.
Suggestions for Taking Notes:
• Have a format/ structure ready. Note down main points and leave space
• Keep a record of attendees in hand – mark attendance against names
• Make notes on all items for discussion on agenda side by side to ensure
accuracy.
• Clarify if there is ambiguity/doubt at any point during the meeting.
• Write (or type) just the decisions, assignments, action steps, etc. simply,
clearly and concisely.
• Record meeting (audio / video) if possible, with participants permission

3.2.3 Writing the minutes
• Go through your record from meeting. You may decide to add some details
and delete some matter.
• Ensure that all decision, resolutions and motions
are correctly noted by rechecking with concerned All notes should
participants. be brief and
clear.
• Ensure that all required details are noted.
• Ensure proper sequence, flow and grammatical accuracy.
• Do not include any conflicts or personal comments.
• Any reference material can be attached in the appendix or mention where it
can be found.
3.2.4 Circulating / Sharing Minutes

• Ensure the appropriate authority has reviewed and approved the minutes.
• Either send hard copies or share the minutes (if the authorities permit it) via an
email.
3.2.5 Filing /Storage of Minutes
After the final approval, the minutes need to be stored for future reference. The
minutes can be stored online, in hard drives or printed and put in files.

Sample (Project meeting minutes)
Date: 5th Dec, 2016
Meetings started at 9: 00 am.
• Mr. Ramesh, Chairperson gave an introduction.

• Mr. Kamlesh, Product Head spoke about the new product.
• Ms. Shalini, Regional Manager, Business, gave a detailed project report.
(market surveys, future aspects, challenges included).
• Participants approved of Ms. Shalini’s report. Appreciated the meticulous
detailing.
• Mr. Rehman, Marketing Head discussed the market scene, demand and
supply and customer interest.
• Mr. Satyan, Director Finance, gave details of costing. Finance team led by
Mr X, Mr. Y and Mr. Z were part of the presentation.
The Chairperson declared an open house for participants to put up their
concerns, and finally gave a vote of thanks.
Conclusions stated.
Proposal for more funds put forward. Tenders to be released.
ATR will be submitted by 12th Dec, 2016.
Signature
Signature Date

Sample (Board Meeting Minutes)
BCR Signature www.indigolearn.com Date 182

Sample (AGM Minutes)

4 Action Report Taken
Action Taken Report is a report compiled few days after a meeting, stating the various
actions taken as per the discussions made.
ATR must always be submitted after a gap of about 5-7 days, or more, after the
meetings. This gives appropriate time for actions to be taken and the matter to be
discussed/ stated in the form of a report.
Sample (Action Report Taken)

10/09/xxxx
As per the meeting held on 5th Sep, XXXX at the Head Office of ABC Ltd., following
actions have been reported:
• The client had complied to deliver the goods by 4th October. Work done
• The client has asked for more time for installation of _____________.
• The order has been retained and client’s proposal has been agreed to.
Signature
Director,
Sales & Marketing Director,
Business
Signature Date

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Table of Contents

Chapter 2: Sentence Types and Direct-Indirect, Active-Passive Speech 20

Chapter 4: Comprehension Passages 77

Chapter 5: Note Making 82

Chapter 6: Introduction to Basics of Writing 95

Chapter 7: Precis Writing 104

Chapter 8: Article Writing 111

Chapter 9: Report Writing 117

Chapter 10: Writing Formal Letters and Official Communication

Part I: Formal Letters 131

Part II: Official Communication 146

Chapter 11: Writing Formal Mails 151

Chapter 12: Resume Writing 158

Chapter 13: Meetings 173

Communication is a process which involves

1.2 Communication Process happens between two parties

Figure : ICAI Material

1.4 Problems in Communication

1.5 Importance of Communication

Purpose & Style Process

Formal Informal Verbal Non-verbal Visual

• Vertical • Written • Physical

2.1 Verbal & Non-Verbal Communication

2.1.1 Verbal Communication

Medium Usage Inherent skills

• Letters & • Formal Business • Writing style

• Oral Communication – communication through spoken word

Medium Usage Inherent skills

It is the process of sending and receiving wordless messages. Mostly used to

o complement and illustrate,

• Physical nonverbal communication: It involves an individual’s body language,

Physical communication accounts for 55 % of all communication. Smiles,

Research estimates that tone of the voice accounts for 38 % of all

• Aesthetic communication: Art forms such as dancing, painting, sculptor, music

• Symbols such as religious, status, or ego-building symbols.

• Visual Communication: It is through visual aids such as signs, typography,

2.2 Formal & Informal Communication

2.2.1 Formal Communication

Formal communication follows certain rules, principles and conventions in conveying

• Vertical: Information can flow upwards or downwards in the organization. For

Manager Manager Manager

Sales man Supervisor Staff

• Horizontal: Horizontal communication that involves communication between two

Sales man Supervisor Staff

Manager Manager Manager

Sales man Supervisor Staff

2.2.2 Informal Communication

It is unofficial form of communication. It is casual, spontaneous & friendly in nature. It

Grapevine – It is the informal form of communication Grapevine is

A communication network - method and pattern used by members of an organisation

• size of the organisation,

The most common networks followed in organisations are the following

3.1 Vertical Network

3.2 Circuit Network

3.4 Wheel & Spoke Network

3.5 Star Network

Network Figures: ICAI Material

An effective communicator understands their audience, chooses an appropriate

The following are the essential features for Effective Communication:

4.7 Listening for Understanding

4.8 Focus and Attention

4.9 Emotional Awareness and Control