A TECHNICAL REPORT

ON

Machining operation

Compiled by:

Elemuren Raheem a.

(Mme/07/0594)

Submitted to:

The department of metallurgical and materials engineering,

Futa.

Oct., 2011

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 DEDICATION

It gives me great pleasure to dedicate this work to God for seeing me through the whole
period of the Industrial Training and till this stage of my life.

1
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

My indebtedness is no doubt substantial on this work; given the long time it has taken. I
must thank all my lecturers for their inspiration and encouragement they offer me in their
drive for excellence and wisdom from the beginning till this stage of my tutelage.

Nonetheless, I must specially thank my parent for their wonderful and selfless way they
have been nurturing and developing me to become an excellent leader.

The greatest and all thanks go to Almighty God who has seen me through this work.

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 ABSTRACT

Cement is a hydraulic binder, it is a finely ground mixture of materials which when

mixed with water forms a paste that sets and hardens even under water. The major
material used in cement manufacturing is Limestone which is mixed with other materials
known as additives i.e. pozolan, ash, blast furnace slag, limestone etc. These components
are added at varying proportion to produce various types of cement. The Nigerian market
is currently exposed to Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC).

Ordinary Portland Cement is an all-purpose cement (suitable for all construction

activities i.e. plastering, concrete casting, screeding, rendering, grouting etc). It also
serves as raw materials for manufacturers of bricks, tiles, shingles, pipes, beams, fibre
cement sheet (roofing sheet), railroad ties, and other cement products. The products are
prefabricated in factories and supplied ready for installation. Mixtures of soil and
Portland cement are also used as a base for roads.

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 TABLE OF CONTENT

1.0 INTRODUCTION
2.0 MACHINING
3.0 LATHE MACHINE
3.1 DESCRIPTION
3.2 ACCESSORIES
4.0 TURNING OPERATION
4.1 FACING
4.2 PARTING OFF
4.3 GROOVING
4.4 BORING
4.5 DRILLING
4.6 THREADING
5.0 DRILLING OPERATION
5.1 SPOT DRILLING
5.2 CENTER DRILLING
5.3 DEEP HOLE DRILLING
5.4 GUN DRILLING
5.5 TREPANNING
6.0 HEALTH AND SAFETY POLICY
7.0 QUALITY POLICY
8.0 CONCLUSION
9.0 REFERENCES

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 CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Since its incorporation in 1959 in response to a growing demand for Cement and aligned
products, West African Portland Cement PLC (now Lafarge Cement Wapco) has
remained the flagship producer of the essential input to building in Nigeria. Symbolised
by the strength of the Elephant, Lafarge has continued to connote power, maturity,
resilience, durability and reliability.

It has continued to expand and assert itself as a market leader across boarders, despite the
overall instability and weakness of the market. The brand is successful primarily due to
its outstanding quality complemented by its superior sales network and a world-class
logistic framework to position the Elephant brand as a clear leader in its product class.
The brand has consistently won the NIS Certificate for product quality by the Nigerian
Standard Organization for over two decades now.

Lafarge Cement Wapco is driven towards continuous innovation and modernization of

production methodologies in order to protect the environment and remain at the cutting
edge of technology. It is located in Ogun state; Nigeria The new Ewekoro plant has raised
the bar and expanded the product range and target market, increasing the national market
share to over 35%.

Tomorrow’s Lafarge Cement Wapco will continue to be a pacesetter in producing quality

cement, driving customer satisfaction to the highest attainable limits in order to remain
the producer of choice for the ever growing construction industry in Nigeria.

In Lafarge, there are various sections which are

Cement is a hydraulic binder, it is a finely ground mixture of materials which when

mixed with water forms a paste that sets and hardens even under water. The major

5
material used in cement manufacturing is Limestone which is mixed with other materials
known as additives i.e. pozolan, ash, blast furnace slag, limestone etc. These components
are added at varying proportion to produce various types of cement. The Nigerian market
is currently exposed to Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC).

Ordinary Portland Cement is an all-purpose cement (suitable for all construction

activities i.e plastering, concrete casting, screeding, rendering, grouting etc). It also
serves as raw materials for manufacturers of bricks, tiles, shingles, pipes, beams, fibre
cement sheet (roofing sheet), railroad ties, and other cement products. The products are
prefabricated in factories and supplied ready for installation. Mixtures of soil and
Portland Cement are also used as a base for roads.

 Lafarge Cement WAPCO produces Elephant Cement and has consistently delivered high
quality premium services to its customers since 1959 - an indicator that customer
satisfaction is customary to our operations at Lafarge Cement WAPCO. Elephant Cement
is available in 50 kg bags and 30-tonnes bulk tankers.

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 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 MACHINING

Conventional machining is a collection of material-working processes in which power-

driven machine tools, such as saws, lathes, milling machines, and drill presses, are used
with a sharp cutting tool to mechanically cut the material to achieve the desired
geometry. Machining is a part of the manufacture of almost all metal products, and it is
common for other materials, such as wood and plastic, to be machined. A person who
specializes in machining is called a machinist. A room, building, or company where
machining is done is called a machine shop. Much of modern day machining is controlled
by computers using computer numerical control (CNC) machining.

An unfinished workpiece requiring machining will need to have some material cut away
to create a finished product. A finished product would be a workpiece that meets the
specifications set out for that workpiece by engineering drawings or blueprints. A lathe is
a machine tool that can be used to create any diameter by rotating a metal workpiece, so
that a cutting tool can cut metal away, creating a smooth, round surface matching the
required diameter and surface finish. A drill can be used to remove metal in the shape of
a cylindrical hole. Other tools that may be used for various types of metal removal are
milling machines, saws, and grinding machines.

Machining requires attention to many details for a workpiece to meet the specifications
set out in the engineering drawings or blueprints. Besides the obvious problems related to
correct dimensions, there is the problem of achieving the correct finish or surface
smoothness on the workpiece. The inferior finish found on the machined surface of a
workpiece may be caused by incorrect clamping, a dull tool, or inappropriate presentation
of a tool. Frequently, this poor surface finish, known as chatter, is evident by an
undulating or irregular finish, and the appearance of waves on the machined surfaces of
the workpiece.

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The three principal machining processes are classified as turning, drilling and milling.
Other operations falling into miscellaneous categories include shaping, planing, boring,
broaching and sawing.

 Turning operations are operations that rotate the workpiece as the primary method
of moving metal against the cutting tool. Lathes are the principal machine tool
used in turning.

 Milling operations are operations in which the cutting tool rotates to bring cutting
edges to bear against the workpiece. Milling machines are the principal machine
tool used in milling.

 Drilling operations are operations in which holes are produced or refined by

bringing a rotating cutter with cutting edges at the lower extremity into contact
with the workpiece. Drilling operations are done primarily in drill presses but
sometimes on lathes or mills.

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 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 LATHE MACHINE

In a metalworking lathe, metal is removed from the workpiece using a hardened cutting
tool, which is usually fixed to a solid moveable mounting, either a toolpost or a turret,
which is then moved against the workpiece using handwheels and/or computer controlled
motors. These (cutting) tools come in a wide range of sizes and shapes depending upon
their application. Some common styles are diamond, round, square and triangular.

The toolpost is operated by leadscrews that can accurately position the tool in a variety of
planes. The toolpost may be driven manually or automatically to produce the roughing
and finishing cuts required to turn the workpiece to the desired shape and dimensions, or
for cutting threads, worm gears, etc. Cutting fluid may also be pumped to the cutting site
to provide cooling, lubrication and clearing of swarf from the workpiece. Some lathes
may be operated under control of a computer for mass production of parts (see
"Computer Numerical Control").

Manually controlled metalworking lathes are commonly provided with a variable ratio
gear train to drive the main leadscrew. This enables different thread pitches to be cut. On
some older lathes or more affordable new lathes, the gear trains are changed by swapping
gears with various numbers of teeth onto or off of the shafts, while more modern or
expensive manually controlled lathes have a quick change box to provide commonly used
ratios by the operation of a lever. CNC lathes use computers and servomechanisms to
regulate the rates of movement.

On manually controlled lathes, the thread pitches that can be cut are, in some ways,
determined by the pitch of the leadscrew: A lathe with a metric leadscrew will readily cut
metric threads (including BA), while one with an imperial leadscrew will readily cut

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imperial unit based threads such as BSW or UTS (UNF,UNC). This limitation is not
insurmountable, because a 127-tooth gear, called a transposing gear, is used to translate
between metric and inch thread pitches. However, this is optional equipment that many
lathe owners do not own. It is also a larger changewheel than the others, and on some
lathes may be larger than the changewheel mounting banjo is capable of mounting.

The workpiece may be supported between a pair of points called centres, or it may be
bolted to a faceplate or held in a chuck. A chuck has movable jaws that can grip the
workpiece securely.

There are some effects on material properties when using a metalworking lathe. There are
few chemical or physical effects, but there are many mechanical effects, which include
residual stress, microcracks, workhardening, and tempering in hardened materials.

3.1 DESCRIPTION

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A lathe may or may not have a stand (or legs), which sits on the floor and elevates the
lathe bed to a working height. Some lathes are small and sit on a workbench or table, and
do not have a stand.

Almost all lathes have a bed, which is (almost always) a horizontal beam (although some
CNC lathes have a vertical beam for a bed to ensure that swarf, or chips, falls free of the
bed).

At one end of the bed (almost always the left, as the operator faces the lathe) is a
headstock. The headstock contains high-precision spinning bearings. Rotating within the
bearings is a horizontal axle, with an axis parallel to the bed, called the spindle. Spindles
are often hollow, and have exterior threads and/or an interior Morse taper on the
"inboard" (i.e., facing to the right / towards the bed) by which workholding accessories
may be mounted to the spindle. Spindles may also have exterior threads and/or an interior
taper at their "outboard" (i.e., facing away from the bed) end, and/or may have a
handwheel or other accessory mechanism on their outboard end. Spindles are powered,
and impart motion to the workpiece.

The spindle is driven, either by foot power from a treadle and flywheel or by a belt or
gear drive to a power source. In most modern lathes this power source is an integral
electric motor, often either in the headstock, to the left of the headstock, or beneath the
headstock, concealed in the stand.

In addition to the spindle and its bearings, the headstock often contains parts to convert
the motor speed into various spindle speeds. Various types of speed-changing mechanism
achieve this, from a cone pulley or step pulley, to a cone pulley with back gear (which is
essentially a low range, similar in net effect to the two-speed rear of a truck), to an entire
gear train similar to that of a manual-shift auto transmission. Some motors have
electronic rheostat-type speed controls, which obviates cone pulleys or gears.

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The counterpoint to the headstock is the tailstock, sometimes referred to as the loose
head, as it can be positioned at any convenient point on the bed, by undoing a locking
nut, sliding it to the required area, and then relocking it. The tailstock contains a barrel
which does not rotate, but can slide in and out parallel to the axis of the bed, and directly
in line with the headstock spindle. The barrel is hollow, and usually contains a taper to
facilitate the gripping of various type of tooling. Its most common uses are to hold a
hardened steel centre, which is used to support long thin shafts while turning, or to hold
drill bits for drilling axial holes in the work piece. Many other uses are possible.

Metalworking lathes have a carriage (comprising a saddle and apron) topped with a
cross-slide, which is a flat piece that sits crosswise on the bed, and can be cranked at right
angles to the bed. Sitting atop the cross slide is usually another slide called a compound
rest, which provides two additional axes of motion, rotary and linear. Atop that sits a
toolpost, which holds a cutting tool which removes material from the workpiece. There
may or may not be a leadscrew, which moves the cross-slide along the bed.

Woodturning and metal spinning lathes do not have cross-slides, but rather have banjos,
which are flat pieces that sit crosswise on the bed. The position of a banjo can be adjusted
by hand; no gearing is involved. Ascending vertically from the banjo is a toolpost, at the
top of which is a horizontal toolrest. In woodturning, hand tools are braced against the
tool rest and levered into the workpiece. In metal spinning, the further pin ascends
vertically from the tool rest, and serves as a fulcrum against which tools may be levered
into the workpiece.

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3.2 ACCESSORIES

A steady rest

Unless a workpiece has a taper machined onto it which perfectly matches the internal
taper in the spindle, or has threads which perfectly match the external threads on the
spindle (two conditions which rarely exist), an accessory must be used to mount a
workpiece to the spindle.

A workpiece may be bolted or screwed to a faceplate, a large, flat disk that mounts to the
spindle. In the alternative, faceplate dogs may be used to secure the work to the faceplate.

A workpiece may be mounted on a mandrel, or circular work clamped in a three- or four-

jaw chuck. For irregular shaped workpieces it is usual to use a four jaw (independent

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moving jaws) chuck. These holding devices mount directly to the Lathe headstock
spindle.

In precision work, and in some classes of repetition work, cylindrical workpieces are
usually held in a collet inserted into the spindle and secured either by a drawbar, or by a
collet closing cap on the spindle. Suitable collets may also be used to mount square or
hexagonal workpieces. In precision toolmaking work such collets are usually of the draw-
in variety, where, as the collet is tightened, the workpiece moves slightly back into the
headstock, whereas for most repetition work the dead length variety is preferred, as this
ensures that the position of the workpiece does not move as the collet is tightened.

A soft workpiece (wooden) may be pinched between centers by using a spur drive at the
headstock, which bites into the wood and imparts torque to it.

Dead centre (left) Drill Chuck (right)

A soft dead center is used in the headstock spindle as the work rotates with the centre.
Because the centre is soft it can be trued in place before use. The included angle is 60°.
Traditionally, a hard dead center is used together with suitable lubricant in the tailstock to
support the workpiece. In modern practice the dead center is frequently replaced by a live
center, as it turns freely with the workpiece — usually on ball bearings — reducing the
frictional heat, especially important at high speeds. When clear facing a long length of
material, it must be supported at both ends. This can be achieved by the use of a

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travelling or fixed steady. If a steady is not available, the end face being worked on may
be supported by a dead (stationary) half centre. A half centre has a flat surface machined
across a broad section of half of its diameter at the pointed end. A small section of the tip
of the dead centre is retained to ensure concentricity. Lubrication must be applied at this
point of contact and tail stock pressure reduced. A lathe carrier or lathe dog may also be
employed when turning between two centers.

In woodturning, one variation of a live center is a cup center, which is a cone of metal
surrounded by an annular ring of metal that decreases the chances of the workpiece
splitting.

A circular metal plate with even spaced holes around the periphery, mounted to the
spindle, is called an "index plate". It can be used to rotate the spindle to a precise angle,
and then lock it in place, facilitating repeated auxiliary operations done to the workpiece.

Other accessories, including items such as taper turning attachments, knurling tools,
vertical slides, fixed and traveling steadies, etc., increase the versatility of a lathe and the
range of work it may perform.

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 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 TURNING OPERATION

Turning is one of the basic machining processes. Turning operations is performed on a

machine called lathe in which the tool is stationary and the workpiece is rotated. A lathe
machine frequently requires continuous supervision by the operator, or by using a
computer controlled and automated lathe which does not.

When turning, a piece of material (wood, metal, plastic, or stone) is rotated and a cutting
tool is traversed along 2 axes of motion to produce precise diameters and depths. Turning
can be either on the outside of the cylinder or on the inside (also known as boring) to
produce tubular components to various geometries. Although now quite rare, early lathes
could even be used to produce complex geometric figures, even the platonic solids;
although until the advent of CNC it had become unusual to use one for this purpose for
the last three quarters of the twentieth century. It is said that the lathe is the only machine
tool that can reproduce itself.

The turning processes are typically carried out on a lathe, considered to be the oldest
machine tools, and can be of four different types such as straight turning, taper turning,
profiling or external grooving. Those types of turning processes can produce various
shapes of materials such as straight, conical, curved, or grooved workpiece. In general,
turning uses simple single-point cutting tools. Each group of workpiece materials has an
optimum set of tools angles which have been developed through the years. The bits of
waste metals from turning operations are known as chips (North America), or swarf
(Britain). They may be known as turnings in some areas.

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4.1 FACING

It involves moving the cutting tool at right angles to the axis of rotation of the rotating
workpiece. This can be performed by the operation of the cross-slide, if one is fitted, as
distinct from the longitudinal feed (turning). It is frequently the first operation performed
in the production of the workpiece, and often the last- hence the phrase "ending up".

17
4.2 PARTING OFF

This process is used to create deep grooves which will remove a completed or part-
complete component from its parent stock.

4.3 GROOVING

Grooving is like parting, except that grooves are cut to a specific depth by a form tool
instead of severing a completed/part-complete component from the stock. Grooving can
be performed on internal and external surfaces, as well as on the face of the part (face
grooving or trepanning).

4.4 BORING

This is the process of enlarging an already drilled hole.i.e. the machining of internal
cylindrical forms (generating) a) by mounting workpiece to the spindle via a chuck or
faceplate b) by mounting workpiece onto the cross slide and placing cutting tool into the
chuck. This work is suitable for castings that are to awkward to mount in the face plate.
On long bed lathes large workpiece can be bolted to a fixture on the bed and a shaft
passed between two lugs on the workpiece and these lugs can be bored out to size. A
limited application but one that is available to the skilled turner/machinist[2]
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4.5 DRILLING

It is used to remove material from the inside of a workpiece. This process utilizes
standard drill bits held stationary in the tail stock or tool turret of the lathe.

4.6 THREADING

Both standard and non-standard screw threads can be turned on a lathe using an
appropriate cutting tool.Either externally, or within a bore.[4] Generally referred to as
single-point threading.

tapping of threaded nuts and holes a) using hand taps and tailstock centre b)using a
tapping device with a slipping clutch to reduce risk of breakage of the tap[2]

threading operations include a)all types of external and internal thread forms using a
single point tool also taper threads, double start threads, multi start threads, worms as
used in worm wheel reduction boxes, leadscrew with single or multistart threads. b) by
the use of threading boxes fitted with 4 form tools, up to 2" diameter threads but it is
possible to find larger boxes than this.

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20
 CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 DRILLING OPERATION

Drilling is a cutting process that uses a drill bit to cut or enlarge a hole in solid materials.
The drill cuts by applying pressure and rotation to the workpiece, which forms chips at
the cutting edge.

Under normal usage, swarf is carried up and away from the tip of the drill bit by the
fluting of the drill bit. The cutting edges produce more chips which continue the
movement of the chips outwards from the hole. This is successful until the chips pack too
tightly, either because of deeper than normal holes or insufficient backing off (removing
the drill slightly or totally from the hole while drilling). Cutting fluid is sometimes used
to ease this problem and to prolong the tools life by cooling and lubricating the tip and
chip flow. Coolant may be introduced via holes through the drill shank, which is common
when using a gun drill. When cutting aluminum in particular, cutting fluid helps ensure a
smooth and accurate hole while preventing the metal from grabbing the drill bit in the
process of drilling the hole.

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Drilled holes are characterized by their sharp edge on the entrance side and the presence
of burrs on the exit side (unless they have been removed). Also, the inside of the hole
usually has helical feed marks.

Drilling may affect the mechanical properties of the workpiece by creating low residual
stresses around the hole opening and a very thin layer of highly stressed and disturbed
material on the newly formed surface. This causes the workpiece to become more
susceptible to corrosion at the stressed surface.

For fluted drill bits, any chips are removed via the flutes. Chips may be long spirals or
small flakes, depending on the material, and process parameters. The type of chips
formed can be an indicator of the machinability of the material, with long gummy chips
reducing machinability.

When possible, drilled holes should be located perpendicular to the workpiece surface.
This minimizes the drill bit's tendency to "walk", that is, to be deflected, which causes the
hole to be misplaced. The higher the length-to-diameter ratio of the drill bit, the higher
the tendency to walk. The tendency to walk is also preempted in various other ways,
which include:

 Establishing a centering mark or feature before drilling, such as by :

 Casting, molding, or forging a mark into the workpiece,

 Center punching,

 Spot drilling (center drilling).

 Constraining the position of the drill using a drill jig with drill bushings.

Surface finish in drilling may range from 32 to 500 micro inches. Finish cuts will
generate surfaces near 32 micro inches, and roughing will be near 500 micro inches.

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Cutting fluid is commonly used to cool the drill bit, increase tool life, increase speeds and
feeds, increase the surface finish, and aid in ejecting chips. Application of these fluids is
usually done by flooding the workpiece or by applying a spray mist.

In deciding which drill(s) to use, it is important to consider the task at hand and evaluate
which drill would best accomplish the task. There are a variety of drill styles that each
serves a different purpose. The subland drill is capable of drilling more than one
diameter. The spade drill is used to drill larger hole sizes. The indexable drill is useful in
managing chips.

5.1 SPOT DRILLING

The purpose of spot drilling is to drill a hole that will act as a guide for drilling the final
hole. The hole is only drilled part way into the workpiece because it is only used to guide
the beginning of the next drilling process.

5.2 CENTER DRILLING

The purpose of center drilling is to drill a hole that will act as a center of rotation for
possible following operations. Center drilling is typically performed using a drill with a
special shape, known as a center drill.

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5.3 DEEP HOLE DRILLING

Deep hole drilling is defined as a hole depth greater than five times the diameter of the
hole. These types of holes require special equipment to maintain the straightness and
tolerances. Other considerations are roundness and surface finish.

Deep hole drilling is generally achievable with a few tooling methods, usually gun
drilling or BTA drilling. These are differentiated due to the coolant entry method
(internal or external) and chip removal method (internal or external). Secondary tooling
methods include trepanning, skiving and burnishing, pull boring, or bottle boring.

A high tech monitoring system is used to control force, torque, vibrations, and acoustic
emission. The vibration is considered a major defect in deep hole drilling which can often
cause the drill to break. Special coolant is usually used to aid in this type of drilling.

5.4 GUN DRILLING

This method was originally developed to drill out gun barrels and is used commonly for
drilling smaller diameter deep holes. This depth-to-diameter ratio can be even more than
300:1. The key feature of gun drilling is that the bits are self-centering; this is what
allows for such deep accurate holes. The bits use a rotary motion similar to a twist drill
however; the bits are designed with bearing pads that slide along the surface of the hole
keeping the drill bit on center. Gun drilling is usually done at high speeds and low feed
rates.

5.5 TREPANNING

Trepanning is commonly used for creating larger diameter holes (up to 915 mm (36.0 in))
where a standard drill bit is not feasible or economical. Trepanning removes the desired
diameter by cutting out a solid disk similar to the workings of a drafting compass.
Trepanning is performed on flat products such as sheet metal, granite (curling stone),

24
plates, or structural members like I-beams. Trepanning can also be useful to make
grooves for inserting seals, such as O-rings.

5.6 MICRODRILLING

Micro drilling refers to the drilling of holes less than 0.5 mm (0.020 in). Drilling of holes
at this small diameter presents greater problems since coolant fed drills cannot be used
and high spindle speeds are required. High spindle speeds that exceed 10,000 RPM also
require the use of balanced tool holders.

5.7 DRILLING IN WOODS

Wood being softer than most metals, drilling in wood is considerably easier and faster
than drilling in metal. Cutting fluids are not used or needed. The main issue in drilling
wood is assuring clean entry and exit holes and preventing burning. Avoiding burning is
a question of using sharp bits and the appropriate cutting speed. Drill bits can tear out
chips of wood around the top and bottom of the hole and this is undesirable in fine
woodworking applications.

The ubiquitous twist drill bits used in metalworking also work well in wood, but they
tend to chip wood out at the entry and exit of the hole. In some cases, as in rough holes
for carpentry, the quality of the hole does not matter, and a number of bits for fast cutting
in wood exist, including spade bits and self-feeding auger bits. Many types of specialised
drill bits for boring clean holes in wood have been developed, including brad-point bits,
Forstner bits and hole saws. Chipping on exit can be minimized by using a piece of wood
as backing behind the work piece, and the same technique is sometimes used to keep the
hole entry neat.

Holes are easier to start in wood as the drill bit can be accurately positioned by pushing it
into the wood and creating a dimple. The bit will thus have little tendency to wander.

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 CHAPTER SIX

6.0 HEALTH AND SAFETY POLICY

Lafarge is committed to provide a safety and healthy work environment for its
stakeholders and to conducting its various businesses in a safe manner. Health and safety
are core values that must be incorporated into all aspects.

Lafarge integrate health and safety objectives into its management systems at all levels of
the group. The management is accountable for the prevention of injuries and occupational
illnesses.

Everyone working for Lafarge expects a safe and healthy work environment, and in turn,
it expects everyone to contribute safe environment through responsible behavior.

Everyone is also expected to demonstrate that health and safety are core values through
visible commitment and active engagement of each other.

When it comes to safety, I believe the only acceptable number is zero-free accidents,
incidents or occupational illness.

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 CHAPTER SEVEN

7.0 QUALITY POLICY

LAFARGE WAPCO is committed to quality and to continual improvement. It operate a

quality management system certified to international standard NIS ISO 9001:2008, carry
out its operation to meet defined quality targets and ensure the supply of products and
services which meet or exceed its customers’ expectations.

At Lafarge, quality is the responsibility of all staffs.

27
 CHAPTER EIGHT

8.0 CONCLUSION

28
 CHAPTER NINE

9.0 REFERENCES

29