King Abdulaziz University

Mechanical Engineering Department

MEP 460 Heat Exchanger design

Cooling Towers

Nov. 2018
1
 Cooling towers

0-What is a cooling tower

1-Introduction
2-Review of psychrometery
3-Evaporative cooling
4-Cooling tower applications
5-Anaology between heat and mass transfer
6-Basic simplified analysis of cooling tower
7-CTC (NTU) calculations
Approximate methods
By integration
8-Cooling tower effectiveness
9-Cooling tower fill packing
10-Estimating the design liquid/air flow ratio

2
 0-What is a cooling tower

Cooling tower is a heat rejection heat exchanger

Where heat is rejected to atmospheric air 3
0-What is a cooling tower

4
0-What is a cooling tower

5
Cooling towers

6
Cooling towers

7
 1-Introduction

Cooling towers types

Wet cooling towers and

Dry cooling towers

Can be forced or induced

cooling towers

Counter flow cooling towers

Cross flow cooling towers

8
1-Introduction

9
 1-Introduction
Hot water in
Range and approach of Air out
a cooling tower Twi
𝑊𝑜
Range R= 𝑇𝑤𝑖 − 𝑇𝑤𝑜

Packing material
∗ Fill Range
Approach 𝑨 = 𝑇𝑤𝑜 − 𝑇𝑎𝑖

∗
𝑇𝑎𝑖 = wet bulb temperature of entering air

Air in 𝑊𝑖 Cold water out

∗
𝑇𝑎𝑖 , 𝑇𝑎𝑖 Two
10
 2-Review of psychrometery moist air
thermodynamic properties

Dry, wet bulb, and dew point temperatures (T, T*, Tdew)
Humidity ratio W
Relative humidity 𝜙
Air enthalpy, h
Saturated air enthalpy, hs
Humidification efficiency, 𝜂𝐻

11
 2-Review of psychrometery moist air

Humidity ration
Saturation line
𝑻𝒂∗

Ta Dry bulb temp. 12

 2-Review of psychrometery moist air
W
Degree of 
Moist air ( dry and saturated ) properties saturation Ws t, p

ℎ = ℎ𝑑𝑎 + 𝜇 ℎ𝑠 − ℎ𝑑𝑎

13
 2-Review of psychrometery moist air
Water properties

14
3-Evaporative cooling

Desert cooler

‫المكيَف الصحراوي‬

15
3-Evaporative cooling

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 3-Evaporative cooling
An evaporative cooler (also swamp cooler, desert
cooler and wet air cooler) is a device that cools air
through the evaporation of water. Evaporative
cooling differs from typical air conditioning systems,
which use vapor-compression or absorption
refrigeration cycles.

17
18
Evaporative cooling in Mina.
Cooling the Hajji’s tents

19
Huge number of tents in
Madina provided with fans
and water sprays

20
Using water sprays (Evaporative cooling in ARAFAT and Mina)

21
Evaporative cooling 𝜙2 − 𝜙1
Humidification 𝜂𝐻 =
efficiency 𝜙𝑠 − 𝜙1

22
 4-Cooling tower applications

Power plant heat rejection

Refrigeration and air conditioning
heat rejection (HVAC)
Oil refineries
Petrochemical industries

Cooling tower used mainly as a heat rejection

heat exchanger

23
 5-Anaology between heat and mass transfer
Heat transfer Mass transfer
𝑚ሶ = ℎ𝑚 𝐴 𝐶𝑠 − 𝐶∞
Driving force for mas transfer is
𝑄ሶ = ℎ𝑐 𝐴 (𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ ) the concentration difference

hm is the mass transfer coefficient [m/s]

hc is heat transfer
coefficient [W/(m2.K) 𝑚ሶ = ℎ𝑚 𝐴(𝜌𝑠 − 𝜌∞ )

𝑚ሶ = ℎ𝑚 𝐴𝜌(𝑊𝑠 − 𝑊∞ )
Driving force for heat
transfer is the 𝑚 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
2
temperature difference 𝑚ሶ = 𝑚 =
𝑠 𝑚3 𝑘𝑔 𝑠
ℎ𝑑 = 𝜌ℎ𝑚
hd is the mass conductance coefficient
hd=[kg/(m2.s] 24
 5-Anaology between heat and mass transfer
Dimensionless numbers 𝜇
𝜈 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝜈=
Prandtl number 𝑃𝑟 = = 𝜌
𝛼 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑘
𝜈 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝛼=
𝑆𝑐 = = 𝜌 𝐶𝑝
Schmidt number 𝐷𝐴𝐵 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦

𝛼 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑆𝑐
Lewis number 𝐿𝑒 = = 𝐿𝑒 =
𝐷𝐴𝐵 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 Pr

Nusselt number ℎ𝑐 𝐿
𝑁𝑢 =
𝑘
Sherwood Number ℎ𝑚 𝐿
𝑆ℎ =
𝐷𝐴𝐵
Stanton Number 𝑁𝑢 ℎ𝑐
𝑆𝑡 = =
𝑅𝑒 𝑃𝑟 𝜌𝑉𝐶𝑝
mass transfer Stanton 𝑆ℎ ℎ𝑚
number 𝑆𝑡𝑚 = =
𝑅𝑒 𝑆𝑐 𝑉

Coburn modulus j 𝐽𝐻 = St 𝑃𝑟 2Τ3 25

 5-Anaology between heat and mass transfer
Pr≠1, Sc≠1
Relation between momentum 𝑓 𝜈
= 𝑆𝑡𝑃𝑟 2Τ3 𝑃𝑟 =
transfer and heat transfer 2 𝛼
ℎ𝑐 𝐿
𝑁𝑢 =
Relation between momentum 𝑓 𝑘
transfer and mass transfer = 𝑆𝑡𝑚 𝑆𝑐 2Τ3 ℎ𝑚 𝐿
2
𝑆ℎ =
𝐷𝐴𝐵
𝑓 𝜈
= 𝑆𝑡𝑃𝑟 2Τ3 = 𝑆𝑡𝑚 𝑆𝑐 2Τ3 𝑆𝑐 =
2 𝐷𝐴𝐵

ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑚 2Τ3 𝛼 𝑆𝑐
𝑃𝑟 2Τ3 = 𝑆𝑐 𝐿𝑒 = =
𝜌𝐶𝑝 𝑉 𝑉 𝐷𝐴𝐵 𝑃𝑟

2Τ3 ℎ𝑐
ℎ𝑐 𝑆𝑐 𝑆𝑡 =
= 𝜌𝐶𝑝 = 𝜌𝐶𝑝 𝐿𝑒 2Τ3 𝜌𝐶𝑝 𝑉
ℎ𝑚 𝑃𝑟
ℎ𝑚
𝑆𝑡𝑚 =
𝑉
For Le1 ℎ𝑐 or
Good for air
= 𝜌𝐶𝑝 ℎ𝑐 = 𝜌𝐶𝑝 ℎ𝑚 = ℎ𝑑 𝐶𝑝 26
ℎ𝑚
 6-Analysis of counter current cooling towers

Mass and energy balance

for a small control volume
of volume dV

Objective of a cooling tower is

to cool hot water from Twi to
Two by rejecting heat to air.

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 6-Analysis of counter current cooling towers

av =surface area per unit

volume=m2/m3

𝑑 𝑚ሶ 𝑤
Mass balance for water

𝑑 𝑚ሶ 𝑤 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑎 𝑑𝑊 = ℎ𝑑 𝑎𝑣 𝑑𝑉(𝑊𝑠 − 𝑊𝑎 )

Energy balance
( 𝑚ሶ 𝑤 +𝑚ሶ 𝑎 𝑑𝑊) ℎ𝑓 + 𝑑ℎ𝑓 + 𝑚ሶ 𝑎 ℎ𝑎 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑤 ℎ𝑓 + 𝑚ሶ 𝑎 (ℎ𝑎 + 𝑑ℎ𝑎 )

Re-arranging terms

𝑚ሶ 𝑤 𝑑ℎ𝑓 + 𝑚ሶ 𝑎 𝑑𝑊ℎ𝑓 + 𝑚ሶ 𝑎 𝑑𝑊𝑑ℎ𝑓 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑎 𝑑ℎ𝑎

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 Can be neglected
Energy balance
𝑚ሶ 𝑤 𝑑ℎ𝑓 + 𝑚ሶ 𝑎 𝑑𝑊ℎ𝑓 + 𝑚ሶ 𝑎 𝑑𝑊𝑑ℎ𝑓 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑎 𝑑ℎ𝑎

Heat lost by water due to heat and mass transfer i.e.

𝑚ሶ 𝑤 𝑑ℎ𝑓 = ℎ𝑐 𝑎𝑣 𝑑𝑉 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑎 + ℎ𝑑 𝑎𝑣 𝑑𝑉 𝑊𝑠 − 𝑊𝑎 ℎ𝑓𝑔
Substitute in the above equation to get the energy balance becomes
𝑚ሶ 𝑎 𝑑ℎ𝑎 = ℎ𝑐 𝑎𝑣 𝑑𝑉 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑎 + ℎ𝑑 𝑎𝑣 𝑑𝑉 𝑊𝑠 − 𝑊𝑎 ℎ𝑓𝑔 + ℎ𝑑 𝑎𝑣 𝑑𝑉 𝑊𝑠 − 𝑊𝑎 ℎ𝑓

Using heat mass hc heat transfer coeff

analogy and [W/(m2.K)]
Assuming Le=1 ℎ𝑐 = ℎ𝑑 𝐶𝑝𝑎 hd mass transfer
conductance [kg/(m2.s]

𝑚ሶ 𝑎 𝑑ℎ𝑎 = 𝐶𝑝𝑎 ℎ𝑑 𝑎𝑣 𝑑𝑉 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑎 + ℎ𝑑 𝑎𝑣 𝑑𝑉 𝑊𝑠 − 𝑊𝑎 ℎ𝑔

𝑚ሶ 𝑎 𝑑ℎ𝑎 = ℎ𝑑 𝑎𝑣 𝑑𝑉 𝐶𝑝𝑎 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑎 + 𝑊𝑠 − 𝑊𝑎 ℎ𝑔

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Enthalpy of moist air ℎ𝑎 = 𝐶𝑝𝑎 𝑇𝑎 + 𝑊𝑎 (ℎ𝑔0 + 𝐶𝑝𝑣 𝑇𝑎 )
Saturated air ℎ𝑠 = 𝐶𝑝𝑎 𝑇𝑠 + 𝑊𝑠 (ℎ𝑔0 + 𝐶𝑝𝑣 𝑇𝑠 )
Small term
The difference
ℎ𝑠 − ℎ𝑎 = 𝐶𝑝𝑎 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑎 + 𝑊𝑠 − 𝑊𝑎 ℎ𝑔0 + 𝐶𝑝𝑣 (𝑊𝑠 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑊𝑎 𝑇𝑎 )
Assuming negligible difference
between hg and hg0
𝑚ሶ 𝑎 𝑑ℎ𝑎 = ℎ𝑑 𝑎𝑣 𝑑𝑉(ℎ𝑠 − ℎ𝑎 )
𝑚ሶ 𝑤 𝑑ℎ𝑤 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑤 𝐶𝑝𝑤 𝑑𝑇𝑤 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑎 𝑑ℎ𝑎
𝑚ሶ 𝑤 𝐶𝑝𝑤 𝑑𝑇𝑤 = ℎ𝑑 𝑎𝑣 𝑑𝑉 ℎ𝑠 − ℎ𝑎
𝐶𝑝𝑤 𝑑𝑇𝑤 ℎ𝑑 𝑎𝑣 𝑑𝑉 ℎ𝑑 𝑎𝑣 𝑉
න =න = = 𝐶𝑇𝐶
ℎ𝑠 − ℎ𝑎 𝑚ሶ 𝑤 𝑚ሶ 𝑤

ℎ𝑑 𝑎 𝑣 𝑉 𝑚ሶ 𝑤
𝑁𝑇𝑈 = = 𝐶𝑇𝐶
𝑚ሶ 𝑎 𝑚ሶ 𝑎

CTC or NTU can be found by several methods 30

 Calculation of CTC or NTU for a cooling tower

1-Using Nomograph (Perry’s Chemical Engineering HB)

2-Approximate methods
a- ( Fraas Design of heat exchanger Book)
b-Chebyshev integration
3-Trapizodial rule or similar integration procedure

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 1-Using Nomograph (Perry’s Chemical Engineering HB)

Cooling tower characteristic=CTC

ℎ𝑑 𝑎𝑣 𝑉 𝐾𝑎𝑉
𝐶𝑇𝐶 = =
𝑚ሶ 𝑤 𝐿

From Perry’s Chemical

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Engineers’ Hand book
 Using the nomograph to approximately find the
cooling tower characteristics (KaV/L)
Hot water temp =100 F
Cold water temp. 80 F
Wet bulb temp. 70 F
L/G=1.
C
1- At the given range and cold
A temperature located the first point say A.
2-At the air inlet wet bulb temperature
B locate the second point say point B.
3-Connect the two point A, and by a
straight line (call it line 1)
4-On the L/G scale locate point C
5-Draw a line parallel to the first line
(line1 ) and passing through point C. call
it line 2
6-Line 2 will intersect KaV/L at a point.
Read the value of this CTC (cooling tower
characteristics)
33
ℎ𝑑 𝑎𝑣 𝑉 𝐾𝑎𝑣 𝑉
=
𝑚ሶ 𝑎 𝑚ሶ 𝑎

34
 1-Crude approximation for CTC hsw= Saturated air at water
temperature
ℎ𝑠𝑤𝑖 + ℎ𝑠𝑤𝑜 − 2ℎ𝑠𝑤𝑚
𝛿ℎ =
4
Δ𝐻𝑜 = ℎ𝑠𝑤𝑖 − ℎ𝑎𝑜

Δ𝐻𝑖 = ℎ𝑠𝑤𝑜 − ℎ𝑎𝑖

hsw is the saturated air enthalpy at tw
(Δ𝐻𝑜 − Δ𝐻𝑖 )
Δ𝐻𝑚 =
Δ𝐻𝑜 − 𝛿ℎ
𝑙𝑛
Δ𝐻𝑖 − 𝛿ℎ
𝑡𝑤𝑖 + 𝑡𝑤𝑜
𝑡𝑚 =
2
𝑚ሶ 𝑎 Δℎ𝑎 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑤 Δℎ𝑤

𝐶𝑝𝑤 Δ𝑡𝑤
𝐶𝑇𝐶 = Ref. Fraas, A.P., Heat exchanger design, 2nd
Δ𝐻𝑚 edition, John Wiely, 1989 35
Example on finding the CTC
Hot water in
Air out
𝑊𝑜 Twi=50 C
Given:
Twi=50 C
Two=29 C
∗
𝑇𝑎𝑖 = 24 𝐶
𝑚ሶ 𝑤 𝐿𝑤
= = 1.25 Packing material
𝑚ሶ 𝑎 𝐺𝑎
Fill

Find
CTC or NTU

Air in 𝑊𝑖 Cold water out

∗
𝑇𝑎𝑖 , 𝑇𝑎𝑖 Two=29
∗
𝑇𝑎𝑖 = 24 𝐶 36
The cooling Tower characteristic CTC is given by
𝐶𝑝𝑤 Δ𝑡𝑤
𝐶𝑇𝐶 =
𝐶𝑝𝑤 𝑑𝑇𝑤 ℎ𝑑 𝑎𝑣 𝑑𝑉 ℎ𝑑 𝑎𝑣 𝑉 Δ𝐻𝑚
න =න = = 𝐶𝑇𝐶
ℎ𝑠 − ℎ𝑎 𝑚ሶ 𝑤 𝑚ሶ 𝑤
(Δ𝐻𝑜 − Δ𝐻𝑖 )
Δ𝐻𝑚 =
𝑚ሶ 𝑎 𝑑ℎ𝑎 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑤 𝐶𝑝𝑤 𝑑𝑡𝑤 Δ𝐻𝑜 − 𝛿ℎ
𝑙𝑛
Δ𝐻𝑖 − 𝛿ℎ
𝐺𝑎 Δℎ𝑎 = 𝐿𝑤 𝐶𝑝𝑤 Δ𝑤
ℎ𝑠𝑤𝑖 + ℎ𝑠𝑤𝑜 − 2ℎ𝑠𝑤𝑚
𝑚ሶ 𝑤 = 𝐿𝑤 𝑚ሶ 𝑎 = 𝐺𝑎 𝛿ℎ =
4
𝐶𝑝𝑤 ∗ (𝑡𝑤𝑖 − 𝑡𝑤𝑜 )
𝐶𝑇𝐶 =
Δ𝐻𝑚
Δ𝐻𝑜 = ℎ𝑠𝑤𝑖 − ℎ𝑎𝑜 Δ𝐻𝑖 = ℎ𝑠𝑤𝑜 − ℎ𝑎𝑖

twi two hswi hswo hai twm hsm Δ𝐻𝑜 Δ𝐻𝑖 𝛿ℎ Δ𝐻𝑚
50 29 275.35 94.87 72.39 39.5 162.59 93.08 22.49 11.26 35.55

4.186 ∗ (50 − 29)

𝐶𝑇𝐶 = = 2.47
35.55 37
 2- Using Chebyshev integration method
𝐶𝑝𝑤 𝑑𝑇𝑤 ℎ𝑑 𝑎𝑣 𝑑𝑉 ℎ𝑑 𝑎𝑣 𝑉
න =න = = 𝐶𝑇𝐶
ℎ𝑠 − ℎ𝑎 𝑚ሶ 𝑤 𝑚ሶ 𝑤

𝑡𝑤𝑖 𝐶𝑝𝑤
𝑑𝑡𝑤 1 1 1 1
න = ቚ + ቚ + ቚ + ቚ
𝑡𝑤𝑜 ℎ𝑠 − ℎ𝑎 4 ℎ𝑠 − ℎ𝑎 0.1 ℎ𝑠 − ℎ𝑎 0.4 ℎ𝑠 − ℎ𝑎 0.6 ℎ𝑠 − ℎ𝑎 0.9

𝑡𝑤𝑖 𝐶 𝑑𝑡 hs is the enthalpy of air at

𝑝𝑤 𝑤 1
න = 𝐶𝑝𝑤 𝑡𝑤𝑖 − 𝑡𝑤𝑜 saturation
𝑡𝑤𝑜 ℎ𝑠 − ℎ𝑎 ℎ𝑠 − ℎ𝑎 𝑎𝑣𝑔

1 1 1
= 𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑡 0.1, 0.4, 0.6 𝑎𝑛𝑑 0.9 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒
ℎ𝑠 − ℎ𝑎 𝑎𝑣𝑔
4 ℎ𝑠 − ℎ𝑎

1 1 1 1 1 1
= + + +
ℎ𝑠 − ℎ𝑎 𝑎𝑣𝑔
4 ℎ𝑠 − ℎ𝑎 0.1
ℎ𝑠 − ℎ𝑎 0.4
ℎ𝑠 − ℎ𝑎 0.6
ℎ𝑠 − ℎ𝑎 0.9

38
 Example on Chebyshev integration method
Given:
twi=50 C
twi two Lw /Gg 𝑇𝑎∗ hai
two=29 C
∗
𝑇𝑎𝑖 = 24 °𝐶 50 29 1.25 24 72.4
𝑚ሶ 𝑤 𝐿𝑤 1 1 1 1 1 1
= = 1.25 = + + +
𝑚ሶ 𝑎 𝐺𝑎 ℎ𝑠 − ℎ𝑎 4 ℎ𝑠 − ℎ𝑎 ℎ𝑠 − ℎ𝑎 ℎ𝑠 − ℎ𝑎 ℎ𝑠 − ℎ𝑎
𝑎𝑣𝑔 0.1 0.4 0.6 0.9

Range=twi-two=50-29=21 C
𝑚ሶ 𝑎 Δℎ𝑎 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑤 𝐶𝑝𝑤 Δ𝑡𝑤
0.1 Δ𝑡𝑤 0.4 Δ𝑡𝑤 0.6 Δ𝑡𝑤 0.9 Δ𝑡𝑤
2.1 8.4 12.6 18.9 𝐶𝑝𝑤 = 4.186 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔

twi 31.1 37.4 41.6 47.9

hsi 105.6 145.8 180.0 246.8
hai 83.21 116.2 138.1 171.1
hsi-hai 22.41 29.62 41.89 75.69

ℎ𝑑 𝑎𝑣 𝑉 𝐶𝑝𝑤 𝑡𝑤𝑖 − 𝑡𝑤𝑜 1 1 1 1

= + + + = 2.538
𝑚ሶ 𝑤 4 22.41 29.62 41.89 75.69
39
3-Integration of the equation with Merkel Approximation

𝐶𝑝𝑤 𝑑𝑡𝑤 ℎ𝑑 𝑎𝑣
න = 𝑉 = 𝐶𝑇𝐶 1
ℎ𝑠 − ℎ𝑎 𝑚ሶ 𝑤

𝑚ሶ 𝑎 𝑑ℎ𝑎 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑤 𝑑ℎ𝑓 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑤 𝐶𝑝𝑤 𝑑𝑡𝑤 2

By starting from the bottom of the tower with twi (the exit
temperature of water and assuming a small dtw (temperature
difference for the water). The inlet air state is known. From
Eq. 2 one can get dha and the term on left hand side of
equation 1 above can be found

40
 y2
The Trapezoidal Rule y
y1 y3

y4
y0

𝑏
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = න 𝑦 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑎

Δ𝑥

𝑦0 + 𝑦1 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 y2 + y3 𝑦3 + 𝑦4
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = Δ𝑥 + Δx + Δ𝑥 + Δ𝑥
2 2 2 2

Δ𝑥
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝑦 + 2𝑦1 + 2𝑦2 + 2𝑦3 + 𝑦4
2 0

41
 The Trapezoidal Rule

𝑏
𝑏−𝑎
න 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑦0 + 2𝑦1 + 2𝑦2 + ⋯ . 2𝑦𝑛−1 + 𝑦𝑛
𝑎 𝑛 42
 8-Cooling tower Effectiveness

Direct contact heat exchanger

Temperature potential Enthalpy potential

(Tw-Ta) (hsw-ha)

43
 8-Cooling tower Effectiveness
Sensible heat exchangers

Δ𝑇 = 𝑇ℎ − 𝑇𝑐
𝑑𝑞 = 𝐶𝑐 𝑑𝑇𝑐
𝑇ℎ𝑖
𝑑𝑞 = 𝐶ℎ 𝑑𝑇ℎ
𝑑𝑞 = 𝑈𝑑𝐴 𝑇ℎ − 𝑇𝑐
𝑇𝑐𝑜
𝑑Δ𝑇 = 𝑑𝑇ℎ − 𝑑𝑇𝑐
𝑇ℎ𝑜 Δ𝑇
𝑑𝑞 𝑈𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝑇𝑐 = = 𝑇ℎ − 𝑇𝑐
𝐶𝑐 𝐶𝑐
𝑑𝑞 𝑈𝑑𝐴 𝑇𝑐𝑖
𝑑𝑇ℎ = = 𝑇ℎ − 𝑇𝑐
𝐶ℎ 𝐶ℎ
1 − 𝑒 −𝑁𝑇𝑈 1−𝐶𝑟
𝑑Δ𝑇 1 1 𝜖=
= 𝑈𝑑𝐴 − 1 − 𝐶𝑟 𝑒 −𝑁𝑇𝑈 1−𝐶𝑟
Δ𝑇 𝐶ℎ 𝐶𝑐
Δ𝑇2 1 1 Counter flow sensible heat
ln = 𝑈𝐴 + exchanger
Δ𝑇1 𝐶ℎ 𝐶𝑐 44
 8-Cooling tower Effectiveness
𝑚ሶ 𝑎 𝑑ℎ𝑎 = ℎ𝑑 𝑎𝑣 𝑑𝑉 ℎ𝑠 − ℎ𝑎 ℎ𝑑 𝑎𝑣 𝑉 𝐶𝑇𝐶
𝑁𝑇𝑈 = =
𝑚ሶ 𝑎 𝑚ሶ 𝑎 Τ𝑚ሶ 𝑤
𝑑𝑉
𝑑ℎ𝑎 = 𝑁𝑇𝑈 (ℎ − ℎ𝑎 ) ℎ𝑠𝑖
𝑉 𝑠
𝑚ሶ 𝑤 𝐶𝑝𝑤 𝑑𝑇𝑤 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑎 𝑑ℎ𝑎
ℎ𝑎𝑜
𝑑ℎ𝑠 ℎ𝑠𝑜
𝐶𝑠 =
𝑑𝑇𝑤

𝑚ሶ 𝑤 𝐶𝑝𝑤 𝑑ℎ𝑠 𝑑𝑉 ℎ𝑎𝑖

= 𝑚ሶ 𝑎 𝑑ℎ𝑎 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑎 𝑁𝑇𝑈 (ℎ − ℎ𝑎 )
𝐶𝑠 𝑉 𝑠

𝑚ሶ 𝑎 𝐶𝑠 𝑑𝑉 𝑚ሶ 𝑎 𝐶𝑠
𝑑ℎ𝑠 = 𝑁𝑇𝑈 ℎ − ℎ𝑎 𝑚∗ =
𝑚ሶ 𝑤 𝐶𝑝𝑤 𝑉 𝑠 𝑚ሶ 𝑤 𝐶𝑝𝑤

∗
𝑑𝑉
𝑑ℎ𝑠 = 𝑚 𝑁𝑇𝑈 ℎ − ℎ𝑎 For Sensible heat exchangers
𝑉 𝑠
𝑑𝑞 𝑁𝑇𝑈 𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝑇ℎ = = 𝑇ℎ − 𝑇𝑐
𝐶ℎ 𝐶ℎ 𝐴
45
 8-Cooling tower Effectiveness

𝑑𝑉 Sensible heat exchanger

𝑑ℎ𝑠 = 𝑚∗ 𝑁𝑇𝑈 ℎ − ℎ𝑎
𝑉 𝑠
𝑑𝑞 𝑁𝑇𝑈 𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝑇ℎ = = 𝑇ℎ − 𝑇𝑐
𝐶ℎ 𝐶ℎ 𝐴
𝑚ሶ 𝑎 𝐶𝑠 𝑑ℎ𝑠
𝑚∗ = 𝐶𝑠 =
𝑚ሶ 𝑤 𝐶𝑝𝑤 𝑑𝑇𝑤
1 − 𝑒 −𝑁𝑇𝑈 1−𝐶𝑟
𝜖=
ℎ𝑎𝑜 − ℎ𝑎𝑖 𝑞 1 − 𝐶𝑟 𝑒 −𝑁𝑇𝑈 1−𝐶𝑟
𝜖= =
ℎ𝑠𝑖 − ℎ𝑎𝑖 𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥

∗
1 − 𝑒 −𝑁𝑇𝑈 1−𝑚
𝜖= ∗
1 − 𝑚∗ 𝑒 −𝑁𝑇𝑈 1−𝑚

ℎ𝑎𝑜 = 𝜖 ℎ𝑠𝑖 − ℎ𝑎𝑖 + ℎ𝑎𝑖

46
 8-Cooling tower Effectiveness
Also the change in humidity ratio is given by
𝑑 𝑚ሶ 𝑤 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑎 𝑑𝑊𝑎 = ℎ𝑑 𝑎𝑣 𝑑𝑉(𝑊𝑠 − 𝑊𝑎 )

ℎ𝑑 𝑎𝑣 𝑑𝑉
𝑑𝑊𝑎 = − (𝑊𝑎 − 𝑊𝑠 )
𝑚ሶ 𝑎
𝑑𝑊𝑎 ℎ𝑑 𝑎𝑣 𝑑𝑉
=− Wswe is effective humidity
𝑊𝑎 − 𝑊𝑠𝑤𝑒 𝑚ሶ 𝑎
ratio at effective saturated
enthalpy hswe
Assuming fixed effective value for Ws such as
Wswe and integrate the above equation

𝑊𝑎𝑜 − 𝑊𝑠𝑤𝑒
= 𝑒 −𝑁𝑇𝑈
𝑊𝑎𝑖 − 𝑊𝑠𝑤𝑒

𝑊𝑎𝑜 = 𝑊𝑠𝑤𝑒 + 𝑊𝑎𝑖 − 𝑊𝑠𝑤𝑒 𝑒 −𝑁𝑇𝑈

47
 8-Cooling tower Effectiveness
From the enthalpy (energy) balance

ℎ𝑑 𝑎𝑣 𝑑𝑉
𝑑ℎ𝑎 = − (ℎ𝑎 − ℎ𝑠 )
𝑚ሶ 𝑎
𝑑ℎ𝑎 ℎ𝑑 𝑎𝑣 𝑑𝑉
=−
ℎ𝑎 − ℎ𝑠𝑤𝑒 𝑚ሶ 𝑎

Integrate

ℎ𝑎𝑜 − ℎ𝑠𝑤𝑒
= 𝑒 −𝑁𝑇𝑈
ℎ𝑎𝑖 − ℎ𝑠𝑤𝑒

or ℎ𝑎𝑜 − ℎ𝑎𝑖
ℎ𝑠𝑤𝑒 = ℎ𝑎𝑖 +
1 − 𝑒 −𝑁𝑇𝑈
At this value of saturated air enthalpy find the effective Wswe and then
use the equation below to find the mass of water leaving the tower

𝑚ሶ 𝑤𝑜 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑤𝑖 − 𝑚ሶ 𝑎 (𝑊𝑎𝑜 − 𝑊𝑎𝑖 )

Amount of water evaporated= 𝑚ሶ 𝑎 (𝑊𝑎𝑜 − 𝑊𝑎𝑖 ) 48

 8-Cooling tower Effectiveness

ℎ𝑎𝑜 − ℎ𝑎𝑖
ℎ𝑠𝑤𝑒 = ℎ𝑎𝑖 +
1 − 𝑒 −𝑁𝑇𝑈
use phsychromery chart or moist air
tables to find the corresponding Wse
𝑊𝑎0 = 𝑊𝑠𝑒 + 𝑊𝑎𝑖 − 𝑊𝑠𝑒 𝑒 −𝑁𝑇𝑈 Then

𝑚ሶ 𝑤𝑜 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑤𝑖 − 𝑚ሶ 𝑎 (𝑊𝑎𝑜 − 𝑊𝑎𝑖 )

or
Amount of water evaporated= 𝑚ሶ 𝑎 (𝑊𝑎𝑜 − 𝑊𝑎𝑖 )

49
 Example on cooling tower effectiveness
Given: and finding the state of air and water leaving the tower
twi=50 C
∗
ta=40 C CTC 𝑚ሶ 𝑤 Τ𝑚ሶ 𝑎 NTU Twi 𝑇𝑎𝑖 hswi hai Wai
∗
𝑡𝑎𝑖 = 24 𝐶 2.54 1.25 3.175 50 24 275.35 72.22 0.0121
CTC=2.54 4
𝑚ሶ 𝑤 𝐿𝑤
= = 1.25
𝑚ሶ 𝑎 𝐺𝑎 𝑑ℎ𝑠𝑤 ℎ𝑠𝑤 𝑡𝑤 = 50 − ℎ𝑠𝑤 (𝑡𝑤 = 49) (275.35 − 261.8)
𝐶𝑆 = = = = 13.55
𝑑𝑡𝑤 1 1

∗
𝑚ሶ 𝑎 𝐶𝑠 13.55
𝑚 = = = 2.59
𝑚ሶ 𝑤 𝐶𝑝𝑤 1.25 ∗ 4.186

𝑁𝑇𝑈 1 − 𝑚∗ = 2.032 ∗ 1 − 2.59 = −5.05

∗
1 − 𝑒 −𝑁𝑇𝑈 1−𝑚
𝜖= ∗ = 0.38
1 − 𝑚∗ 𝑒 −𝑁𝑇𝑈 1−𝑚

ℎ𝑎𝑜 = ℎ𝑎𝑖 + 𝜖 ℎ𝑠𝑤𝑖 − ℎ𝑎𝑖 =72.22+0.38(275.35-72.22)=148.7

50
 ℎ𝑎𝑜 − ℎ𝑎𝑖
ℎ𝑠𝑤𝑒 = ℎ𝑎𝑖 +
1 − 𝑒 −𝑁𝑇𝑈

ℎ𝑠𝑤𝑒 = 160.3 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔

From moist air 𝑘𝑔𝑤

𝑊𝑠𝑤𝑒 = 0.0469
thermodynamics tables 𝑘𝑔𝑎
Find Wswe at hswe
𝑊𝑎0 = 𝑊𝑠𝑤𝑒 + 𝑊𝑎𝑖 − 𝑊𝑠𝑤𝑒 𝑒 −𝑁𝑇𝑈

𝑘𝑔𝑤
𝑊𝑎𝑜 = 0.04235
𝑘𝑔𝑎

𝑚ሶ 𝑎 Δℎ𝑎 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑤 𝐶𝑝𝑤 Δ𝑡𝑤

ℎ𝑎𝑜 − ℎ𝑎𝑖
Δ𝑡𝑤 = = 14.62
𝑚ሶ w Τ𝑚ሶ a 𝐶𝑝𝑤

𝑡𝑤𝑜 = 𝑡𝑤𝑖 − Δ𝑡𝑤 = 50 − 14.62 = 35.38

51
 Another iteration with two=35.38

𝑑ℎ𝑠 ℎ𝑠 50 − ℎ𝑠 (35.38) 274.3 − 131.6

𝐶𝑠 = = = = 9.759
𝑑𝑡𝑤 14.62 14.62

Cs 𝑚∗  hao hswe Wswe Wao two

9.759 1.865 0.489 171 185.9 0.0556 0.04989 31.1

52
9-Cooling tower Fill packing

53
Fill types

54
Fill types

55
 Fill types
General form for the CTC as a
function of L/G and packing
height
−𝑛
ℎ𝑑 𝑎𝑣 𝑉 𝑚ሶ 𝑤
= 𝑒𝐻
𝑚ሶ 𝑤 𝑚ሶ 𝑎

Triangular slats
−0.45
ℎ𝑑 𝑎𝑣 𝑉 𝑚ሶ 𝑤
= 0.32
𝑚ሶ 𝑤 𝑚ሶ 𝑎

Rectangular slats
−0.52
ℎ𝑑 𝑎𝑣 𝑉 𝑚ሶ 𝑤
= 0.28𝐻
𝑚ሶ 𝑤 𝑚ሶ 𝑎

Corrugated asbestos sheets

−061
ℎ𝑑 𝑎𝑣 𝑉 𝑚ሶ 𝑤
= 0.72𝐻
𝑚ሶ 𝑤 𝑚ሶ 𝑎
Ref.: Process heat transfer, Hewitt et56al
 10-Estimating the design flow ratio 𝒎ሶ 𝒘 Τ𝒎ሶ 𝒂

Merkel Integral

𝐶𝑝𝑤 𝑑𝑡𝑤 ℎ𝑑 𝑎𝑣
න = 𝑉 = 𝐶𝑇𝐶
ℎ𝑠 − ℎ𝑎 𝑚ሶ 𝑤

Packing material

−𝑛
ℎ𝑑 𝑎𝑣 𝑉 𝑚ሶ 𝑤
= 𝑒𝐻
𝑚ሶ 𝑤 𝑚ሶ 𝑎

57
 Cooling water design

Variation of Cooling tower characteristics with the ratio L/G,

tower height from heat/mass transfer side and from packing
materials side. 58
 References
1-Braun, J. E. Methodologies for the Design and Control of
Central Cooling Plants."
Ph.D. Thesis, University of Wisconsin, 1988
2-Braun J. E., S. A. Klein, JW Mitchell, Effectiveness models for
cooling towers and cooling coils
3-D. Stevens, J. E. Braun, SA Klein, An effectiveness model of
liquid-desiccant system heat/mass exchangers
4-Kroger air cooled condenser and cooling towers
5-Perry’s chemical engineering handbook, 8th edition
6-CRC Thermal Engineering Hand book
7-Fraas, A.P., Heat exchanger design, 2nd edition, John Wiely,
1989

59