Earth Sci Inform

DOI 10.1007/s12145-015-0208-4

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Morphotectonic and Morphodynamic investigations revealed

by isobase surfaces analysis and derived differential mapping
using GIS, Teboursouk area, northern Tunisia
Tarek Slama & Benoit Deffontaines &
Mohamed Moncef Turki

Received: 3 April 2014 / Accepted: 14 January 2015

# Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2015

Abstract Teboursouk area within the northern Tunisian Atlas to basement as the 4th-order analysis demonstrates. In con-
presents a complex and heterogeneous geological framework trast, neotectonic features, active landforms and lineaments
leading to various geomorphic landforms among them there were quantitatively described and localized based on the dif-
are numerous Triassic salt extrusions having an evident im- ferential mapping approach.
pact on the topographic configuration, shaping and dynamics.
Landforms characterization of the study area, by
Keywords Morphodynamics . Active tectonics . Isobase .
morphostructural and morphodynamic mapping, was carried
GIS . Salt diapir . Northern Tunisia
out using the isobase approach which is mainly based on the
construction of topographic base-level surface from each
channel order. GIS environment and spatial data analysis tools
have been used to perform this procedure using 10 m-grid
DEM and digitized drainage network at a semi-detailed scale
Introduction
(1: 50 000). The analysis included the creation of isobase
maps of 2nd, 3rd and 4th-order channels. Grid calculations
The drainage network is one of the most significant compo-
allowed the construction of (1) a combined surface from 2nd
nents of the landform having an important impact on the to-
and 3rd order and (2) a differential map which represents the
pographic shaping. It reflects the continuous and complex
topographic residual between present day surface (original
interaction between exogenous processes and endogenous tec-
DEM) and isobase of 4th order. In fact, qualitative analysis
tonics that led to the formation of an orogen as well as its folds
of different isobase surfaces shows a good delimitation of
and associated faults (Deffontaines 1990; Deffontaines and
most morphostructures and highlights a model of an atypical
Chorowicz 1991; Jackson and Leeder 1994; Jackson et al.
morphostructure concerning the Triassic extrusion of Jebel
1996; Burbank and Anderson 2001; Chen et al. 2003;
ech Cheid (JEC). Isoline anomalies and disturbances have
Ahmadi et al. 2006; Delcaillau et al. 2006; Ribolini and
indicated that major morphotectonic lineaments, interpreted
Spagnolo 2008). These structural features are often associated
as fractures, trend NE-SW to NNE-SSW adapting to the re-
with a morphostructural growth and/or a lateral propagation
gional strike-slip fault system in response to NW-SE late
into a tectonically active region (Jackson et al. 1996;
Alpine transpressive tectonics. Several isoline inflexions
Delcaillau et al. 1998; Champel et al. 2002), with an obvious
were, however, well correlated with observed tectonic frac-
impact on the drainage network geometry which is highly
tures and some of them are considered to be closely related
influenced by the recent tectonics that the landfrom has expe-
T. Slama (*) : M. M. Turki
rienced (Burbank and Anderson 2001; Delcaillau et al. 2006;
Département de Géologie, Faculté des Sciences de Tunis, Université Silva et al. 2008 and cited references).
de Tunis El Manar, 2092 El Manar, Tunis, Tunisia Isobase surface or base-level map (Filosofov 1960) is ex-
e-mail: trslama@gmail.com tracted from the drainage network and closely related to the
configuration and spatial hierarchization of the considered
B. Deffontaines
Laboratoire de Géomatique Appliquée ENSG-IGN, Université streams into the studied area (Raczkowski et al. 1984;
Paris-Est Marne-la-vallée, 77454, Marne-la-Vallée, Cedex 2, France Grohmann et al. 2011). It states the composite relationship

between drainage pattern and landform topography with an
emphasizing on the tectonic-erosion influence on the relief
development and its historical evolution during Quaternary
times (Raczkowski et al. 1984; Golts and Rosenthal 1993).
Moreover, the isobase approach has been used as a source of
paleo-topographic information applied for characterization of
past environments and their climatic processes (Leverington
et al. 2002). It was also a very effective method for
morphostructural mapping and analysis applied in many re-
gion of the world and at different topographic scales (e.g.,
Golts and Rosenthal 1993; Grohmann et al. 2007, 2011;
Jaboyedoff et al. 2009). Filosofov (1960) proposed the use
of 1:50 000 topographic data or less for local investigations
within a region showing a low topography, 1: 100 000 scale
for flat landform, and 1 : 1 000 000 topographic maps to
examine the regional-scale morphostructural features and the
general tectonic composition. However, it has been assumed
that the base-level analysis could have more significant results
and interpretations within a context of uniform lithologies
(Grohmann et al. 2011).
Technically, the isobase surfaces are intimately defined ac-
cording to the drainage ordering and geometry which is,
commonly, based on the Starhler (1952) rules of spatial num-
bering. Drainage segments without tributaries are assigned
first order or number one and defined the headwater streams
that their junctions creates confluence points. A second-order
stream is the segment downstream the confluence of any two
first-order streams and so on for the entire drainage network.
Thus, for each stream order an isobase surface could be ex-
tracted and plotted depending on its intersection with topo-
graphic data using adequate digital elevation models
(DEMs). Furthermore, many basic arithmetic operations are
easily achievable based on the generated set of isobase sur-
faces (Grohmann et al. 2011). The most significant is the
construction of maps of the differences between surfaces of
various orders that, as cited by Raczkowski et al. (1984), could
give information about the amplitude of erosional dissection
during the period that elapsed between the formation of con-
sidered surfaces. This is the basic of the concept of “differen-
tial analysis” which derived from the isobase method.
The differential analysis approach is always carried out
between two isobase surfaces or between the present-day to-
pography and a selected isobase map, and automatically gen-
erates a “differential map” which the spatial pattern is very
sensitive to amplitudes of neotectonic movements.
Therefore, the Early Quaternary geomorphic elements (pre-
dominated by the implemented Triassic landforms and sur-
rounding plains) as well as the prevailing morphodynamic
processes, mainly the tectonic uplifting, could be revealed
and evidenced by analyzing the fourth order surface
(Raczkowski et al. 1984). This latter, should be closely sensi-
tive to the local diapiric mechanism and its obvious active
neo-halokinesis (Perthuisot 1981; Chikhaoui 2002; Jallouli
Earth Sci Inform
et al. 2002; Benassi 2011) which has controlled, consequently,
the evolution and the geometry of the drainage network, pre-
dominately the 4th-order streams.
In this paper, we present a detailed quantitative geomorphic
analysis based on isobase method and the derived differential
surface to characterize the landforms within Teboursouk area
which has undergone various tectonic stress of different ages.
In fact, these phases have mainly controlled, until recent times
(that is our postulated hypothesis), the evolution and the cur-
rent implementation of Triassic diapirs (or extrusions) as well
as the overall structures of the investigated region (Bouaziz
et al. 2002; Chikhaoui 2002). Consequently, isobase surfaces
is examined and analyzed as an efficient indicator of
morphostructural pattern which were being formed during
Plio-Quaternary times under neotectonic stress: this is the spe-
cific objective of this contribution. In addition, produced dif-
ferential map is considered in this work to investigate the
amplitude of neotectonic movements and to construct the
morpho-neotectonic (Quaternary morphodynamics) sketch
of the study area. This geodynamic context is the main target
of our study that the isobase technique may allow new insights
in depiction of morphostructural configuration and
morphodynamic evolution of various landforms .
Study area
The northern Tunisian Atlas is geologically described by
many apparent NE-SW-trending Triassic salt outcrops charac-
terized by an unusual sedimentary contacts with younger
rocks aged from Cretaceous until Upper Cainozoic. These
particular landforms have been folded and deformed by the
Cainozoic Alpine orogeny and forming a region recognized as
the “diapiric zone” (Burollet 1956; Perthuisot 1972; Zargouni
1975; Turki 1985; Ben Ayed 1986). This orogeny was origi-
nated from convergent tectonic activity between the Eurasian
and African plates which started in the Late Cretaceous and
continues until present days (Dercourt et al. 1986), causing the
formation of the Atlas Mountains during the Late Miocene
(Tortonian phase). This atlasic structure has been subjected
to multiple tectonic events that produced the folded and
faulted sedimentary rocks and various morphostructural enti-
ties (Chikhaoui 2002). Furthermore, major prominent acci-
dents were likely to have impact on the generated orogenic
framework (Chikhaoui and Turki 1995) which the structural
and tectonic interpretations were quite diverse (Perthuisot and
Rouvier 1992; Vila et al. 1994; Jallouli et al. 2002).
The study area, Teboursouk region, is located into the cen-
tral part of the diapiric zone (dz) which is, from a geomorpho-
logical point of view, shaped by several Triassic extrusions (or
diapirs) with different dimensions and forms (Fig. 1). These
atypical landforms have been generated and controlled by the
halokinesis of salt rocks, known as salt tectonics, began in the
Earth Sci Inform
Fig. 1 Geological map of the study area (1: 50 000, adapted from Perthuisot 1978) and location of the investigated region (the inner black square in the
map of Tunisia)
Jurassic and pierced through the overlying layers in the Late
Aptian-Albian, which has also concerned the entire diapiric
zone of the northern Tunisian Atlas (Perthuisot 1981; Ben
Ayed 1986; Boukadi and Bédir 1996; El Ouardi 1996).
Within the investigated region, the Tortonian compressional
deformation has created the most of folded structures
outcropped today by the inversion of older normal faults, re-
activation of uplifted structures, and regeneration of diapirs of
Triassic evaporites by an active halokinesis (Perthuisot 1981;
El Ouardi 1996, 2002; Chikhaoui 2002). However, the origi-
nal mechanism of salt halokinesis and model of salt rising are
considered, until today, as the most controversial subjects of
debate regarding the morphostructural evolution of the north-
ern Tunisian Atlas. In fact, most of Triassic extrusions have
been explained by a diapiric mechanism which is considered
as the generator of salt rising inside the folded Triassic struc-
ture (Perthuisot 1978; Hammami 1999; Perthuisot et al. 1999;
Jallouli et al. 2002; Benassi et al. 2006; Benassi 2011), where-
as Vila et al. (1994, 2002) and Ben Chalbi et al. (2006) have
interpreted the same structures as being formed by large-scale
allochtonous salt (glacier salt) movements interbedded within
the Cretaceous series.
Main geologic features
The Téboursouk area is characterized by various Triassic out-
crops bounded by thick sequences of Cretaceous and
Cenozoic rocks whereas Jurassic rocks are absent on the sur-
face (Fig. 1). However, the Jebel ech Cheid structure is the
most prominent diapiric extrusion elongated along a NE-SW
direction and highly fractured as other Triassic bodies of lesser
dimensions (Jebel Aïn Jemala and the Teboursouk part of
Jebel Thibar). The Cretaceous and Tertiary sedimentary series
are truncated by NE-rending faults and lie unconformably
over the Triassic rocks. As was observed on site, against the
flanks of the diapirs the post-Triassic beds are generally
overturned and strongly crushed with a manifest reshuffle of
Triassic rocks (Dali 1979; Perthuisot 1981; El Ouardi 2002).
The Triassic series mostly appears as a strongly de-
formed, chaotic mass of gypsum, anhydrite and sandstones
with thin layers of clay, limestone and dolostones
(Perthuisot 1978; El Ouardi 2002) and which the total
thickness has been estimated to be more than 1000 m
(Perthuisot 1981). The Cretaceous sediments are mainly
marly with interbedded limestone members having a con-
siderable thickness (more than 3000 m) within the
interdiapiric areas. In contrast, the Cretaceous peridiapiric
series is recognized by a marked thickness reduction. The
Cainozoic sequence consists of clays, marls and sands af-
fected, as the Cretaceous series, by a complex faults system
having NW-SE- and NE-SW-trending directions which
have been reactivated during the Late Miocene and
Quaternary compressional tectonics. In fact, this structural
phase has controlled, until recent times, the evolution and
the current implementation of Triassic diapirs (or extru-
sions) as well as the overall structures of the region
(Bouaziz et al. 2002; Chikhaoui 2002). In this geodynamic
context, the morphostructural configuration of the study
area seems to be closely related to the morphodynamic
evolution of Triassic diapirs.

Local physiography and main morphostructures
The main morphostructural configuration of the Teboursouk
province is shaped by a multi-scale synclinal system with two
principal directions: N-S (e.g., Aïn Tounga-Khalled) and NE-
SW (e.g., Oued Hermoucha and Jebel Chetlou), and also
showing two major synclinal zones having a rather complicat-
ed structure (Tabet ech Cherif and Aïn el Hamra-Dougga)
associated with Triassic diapirs (Fig. 2). To the Southwest part
of the study area, the morphology is dominated by the folded
structure of Jebel ech Cheid which considered as one of the
most outstanding Triassic landforms within the northern
Tunisian Atlas. In fact, this mega-antiform with a symmetric
morphology has an average altitude of ~550 m with elevations
up to 700–760 m locally, whereas the mean elevation of the
study area does not exceeds ~410 m and knowing that its
lithology (Triassic rocks) has a higher erodibility among the
surrounding rocks. From west to east, the Jebel ech Cheid
massif is bordered by two relatively flat plateaus (plains of
Khalled and El Aroussa) with a NE-SW orientation and
a low altitude (Fig. 2). In contrast, the landform of the
western part of the study area is dominated by two prom-
inent structures (Jebel Goraa and Jebel Fej el Adoum-el
Alia) with an elevation that exceeds ~830 m and are
mainly Eocene sedimentary rocks: hard limestones with
a high fracturation. In this context, the imposed morphol-
ogy which is closely related to the lithology contrasts
seems to be obvious. In fact, the Eocene carbonates,
compared to Triassic rocks (mainly evaporitic), are very
resistant and have a lower erosional index.
Fig. 2 Digital elevation model (10-m-grid DEM) of the study area showing the main hypsometry and major landforms and massifs. Derived shaded
relief map was used to create the final DEM map
Earth Sci Inform
General approach & GIS procedures
Data source and drainage hierarchization
In the present work, the OTC (Office de la Topographie et de
la Cartographie) topographic map at the scale of 1:50 000 with
10 m contour interval was used as source of elevation and
hydrographic data. This semi detailed scale, with the given
planimetric resolution, will allow an appropriate
geomorphometric analysis and a relevant investigation of pre-
sented geomorphic features (Golts and Rosenthal 1993;
Modenesi-Gauttieri et al. 2002; Jaboyedoff et al. 2009).
Hence, a refined examination of the studied landforms could
be possible.
The scanned topographic map, with 300 dpi resolution,
was georeferenced and manually vectorized using ESRI
software package (ArcGIS) and specific extensions. GIS
layers containing contour lines, elevation points, and the
hydrographic stream network were stored in ESRI shape
file format. From altimetry data, the digital elevation mod-
el (DEM) in GRID format was produced by an advanced
geostatistical interpolation techniques such as kriging
(Burrough and McDonnell 1998) with a resolution of
10 m (Fig. 2). This numerical model of landform is increas-
ingly considered as a wealth of morphometric information
from a quantitative or qualitative point of view (Iwahashi
et al. 2001; Li et al. 2005; Iwahashi and Pike 2007; Ferraris
et al. 2012; Karátson et al. 2012). Notwithstanding the time
consuming and tedious digitizing, the results provide an
acceptable model of local landform and a more detailed
Earth Sci Inform
expression of morphotectonic features of the study area
and associated topographic configuration.
Thereby, a 10-m-grid DEM of Teboursouk region was pro-
duced and a model of shaded relief map was extracted using
GIS spatial analysis approach and the hill (or oblique) shading
method (Li et al. 2005; Kennelly and Stewart 2006). The
generated illumination model is important in geomorphology
and morphostructural mapping to create realistic surface ren-
derings (Fig. 2).
DEM-based algorithms of automatic drainage network
extraction were not used for the definition of valley seg-
ments. Therefore, the vectorization process (by hand-
digitization) was carried out on the basis of a raster file
acquired by scanning and rectifying the digitized drainage
network (Fig. 3). Basin stream segments are ordered ac-
cording to Strahler’s classification (1952) using the clas-
sical approach of numbering: each single valley segment,
represented by a polyline, was manually digitized and
attributed a given hierarchical order depending on its geo-
metrical connection into the stream network. This “frac-
tal” connection is based on the spatial arrangement of
tributaries and confluence points in a hierarchy of first,
second, third and higher orders. Moreover, the topological
framework of the entire network has been considered and
approved into the used GIS environment to ensure vector
snapping and removal of digitizing errors. Finally, the
generated vector GIS layer includes hierarchical order in-
formation and geometrical characteristics for each drain.
Fig. 3 Digitized drainage network of the study area draped over shaded relief map. 1: Oued hermoucha syncline; 2: Ain Jemala diapir; 3: Synclinal zone
of Tabet ech Chereif; b Jebel Goraa, Ch Jebel ech Cheid, f Jebel el Alia
GIS construction of isobases and differential map
Extracted DEM (Fig. 2) and digitized stream network (Fig. 3)
were the basic data for the isobase mapping and differential
analysis into GIS environment using typical spatial analysis
procedures and approaches. In this case of study, the gridded
topographic data was used as a source of elevation
information that will be attributed to the drainage network
segments. These latter, as a first step, have been rearranged
into new shapefiles geometrically distinct according to the
assigned hierarchical drainage order. Thereby, six vector
layers were automatically generated containing drainage
tributaries of the correspondent order and, thereafter,
converted to point data.
However, Grohmann et al. (2011) have suggested the
use of contours derived from the DEM as a source of
elevation instead of using all the elevation values along
the stream lines and that might provide better results
with the interpolation procedure. We are in agreement
with their finding provided that the used elevation mod-
el is the SRTM30 with a spatial resolution of 0°0’30″
(~900 m); nonetheless, our assessment tests conducted
over SRTM03 (~90 m) and the used DEM (~10 m)
show no interpolation artifacts (Yue et al. 2007) into
the produced isobase surfaces and consequently we have
considered that the generated isobase surfaces are suit-
able to the morphotectonic/morphodynamic investigation
at a local scale.

The generation of isobase surfaces was based on created
vector point layers, as shown above, and gridding technique
by spatial interpolation. Continuous surfaces were created
with Regularized Splines with Tension approach (Mitasova
and Hofierka 1993; Mitasova and Mitas 1993; Hofierka
et al. 2002) with a distinctive consideration of intermediate
hierarchical orders. Thus, isobases of 2nd, 3rd and 4th order
were constructed and the combination between 2nd and 3rd
valley orders was conducted. It should be noted that the 1st-
order streams is, by default, disregarded during the base-level
mapping and considered as a source of “noise” that could
prevent the identification of a scarp or other significant topo-
graphic (or morphostructural) features (Grohmann et al.
2011). Also, higher drainage orders are most often rep-
resented by a low number of valleys; 9 and 4 segments
for the 5th and 6th-order channels respectively in our
case of study. Continuous surfaces created from these
orders were spatially insignificant and without effective
morphostructural configuration and, subsequently, they
have been neglected in this study. Moreover, tributaries
with major levels of geometric hierarchization seem to
have a restricted representation of geomorphological
events that couldn’t be generalized to the entire studied
region.
The construction of different isobase surfaces and
differential analysis have been performed into a geo-
graphic information system (GIS) environment. The ex-
tracted geomorphometric indices (isobase surfaces and
differential parameter) are a grid-based approach using
digital elevation model (DEM), GIS tools, and spatial
analysis procedures to perform arithmetic operations
with multiple spatial datasets. In fact, the designed
workflow for the shown approaches has been easily ex-
ecuted in a GIS platform (Leverington et al. 2002;
Grohmann et al. 2011), and morphometric terrain pa-
rameters can be derived directly from the DEM using
some local operations (Arrowsmith 2006).
Our particular focusing on these intermediate orders
was clearly argued by their substantial interpretations
provided in terms of sedimentological investigations
(Raczkowski et al. 1984), morphotectonic mapping
(Golts and Rosenthal 1993), morphostructural analysis
(Grohmann et al. 2011) and morphodynamic assessment.
Differential mapping, used as a quantifying technique of
morphodynamic events, was carried out by a fairly sim-
ple method in the GIS environment. In fact, the
resulting map was constructed by the difference calcu-
lated between the two generated rasters: (1) the present-
day topographic surface (original DEM), and (2) the
isobase surface of the fourth order. The map algebra,
which is a set-based algebra for manipulating geospatial
data, was the used GIS tool ensuring the differential
data extraction and spatial mapping.
Earth Sci Inform
Results & Discussion
Two analytical approaches have been suggested in this work:
(1) qualitative method that seems to be efficient in determin-
ing the morphotectonic and morphostructural configuration,
while (2) quantitative method was used to reveal active
morphostructures and lineaments that are likely to be of
neotectonic origin (Quaternary tectonics). Consequently, the
morphodynamic framework of the study area may therefore
be designed and generalized.
Isobase analysis and morphostructural configuration
(qualitative interpretation)
The proposed qualitative approach is based on the analysis
and interpretation of the isoline pattern of isobase surfaces
extracted from 2nd, 3rd and 4th-order channels. The only
considered combination was made between the 2nd and 3rd-
order valleys which allow the best results as has been conclud-
ed from different case studies of various geological and geo-
morphological contexts at diverse spatial scales (Raczkowski
et al. 1984; Grohmann et al. 2011). The Fig. 4 shows 2D and
3D models of isobase surfaces in order to achieve a combined
analysis taking into account the isobase spatial distribution
and values trend.
Isoline configurations and main trends
As initial map for the interpretation of isobases within the
Téboursouk region, the 2nd and 3rd-order map was in-
volved (Fig. 4). It shows several areas indicating high
isobase concentration, distinguished by narrow isolines
with values falling between 450 and 700 m approximately
(Fig. 4a). Almost all important massifs and structures
(JEC, JG, JFH, JES, JEA and 3 in Fig. 4a) belong to such
regions allowing a good morphostructural delimitation,
and also may presents some typical features of areas that
went through tectonic activities. While maximum isobase
values are reached by the structures located in the western
part of the study area (JEA, JFH and JG) with values
between 750 and 850 m, the highest mean value
(~650 m) is observed within the Jebel ech Cheid massif
(JEC in the Fig. 4a) which dominates the eastern part and
recognized as a large diapiric structure with exposed
evaporites (Fig. 1).
Also, most isobase lines within these prominent
morphostructures show a trend towards NE-SW direction ex-
cluding the Jebel es Sfah massif (JES in the Fig. 4b) which
indicates rather a NNW-SSE direction. It is then possible to
suggest an obvious control of the late Miocene and
Quaternary compressional tectonics, which has a NE-SW di-
rection, on the 2nd and 3rd-order drainage network organiza-
tion and on their segment’s orientation.
Earth Sci Inform
Fig. 4 Extracted isobase models with constructed 2D and 3D surfaces. a 2nd and 3rd order; b 3rd order; c 4th order. Numbering is the same as in Fig. 2
It should be noted that the Jebel ech Cheid (JEC) structure
shows a concentric model of irregular isolines (Fig. 5), where-
as a concentric model of regular isolines characterizes the
other important structures mentioned above. This specific
isobase configuration of JEC massif with isolines of high sin-
uosity could be explained by a recent and/or active tectonics.
However, various regions of contrasting isobase pattern
can be seen particularly within synclinal areas (structures 2,
4, 5, 6 and 8 in Fig. 4a) and plains (PK and EP). They are in
fact characterized by a low isobase density with lower values
falling between 150 and 400 m. Relatively low isobase values
are noticed into the easternmost part of the study area (100–
150 m) revealing a region that undergo topographic depres-
sion and a high drainage density as clearly shown in Figs. 3
and 5. It is therefore obvious that erosional mechanism was
largely prevailing within this region. The isoline pattern is
more complicated within the synclinal structures showing no
evident trend for the most of them, while the widely spaced
isobase pattern with an oversimplified model is noticed into
plains, particularly the Plain of Khalled (PK). We suspect that
it could reflect in some way a mutual relationship between
lithological variation and present-day morphology.
The third order map (Fig. 4b) shows a slightly different
picture with a decrease of isobase values and a widely spaced

Fig. 5 3D isoline model of
isobase surface of 2nd and 3rd-
order valleys. JEC Jebel ech
Cheid, PK Plain of Khalled, EP
El Aroussa Plain
isolines pattern. Nevertheless, most morphostructures of the
study area are delimited and identified indicating a moderate
concentration of isolines over the major massifs (JEC and JG)
with values between 400 and 600 m. Unlike the synclinal
structures the plains are still identified (PK and EP) and show-
ing the most widely spaced pattern of isolines. This configu-
ration seems to reflect the low impact of the 3rd-order streams
on the morphology of plains. On the other hand, the analysis
of isolines pattern of the fourth order map (Fig. 4c) revealed a
substantial correlation between high values of isobase with an
increase of concentration and some prominent massifs. The
JEC, JES and JG structures are well delimited and show the
highest values (up to 680 m) with a concentric model of reg-
ular isolines. Although JEA and JFH massifs are among the
major structures into the western part of the study area, they
are not identified and no specific trend into their isolines.
However, the plain of Khalled (PK) has a good delimitation
with the highest concentration of isolines compared to the
other isobase maps (Fig. 4). A strong NE-SW and NNW-
SSE orientations of the 4th-order isolines is observable over
the recognized structures (Fig. 4c).
Morphostructural and morphotectonic model
A joint analysis involving the isobase surfaces (Figs. 4 and 5)
and the geological map of the study area (Fig. 1) shows an
apparent spatial correlation between the high concentration of
isolines and Paleogene sedimentary rocks (mainly Eocene
limestone), except of the NE-SW trending body of Triassic
evaporites (mainly salt and gypsum) of the Jebel ech Cheid
(JEC) structure. The Cretaceous (mainly marly) and Neogene
series (mainly sequences of sands and sandstone), observed
into synclinal zones (2, 4, 5, 6 and 8 in Fig. 2), are broadly
correlated with a widely spaced isolines pattern with lower
isobase values showing rather a different picture implying
Earth Sci Inform
the lithological changes and their erosional properties
(Fig. 4). As previously analyzed, an explanation of this corre-
lation is possible assuming that isobase lines are very sensitive
to erosional surfaces and are related to tectonic-erosional
events, mainly the most recent one (Raczkowski et al. 1984;
Golts and Rosenthal 1993; Grohmann et al. 2011). In fact, it is
remarkable that high isobases are typically associated with
structures having hard rocks with a lower erodibility and then
considered as “rugged morphostructures”, whereas low
isobases are associated with structures having soft rocks with
a higher erodibility and thereafter considered as “brittle
morphostructures”. However, it should be noted that the dia-
piric massif of JEC, which should be considered as a rugged
morphostructure, is an atypical morphostructure characterized
by an anomalous association between isobases with high
values (Figs. 4 and 5) and rocks with high erodibility
(Triassic evaporites) as observed in the geologic map
(Fig. 1). It can be inferred that the diapiric massif is clearly
influenced by recent and active halokinesis with an uplifting
movement of Triassic evaporites which control the topograph-
ic growth of the Triassic landform of the JEC and, subsequent-
ly, explaining the high values of isobases and also the model
of isolines concentration over the massif. This evidence is
extremely important to help understand the studied salt extru-
sion morphodynamics during the Quaternary period and until
recent times. This finding is argued, geologically, by a signif-
icant thinning of the post-Triassic series which are overturned
and strongly crushed against the flanks of the JEC extrusion
(Perthuisot 1981; Chikhaoui 2002; El Ouardi 2002).
Furthermore, the well-preserved isolines delimitation
of some morphostructures (particularly JEC, JES and JG
in Fig. 4c) could possibly reflect a mutual relationship
between deep basement fractures and reactivated relict
alpine morphology, occurring during the late Quaternary
shortening and even at the present time. Based on these
Earth Sci Inform
analyses a morphostructural zoning of the study area
could be proposed showing brittle, rugged and atypical
rugged morphostructures (Fig. 6d).
From a morphotectonic point of view, Golts and Rosenthal
(1993) have outlined that abrupt deviations in isobase lines
directions may reflect of tectonic dislocation or severe litho-
logical changes. Nevertheless, most of the observed signifi-
cant lithological variations were of tectonic origin; thus, it is
quite adequate to correlate the apparent isolines anomalies
with various level of tectonic fractures and faults systems.
The identification of base-level lineaments from the interpre-
tation of unusual deviations into isobase maps is largely qual-
itative and taking into account the geological context of the
study area (Grohmann et al. 2011). However, significant
change in isoline orientation is systematically induced from
anomalous deviations in fluvial drainage system (Howard
1967) which are a sensitive indicator of tectonic lineaments
(e.g., Mayer et al. 2003; Mrinalinee Devi and Singh 2006;
Ribolini and Spagnolo 2008). Also, it is obvious that the
Fig. 6 Morphotectonic interpretation of isoline configurations (a to c)
and generalized morphostructural mapping (d). a 2nd and 3rd order; b 3rd
order; c 4th order. BM Brittle Morphostructure, RB Rugged
apparent orientations of identified morphotectonic fractures
were largely controlled by the pre-existing tectonic constraints
and by the orientation of the stress field.
The identification of approximate faultline area within
an isobase surface is based on the recognition of isoline
inflexions (Grohmann et al. 2011) which are, for most of
them, specific to tectonic fractures that the present-day
topography couldn’t show (impact of an active erosional
process). Nevertheless, some particular features should be
recognized and regarded as helpful elements for
morphotectonic interpretations: aligned and elongated iso-
lines, sharp deviations in contours and unusual compres-
sion or spreading within the isoline pattern. A qualitative
mapping of morphotectonic lineaments (interpreted as
fractures) is then quite possible using the considered
isobase maps, as shown in the Fig. 6, draped over their
shaded surfaces which might be very useful to locate lin-
ear features. We would point that the extracted
morphotectonic information, which is of approximate
Morphostructure, ARM Atypical Rugged Morphostructure, JES Jebel es
Sfah, JEC Jebel ech Cheid. For structures 1 to 8: see Fig. 2

nature, could be used in conjunction with on site investi-
gations to depict the tectonic framework of the study area.
Major identified morphotectonic lineaments (Fig. 6a, b
and c) trend NE-SW to NNE-SSW adapting to the re-
gional strike-slip fault system in response to NW-SE late
Alpine transpressive tectonics which control the structur-
al heritage of the entire region (Dercourt et al. 1986;
Martinez et al. 1991). Furthermore, these directions have
an important impact on the orientation of fracture zones
and on the alignment of salt extrusions within the study
area (Perthuisot 1981). The interpreted isobase surfaces
indicate a morphotectonic configuration primarily based
on NE-SW direction which demarcates most observed
morphostructures (massifs in Fig. 6a and b). The as-
sumed important fractures are investigated within the
4th order map (Fig. 6c) and likely regarded to be related
to the deep basement. In fact, the isobase pattern gener-
ated from the 4th-order valleys provides a better distinc-
tion of isoline anomalies with identifiable tendency and
distinguished orientation. We suppose that streams of
higher order are much sensitive to fractures of more
importance that might be closely related to basement.
Moreover, Raczkowski et al. (1984) have demonstrated
that large and distinctive disturbances in isoline pattern
frequently seem to be caused by the impact of deep
fractures.
Therefore, three prominent morphostructures could be
identified and tectonically characterized by major NE-SW
basement lineaments (Fig. 6c), namely the massifs of JG,
JES and the controversial structure of JEC (Fig. 5); This
Triassic extrusion has been considered as an atypical rug-
ged morphostructure with a rather complex geometry.
According to the result of our isobase analysis, the inferred
morphotectonic map (Fig. 6d) shows two categories of linea-
ments, interpreted as tectonic fractures: (1) lineaments with low
extensions and probably of shallow origin extracted mostly
from 2nd and 3rd-order map (Fig. 6a and b), and (2) lineaments
with great extensions and might be of deep origin deduced
from 4th-order map (Fig. 6c). It is remarkable that some of
these lineaments are particularly represented by several aligned
lineaments with low extensions into the 2nd and 3rd-order map
(and also into the 3rd-order map); we suspect that it could be a
faultline system affecting the superficial sedimentary cover and
connected to the (deep) basement. In short, the study area and,
quite possibly, the developed drainage network have undergone
an obvious control by NE-trending faults, which were respon-
sible for structural zoning and sedimentological thickness var-
iations within formed basins.
Isobase model and sedimentological configuration
The isoline pattern of the 2nd and 3rd-order valleys has
been also investigated in this work in term of
Earth Sci Inform
sedimentological thickness variation within the study ar-
ea basins. Raczkowski et al. (1984) have indeed ob-
served, within the Polish Carpathians isobases, that all
zones of closely spaced isobases are related to a dimin-
ished thickness, while areas displaying a widely spaced
isoline pattern correspond with regions of great thick-
ness. Furthermore, Filosofov (1960) has clearly stressed
that subsided areas have been demonstrated, nearly in
most examined cases, by long distances between isolines
within the isobase model. As previously analyzed, the
inspected isobase map reveals two distinctive patterns
of isolines according to the spatial concentration, the
spacing distance and the mean isobase value. Thus, a
pattern of isolines with long distances, low concentration
and mean isobase values of 150 to 350 m characterizes
distinctly the interdiapiric areas (Plain of Khalled, El
Aroussa Plain, structures 2, 5 and 6 in Fig. 7) in which
the post-Triassic series show a considerable thickness
and considered as subsiding sedimentary basins
(Perthuisot 1981; Chikhaoui 2002). Nevertheless, almost
the same pattern but with higher mean isobase values
(between 550 and 700) is also observed on top of several
massifs including JES, JG, structure 7 and the Triassic
diapir of Jebel ech Cheid (Fig. 7) suggesting an increase
of thickness of their corresponding sedimentary series
(Fig. 1). Indeed, in situ investigation carried out by
Perthuisot et al. (1999) and Chikhaoui (2002) reveals
an important thickening of the Paleogene series (Eocene
limestones) and of the Triassic rocks (mainly salt and
gypsum) within their morphostructures (Fig. 1),
confirming therefore the interpreted isobase model.
In the other hand, a pattern of isolines with higher concen-
tration and a very narrow spacing (as second pattern of iso-
lines) is noticed in peripheral zones of some structures, imply-
ing a particular thinning of sediments (Fig. 7). However, a
pattern with an abrupt decrease of isolines spacing seems to
be more significant and leads to helpful interpretations.
Therefore, several outlying areas were identified and mainly
localized at the flanks of the investigated morphostructures,
including the eastern side of JES, JG, massifs 3 and 7 (Fig. 7).
These isobase interpretations which reveal the diminished of
sedimentary thickness were confirmed by local geological ob-
servations (Perthuisot 1981; Perthuisot et al. 1999), particular-
ly in the peridiapiric areas of the Triassic extrusion of JEC. In
fact, toward the tow flanks of this massif, thinning of the post-
Triassic layers (mainly Cretaceous and Paleogene) were ob-
served, described (Dali 1979; Chikhaoui 2002) and recently
confirmed from seismic reflection profile and complete
Bouguer gravity analysis (Benassi 2011); suggesting therefore
a model of deep-rooted diapiric structure (Jackson et al. 1998;
Vendeville 2002) which the morphostructural evolution was
reflected by local sedimentological variations displayed
around the diapiric structure.
Earth Sci Inform
Fig. 7 Sedimentological
thickness interpretation of isobase
map of 2nd and 3rd-order valleys.
The interpretation is closely
related to the isoline pattern and
isobase values (see text for
details). Numbering is the same as
in Fig. 2
Differential mapping and morphodynamic investigation
(quantitative interpretation)
Extracted isoline patterns are logically related to
tectonic-erosional events, mainly the most recent ones
(Grohmann et al. 2011), whose the physical interactions
control the tectonic growth of topography (e.g., Burbank
and Anderson 2001; Kühni and Pfiffner 2001; Willett
et al. 2006 and references therein). Thus, active tecton-
ics may be evaluated quantitatively on the basis of dif-
ferential computation between isobase surfaces produced
from different stream orders. However, some surfaces
are thought to be more sensitive to neotectonic vertical
movements than others. In fact, it has been concluded
from the work of Raczkowski et al. (1984) that calcu-
lation of the differences in height between the present-
day topographic surface and the fourth order base-level
surface can produce an estimate of relative tectonic up-
lift during the Quaternary. The created surface is then
qualified as “differential map” showing a distribution
model of differential values within the study area. This
quantitative approach leads to interpretations in terms of
Quaternary tectonics, erosional processes, landform dis-
sections an d neotecton ic uplifting mov ements.
Combined with morphostructural and morphotectonic
mapping (Fig. 6) an evaluation of active faults and/or
landforms could be quite possible. Moreover, a tentative
assessment of the amount of uplift rate is potentially
achievable (Raczkowski et al. 1984).
The computed differential map shows a positive dif-
ferential values ranging from 0 to 215 m approximately
with a localized distribution revealing particular
morphostructures and topographic lineaments (Fig. 8).
These values are between 100–150 m and ~200 m in
the JES, JG, JFH, JEA, structure 3 and Jebel Zalia (JZ)
indicating a limited spatial distribution enveloping the
prominent parts of the investigated structures; in the
Triassic massif of JEC they range from 60–80 m to
~215 m while in the plains of Khalled (PK) and El
Aroussa (EP) they only reach 10–15 m (Fig. 8). There,
the important decrease in differential values lead us to
suspect the impact of a neotectonic subsidence on the
morphostructural configuration of these geomorphic de-
pressions likely related to the Quaternary tectonics im-
posed by the outstanding structure of JEC. However,
within the eastern part of the El Aroussa plain (EP),
shown by a white square in Fig. 8, a significant increase
of differential values is noticed (between 45 and ~70 m),
particularly at the meander area of Siliana river (Oued
Siliana) and its associated landforms (Fig. 2). It is there-
fore obvious to suggest a region of active meandering
with high sinuosity index that might be caused by tec-
tonically active framework with a local and limited con-
trol on river geometry and configuration. Also, it is

Fig. 8 Produced differential map
obtained from the residual
calculation between present-day
surface and 4th-order isobase
surface. JES Jebel es Sfah, JG
Jebel Goraa, JZ Jebel Zalia, JFH
Jebel Fej el Adoum, JEA Jebel el
Alia, JEC Jebel ech Cheid, PK
Plain of Khalled, EP El Aroussa
Plain. The inner white square
(lower right corner) shows the
meander area of Oued Siliana.
White arrows indicate
morphotectonic lineaments. For
massifs 1 to 8, see Fig. 2
important to point that along Siliana river, this meander-
ing only occurs at the eastern plain against the Triassic
structure of JEC, confirming its recent morphodynamics.
The model of spatial spreading of differential values in the
JEC morphostructure shows clearly several particular areas
with high values exceeding 200 m (Fig. 8), while the mean
value is about 70 m. Within this massif, the level of differential
values diminishes, abruptly in some localities, to 10–30 m and
even reaches 0 m showing thereby a morphostructure with a
specific differential pattern. These areas demonstrate an im-
portant lowering of landform caused by active erosional pro-
cess that could be associated with the impact of the
neotectonic subsidence. In fact, this erosion mainly based on
fluvial process has an important action on evaporitic rocks
causing, thereby, a considerable dissolution of the Triassic
halite in the southeastern flank of JEC, as clearly and recently
observed in situ by Ben Slama et al. (2012). In this case, we
propose thus a model with an “intra-landform dynamics”
showing a spatial association between areas revealing
Quaternary uplift movements (high differential values) and
those indicating low neotectonic movements associated with
a diminished scale of topographic dissection. Within this mor-
phostructure, a steady state dynamics has took place allowing
in some way a mutual relationship between topographic
growth and destruction (or lowering). According to the results
of our analysis (Figs. 5, 6d, 7 and 8), the Triassic landform of
JEC has accommodated, but not into a localized region, recent
topographic growth initiated and conducted by active neo-
halokinesis and salt rock uplifting, consistent with the obser-
vations made by Coque and Jauzein (1965) that revealed Plio-
Quaternary deposits unusually located in the summit areas of
several diapirs. Moreover, recent formations (with superficial
calcareous crust) have an important increase of topographic
slopes within areas surrounding the JEC landform, and they
are even overturned in some localities against the flanks of the
Earth Sci Inform
diapir (Dali 1979; Perthuisot 1981; Perthuisot et al. 1999;
Chikhaoui 2002).
The constructed differential map of 4th order has also
shown several alignments of high values especially oriented
NE-SW (indicated by white arrows in Fig. 8). Several of these
topographic lineaments are associated with mapped faults
(Fig. 1) and revealing the same directions, which lead us to
suspect the influence of neotectonic movements. Lineaments
located within Jebel ech Cheid (JEC) diapir, Jebel es Sfah
(JES), structure 3, Jebel Zalia (JZ), and Jebel Fej el Adoum
(JFH) are among the most significant in the study area (Fig. 8).
It is therefore possible to suggest, as our quantitative analysis
allows, that the considered morphostructural lineaments have
undergone an active tectonics during Quaternary time. In fact,
the computed differential values are proportional to the level
of Quaternary tectonics (Raczkowski et al. 1984) and proba-
bly to the uplifting movements. It should be noted, however,
that there is no significant geological studies regarding
neotectonic activities of faults and structures that have been
carried out within the study area. We therefore have a lack of
later observations that would lead to confirm or to contradict
our findings. We hope that our mapped results will stimulate
such future work.
Most importantly, the morphodynamic mapping allowed
by this isobase approach shows various tectonic landforms
associated with active morphostructures and recent develop-
ment of geomorphic features such as diapiric extrusion (which
we suspect a geometry of Triassic salt dome), folds and plains,
as well as fractures and topographic lineaments. The related
differential values are according to the magnitude of
Quaternary tectonics within the study area that is, indeed, a
complex function of uplift and exhumation cycles. Therefore,
the origin of neotectonic movements seems to be closely
linked to reactivation of deep faults (Fig. 6d) and, most par-
ticularly, to the active morphodynamics of Triassic diapirs
Earth Sci Inform
within the study area (e.g., JEC salt diapir, Fig. 5) stimulated
by additional Atlasic shortening. In addition, a shallow reac-
tivation of the deep overthrust of Teboursouk known as the
“accident of Teboursouk”, which is a consequence of an im-
portant regional west-dipping reverse fault (Perthuisot 1972,
1978), may therefore be evidenced locally (Fig. 6) at its su-
perficial known tectonic segments such as Ain Jemala diapir
(structure 3), Jebel Zalia (JZ) and Jebel Faj el Adoum (JFH,
Fig. 8). Although we could quantify the spatial distribution of
the Quaternary tectonics intensity within the study area, it is
not possible at the moment to precisely evaluate the amount of
Quaternary uplift of the studied morphostructures.
Conclusion
In the present work, the detailed isobase method was applied
into an area that presents a complex and heterogeneous geo-
logical framework leading to various geomorphic landforms.
This method is a digital geomorphic approach based on hy-
drographic and topographic components and attributes which
were automatically extracted from 10 m-grid DEM and per-
formed within GIS environment using spatial analysis tools
and procedures. Isobase mapping, applied at a semi detailed
scale (1: 50 000), was then easily carried out allowing the
surfaces extraction from various stream orders.
Performed qualitative isobase analysis of isolines pattern
configuration, in examining the model of spatial distribution
and anomalous trends, has allowed three levels of interpreta-
tion: (1) delimitation of morphostructural units, (2) approxi-
mate localization of morphotectonic lineaments and disconti-
nuities, and (3) assessment of sedimentary thickness and its
lateral variations. We confirm, considering previous studies,
that isobase surface constructed with 2nd and 3rd-order val-
leys could yield, also at semi detailed scale, to valuable and
significant morphostructural and morphotectonic investiga-
tions. It allows, furthermore, a helpful sedimentological inter-
pretations closely related to deposits thickness variations,
which were clearly evidenced into our study area and largely
confirmed by geophysical data and in situ geological obser-
vations. Moreover, importance of 4th order surface has been
demonstrated in the interpretation of regional-scale
morphostructures and morphotectonic depiction. In fact, 4th
order disturbances appear to be more sensitive to deep struc-
tures and basement fractures.
As a general qualitative approach, we suggest an analysis
involving various isobase surfaces, including 2nd and 3rd or-
der, only 3rd order, and 4th order. The first two surfaces allow,
in some way, a shallow morphostructural and morphotectonic
investigation, while the 4th order surface, if visual correlation
allows, could reflect the impact of basement structures.
Several massifs have therefore been identified as brittle and
rugged morphostructures excepting the diapiric extrusion of
Jebel ech Cheid (JEC) which is considered as an atypical
rugged morphostructure. Most of these structures are associ-
ated with basement faults that could possibly be reactivated
during Quaternary times.
It has been shown that drainage network organization and
neotectonic adjustment and adaptation, which reflect
Quaternary tectonics, could be quantitatively examined using
differential mapping. This promising approach is primarily
based on isobase pattern and isolines sinuosity and distur-
bances of 4th-order channels. The spatial distribution of these
areas seems to indicate a strong differentiation of erosion rates
and, likely, of recent tectonic movements. It is also considered
to represent the scale of neotectonic movements during Plio-
Quaternary times. The differential analysis allow us to con-
clude that the atypical and outstanding morphostructure of
JEC, especially, appears to be an important component of
the exhumation and uplift of the study area, supporting a
model based on an “intra-landform dynamics” which affects
the surrounding sediments. There, the Triassic landform of
JEC has accommodated, but not into a localized region, recent
topographic growth initiated and conducted by active neo-
halokinesis and salt rock uplifting stimulated by additional
Atlasic shortening. We would point that our findings com-
bined with geological evidences lead us to support this hy-
pothesis and, thereafter, to consider the studied diapir as a salt
dome with complex geometry. In addition, the main topo-
graphic configuration of the study area may therefore be close-
ly influenced by the Triassic active halokinesis
(halotectonics), that we suspect the occurrence in our study
area and even within several areas of the “diapiric zone” in
northern Tunisia.
This tectonic geomorphic method, that usefulness was con-
firmed as a geomorphometric parameter of active tectonics,
could help understanding active fold growth and associated
landforms. Although the isobase analysis method presented
herein has been little exploited in tectonic geomorphology, it
provides new tools and helpful hypothesis that can be applied
to areas where evidences regarding uplift rates is not available
or hardly distinguished.
Acknowledgments The authors thank anonymous reviewers for de-
tailed and constructive comments and valuable suggestions that have
greatly improved the final version of the content of the manuscript.
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