CHAPTER 4 : LITERATURE REVIEW

4.1 Publications

Biofuel Seeds

Shamsundar Subbarao et al, 2014 studied the viability of Biodiesel unit for non edible
seeds in rural areas and stated the same as follows.

Diesel sources diminish with time; no energy source can replace it. Any oil is alternative to
diesel after trans-esterification. Trans-esterified non edible oils from seeds of
pongamia(Honge)/Simarouba/Neem/Jatropha etc. is biodiesel; in Indian villages, biofuel
seeds are abundant; harnessing those benefits farmer by ensuring income through sale of
seeds; Seedcake(byproduct) during oil extraction in organic manure. Oil can be used in pump
sets for irrigation as electricity is scarce; surplus oil can be transesterified and utilised in
tractors/diesel vehicles. Biodiesel has great potential to replace diesel, reduces SO x/NOx
emissions. Transesterification yields crude-glycerol as byproduct which can be purified /used
for making soap. The paper illustrates biodiesel- plant as viable/sustainable industry through
District Biofuel Information and Demonstration Centre at NIE-CREST, NIE- Mysore,
sponsored by KSBDB GoK-Bangalore. The centre has machinery to produce 50L
biodiesel/batch; conducts awareness/training programs; this has increased demand for
biodiesel in Mysore; over 2000L of biodiesel has been sold two industries-institutes-
individuals Like Supreem pharmaceuticals, MCC-Mysore, NIE, Rangarao&Sons etc.
Biodiesel cost Rs. 55/litre if seed prices Rs.23/kg. Biodiesel plant in rural-areas accomplishes
entrepreneurship-employment-sustainability and benefits national economy.

Wakil Abdul Md. et al, 2012, chose Cottonseed oil, Mosna oil and Sesame oil for producing
biodiesel. Biodiesel is produced by transesterifying the oil with an alcohol such as methanol
under mild conditions in the presence of a base catalyst. Satisfactory amount of biodiesel is
produced from Cottonseed oil at 3:1 molar ratio of methanol and oil. Three types of oil
(cottonsed oil, mosna oil, sesame oil) are extracted from the seeds and chemically converted
via an alkaline transesterification reaction to fatty acid methyl ester. The optimum conditions
established for the methanolysis of crude cotton seed oil in the investigation were recorded to
be: 3:1 molar ratio of methanol to oil and 1.00% (w/w) catalyst. For Mosna oil the optimum
conditions were recorded to be 3:5:1 M ratio of methanol to oil and 1.00% (w/w) catalyst.
But small amount of biodiesel was found from this oil and production cost is higher than
 cottonseed oil. And for Sesame oil the optimum conditions were recorded to be 3.5:1 M ratio
of methanol to oil and 1.00% catalyst.

G R Rao, 2008 stated that since, most of non-edible oilseeds trees do not compete with any arable
crops for the resources as they are adaptable to wastelands, there is great scope for undertaking
plantations of tree borne oilseeds in wastelands under different agro-climatic conditions in different
states of India. Promotion of these can generate tremendous job opportunities among rural masses and
augment the availability of vegetable oils for edible and non-edible uses to reduce foreign exchange
burden. 

Daming Huang et al, 2016 studied the history and recent developments of Biodiesel, including the
different types of biodiesel, the characteristics, processing and economics of Biodiesel industry and
concluded that biodiesel production is set to rise drastically in the coming years since offers the
promise of numerous benefits related to energy security, economics, expansion of the agriculture
sector and reduction of pollutant emission.
Tang Ying et al, 2011, developed a new method catalyst, benzyl bromide-modified CaO(Calcium
Oxide) for production of biodiesel from rapeseed. The improved catalytic activity was obtained by
better fat diffusion to the surface of the benzyl bromide-modified CaO. Further, a 99.2% yield of fatty
acid methyl esters in 3h was obtained in comparison to by better fat diffusion to the surface of the
benzyl bromide-modified CaO.

Jan Lukaszkiewicz and Marek Kosmala, 2008 in this article they have determined the age of
streetside tree populations based on multifactorial regression model, it is useful only when the
knowledge about the origin of the trees is known but the age remains unknown. The developed model
is very acurate and precise enough to determine the mean age of the tree populations of low density
such as the streetside and roadside location where age readout error does not exceed +15%. 
WCO

Wang Yong et al, 2007 investigated a two- step catalyzed process for synthesis of biodiesel
by using WCO(Waste Cooking Oil) from Chinese restaurants. In the first step, ferric
sulphate-catalyzed methanolysis was carried out, while potassium hydroxide catalysis was
performed in the second step. The author concluded that compared with one-step sulphur acid
catalysis the two-step catalyzed process provided a simpler and more economic method to
produce biodiesel from WCO.

Issariyakul Titipong et al, 2000 also used the two-step process to transesterify waste
cooking oil, except that sulphuric acid was selected as acid catalyst and mixtures of methanol
and ethanol were used for transesterification in order to use the better solvent properties of
ethanol and a more rapid equilibrium using methanol. More than 90% ester was obtained by
using the two-stage method compared with yield of ~50% ester by using the single stage
alkaline catalyst.

Prafulla D. Patil et al, 2012 carried out comparative study on biodiesel production from
waste cooking oil using sulfuric acid (Two-step) and microwave-assisted transesterification
(One-step). The two-step transesterification process was used to produce biodiesel (alkyl
ester) from high free fatty acid (FFA) waste cooking oil. Microwave-assisted
transesterification was done by using catalytic BaO(Barium Oxide) and KOH(potassium
hydroxide) in biodiesel production from waste cooking oil. The study showed that the
microwave-heating method consumes less than 10% of the energy to achieve the same yield
as the conventional heating method. Further, fuel properties of biodiesel produced were
compared with ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials) Standards for biodiesel
and regular diesel.

Hossain A.B.M.S. and Boyce A.N., 2009 in their work compared optimum conditions of
alkaline-catalyzed transesterification process for biodiesel production from pure sunflower
cooking oil (PSCO) and waste sunflower cooking oil (WSCO) through transesterification
process. The highest approximately 99.5% biodiesel yield acquired under optimum
conditions of 1:6 volumetric oil-to-methanol ratio, 1% KOH (potassium hydroxide) catalyst
at 40ºC reaction temperature and 320 rpm stirring speed. Result of the test showed that the
biodiesel production from PSCO and WSCO exhibited no considerable differences.
Farooq Muhammad and Ramli Anita, 2015 prepared catalysts from raw chicken bones for
transesterification reaction of waste cooking oil for biodiesel production. The study revealed
that heterogeneous catalyst calcined at 900°C exhibited good catalytic activity in the
transesterification of WCO, providing maximum biodiesel yield of 89.33% at 5.0 g of
catalyst loading, 15:1 methanol to oil molar ratio at temperature of 65°C in reaction time of
4h.