IS-95, cdmaOne

- a basic introduction or tutorial about the basics of IS-95 (IS-95A and IS-95B)
marketed under the brand name cdmaOne

IS-95 was the first CDMA mobile phone system to gain widespread use and it is found widely in
North America. Its brand name is cdmaOne and the initial specification for the system was
IS95A, but its performance was later upgraded under IS-95B. It is this later specification that is
synonymous with cdmaOne. Apart from voice the mobile phone system is also able to carry data
at rates up to 14.4 kbps for IS-95A and 115 kbps for IS-95B.

IS95 / cdmaOne was the fist cellular telecommunications system to use the CDMA - code
division multiple access system. Previous systems had used FDMA - frequency division multiple
access or TDMA - time division multiple access. With IS-95 being a second generation - 2G
system and all the later 3G systems using CDMA as their access system, this meant that IS95 /
cdmaOne was a pioneering system.

IS-95 history

The idea for using the form of modulation known as direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) for
a multiple access system for mobile telecommunications came from a California based company
called Qualcomm in the 1980s. Previously DSSS had been mainly used for military or covert
communications systems as the transmissions were hard to detect, jam and eavesdrop.

The system involved multiplying the required data with another data stream with a much higher
data rate. Known as a spreading code, this widened the bandwidth required for the transmission,
spreading it over a wide frequency band. Only when the original spreading code was used in the
reconstruction of the data, would the original information be reconstituted. It was reasoned that
by having different spreading codes, a multiple access system could be created for use in a
mobile phone system.

In order to prove that the new system was viable a consortium was set up and Qualcomm was
joined by US network operators Nynex and Ameritech to develop the first experimental code
division multiple access (CDMA) system. Later the team was expanded as Motorola and AT&T
(now Lucent) joined to bring their resources to speed development. As a result the new standard
was published as IS-95A in 1995 under the auspices of the Cellular Telecommunications
Industry Association (CTIA) and the Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA). As part of
the development of CDMA an organisation called the CDMA Development Group (CDG) was
formed from the founding network and manufacturers. Its purpose is to promote CDMA and
evolve the technology and standards, although today most of the standards work is carried out by
3GPP2.
It then took a further three years before Hutchison Telecom became the first organisation to
launch a system. The IS95 system was widely deployed in North America, and the Asia Pacific
region, but there were also networks in South America, Africa, and the Middle East as well as
some in Eastern Europe.

With the success of the initial IS95 format, improvements were made and the standard was
upgraded to IS95B. The main improvement was that this provided for an increased data rate of
115 kbps as data traffic was starting to be carried.

The basic CDMA system was later further improved and evolved into a 3G system carrying
much higher data rates and introducing new improvements. The 3G migration of IS95 was given
the brand name cdma2000, and was available in a variety of flavours including cdma2000 1x,
cdma2000 1x ev-do (evolution data only or data optimised) and another version was termed
cdma2000 1x ev-dv (evolution data and voice), although this version was never seriously
deployed.

CDMA within IS-95

The CDMA or code division multiple access system used for IS-95 is very different to other
multiple access schemes used in previous cellular systems. However it offers a number of
advantages and as a result has been widely used in many cellular technologies.

Note on CDMA:

CDMA, Code Division Multiple Access, is a multiple access scheme used by many 3G cellular
technologies, and other forms of wireless technology. It uses a process called Direct Sequence
Spread Spectrum where spreading codes are used to spread a signal out over a given bandwidth
and then reconstituting the data in the receiver by using the same spreading code. By supplying
different spreading codes to different users, several users are able to utilises the same frequency
without mutual interference.

Click on the link for a CDMA tutorial

The advantage of using CDMA over FDMA and TDMA is that it enables a greater number of
users to be supported. The improvement in efficiency is hard to define as it depends on many
factors including the size of the cells and the level of interference between cells and several other
factors.

Unlike the more traditional cellular systems where neighbouring cells use different sets of
channels, a CDMA system re-uses the same channels. Signals from other cells will be appear as
interference, but the system is able to extract the required signal by using the correct code in the
demodulation and signal extraction process. Often more than one channel is used in each cell,
and this provides additional capacity because there is a limit to the amount of traffic that can be
supported on each channel.

IS95 specification summary

Parameter Details

Multiple Access Scheme CDMA

Channel bandwidth 1.25 MHz

14.4 kbps - IS-95A

Data rate
115 kbps - IS-95B

IS-95 summary

IS-95, cdmaOne was a revolutionary system for cellular telecommunications. It paved the way
for the other CDMA based 3G systems that were to follow around the globe. It enabled greater
levels of spectrum efficiency to be gained while also allowing many other improvements to be
introduced. IS-95 itself evolved into the variety of cdma2000 schemes including 1x, 1x ev-do,
and the plans were ultimately to migrate onto a 4G system known as UMB - Ultra-Mobile
Broadband. However IS-95 proved to be a winner in many areas of the globe, particularly in the
Americas and the Far East.

IS-95 Air Interface - forward and reverse

links
- basics of the IS-95, IS-95A and IS-95B, cdmaOne air interface looking at the
CDMA spreading, forward and reverse links and basic channel organisation.

The IS-95 air interface was very different to anything that had been previously used as a result of
the fact that CDMA was used. The IS 95 forward link and the IS-95 reverse link are different in
their construction in view of the fact that there are different requirements for each.

The IS-95 air interface is based around the use of CDMA within a 1.25 MHz channel. Using this,
the system can use the same channel for a large number of signals, each one allocated a different
code to access the system.
IS-95 forward and reverse links

In order to be able define the directions of the transmission within a cellular system, the links to
and from the base station are defined. The names used within IS-95 and cdma2000 are different
to those used for GSM and UMTS.

For the IS-95 air interface, the convention is:

 Forward link:   the link from the base station to the handset.
 Reverse link:   the link from the handset to the base station.

IS-95 air interface reverse and forward links

IS-95 CDMA and Spreading codes

A CDMA system is based around Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum techniques. Here the
function of the system revolves around the use of the orthogonal chip or spreading codes. There
are two forms of codes used within IS-95 which are used in slightly different ways:

 Walsh codes:   The Walsh Codes used within IS-95 are a fixed 64 bit length. This provides for a
maximum of 64 individual physical channels to be carried by the system. However the number
of usable channels is more usually limited by the level of interference that results from the
number of active channels and their data within the cell, and also interference from adjacent
cells.
 PN codes:   The pseudo-random or PN code is used in assembling the IS-95 air interface signal.
They consist of a series of bits that have random properties. Three PN codes are used within IS-
95, two short codes and one long one.

These codes are used because it is found that if one code is time shifted then the code becomes
uncorrelated with the same unshifted code. This means that the same code can be used twice,
but time shifted to provide two uncorrelated sequences. In fact when used in the network, the
codes are synchronised by GPS timing signals.
 In order to utilise the PN codes in IS-95, an approach using a mask is adopted. Codes transmitted
at a different time offset are uncorrelated, and therefore by adopting a known given set of
offsets it is possible to create a set of "codes" that can be used. The short codes are 32768 bits
long and offset by 64 bits. This gives a total of 512 offsets that can be used within IS-95. As the
short code is transmitted at the CDMA data rate of 1.2288 Mbps this equates to a full cycle time
of 26.667 mS.

The IS-95 system combines these Walsh codes with two pseudorandom noise codes for each
communication channel - in this way many different channels can be made.

The different channels can either be used for control applications, or for carrying the data
payload. The different channels can then be separated by the receiver, as the receiver is only able
to correlate those for which it has been provided with the required Walsh codes. All other signals
using other Walsh codes just appear as noise.

IS-95 air interface radio signal construction

CDMA transmissions are very different to those used for the previous FDMA and TDMA
systems. Here the system occupied a relatively narrow bandwidth. For a CDMA system a much
wider bandwidth is used. In the case of IS-95 / cdmaOne a channel bandwidth of 1.25 MHz is
used. The actual bandwidth being determined by the chip rate which is 1.228 Mcps.
Additionally, in another departure from previous practice, adjacent cells are able to use the same
frequency, the different codes used by the adjacent cells enabling them to work alongside each
other.

The characteristics of the transmission between the forward and reverse links are slightly
different. Much of this arises from the fact that the two links are on different frequencies, and the
path lengths are different in terms of the number of wavelengths travelled. Also the requirements
for the paths are slightly different.

The forward link is transmitted by a single station where synchronisation between the different
channels is implicit as they are all generated within the same equipment. The IS-95 reverse link
is generated by a large number of different handsets that are not easily synchronised and are at
varying distances from the base station.

A further requirement is that the modulation format must take account of the power requirements
for the handset.
IS-95 forward link

The IS-95 forward link uses a form of modulation known as Quadrature Phase Shift Keying
(QPSK). This allows two bits per symbol to be transmitted and is therefore an efficient method
of transmitting the data.

The IS-95 forward link consists of a number of elements. There is the pilot channel and other
further channels each with their own functions. The pilot channel corresponds to the control
channel in GSM and enables the mobile to estimate the path loss and as a result of this to set its
power level accordingly. In addition to this there are other channels for paging, speech, data etc.
The speech is encoded using a voice encoder. Error correction is then applied to this data to
enable it to be carried even under poor conditions. This brings the data rate up to 19.2 kbps. The
next stage in the generation of the signal is to multiple the data by a Walsh code - the form of
orthogonal code used to spread the signal when generating the CDMA signal itself. As this is a
64 bit code, this multiplies the data rate by 64 to bring the overall data rate to 1.228 Mbps. This
signal is then transmitted.

IS-95 reverse link

In the reverse channel a form of modulation known as Offset Quadrature Phase Shift Keying
(OQPSK). This is a form of quadrature phase shift keying, QPSK where the quadrature (Q)
component of the signal is offset from the in-phase (I) component by half a symbol period. This
form of modulation is used because the amplitude of the waveform does not cross zero, and this
reduces the peak to average ratio. This has advantages for power amplifiers because it reduces
the peak to average ratio and enables more efficient signal amplifiers to be made in the mobile
where battery consumption is a key parameter.

The IS-95 reverse link is generated in a different way to that of the forward link. Although the
same voice encoder is used, the resulting data has a greater degree of error correction or
protection applied. Accordingly the resulting data rate is brought up to 28.8 kbps. A more
complicated method of spreading using a Walsh code is used. However this only results in 307
kbps data stream. To increase the bandwidth to the full 1.25 MHz, a further degree of spreading
is provided by using an additional PN code. This is multiplied with the signal to increase its data
rate by four to bring it up to the final data rate of 1.228 Mbps, the same as the downlink signal.

IS-95 Handoff
- a basic introduction or tutorial about the basics of IS-95 A and B ( IS 95 )
marketed under the brand name cdmaOne

The reason that the uplink and downlink transmissions for IS-95 are generated in a different way
results from the fact that it is difficult to synchronise the mobile handsets. Each one is a different
distance away from the base station and the time delays will be different. As a result
synchronisation is not possible. For the Walsh codes to maintain their orthogonality and to
operate correctly they must be properly synchronised. PN codes do not require synchronisation
and can be used more successfully under these circumstances.

One of the advantages of CDMA is the fact that handover can be made easier and more reliable.
Normally when handing over from one from a base station in one cell to the base station in the
next, it is necessary for the system to arrange for a new channel to be used. The mobile then
changes channel and hopes to be able to receive the signal on the new one satisfactorily.
Obviously there is a degree of risk, and occasionally a hand over does not proceed smoothly.
With CDMA it is possible to use what is termed a soft hand over. As transmissions from the base
stations in adjacent cells may be made on the same frequency, it is possible for a mobile to
receive signals from two base stations at once. Normally the mobile would reject the signal from
the second base station, but it is possible to arrange for it to receive signals from the two stations
and this proves to be very useful during handover. During the period of the handover the two
base stations transmit the same signal enabling the mobile to receive the signal via two routes at
the same time. This means that during this handover phase the mobile should not loose the
signal. Then as the mobile moves further into the second cell and the signal is firm, it can rely on
one station only and the handover is complete.

This approach considerably reduces the risk of loosing the connection during handover, and it
also minimises the risk of a short break in the speech during this period. However it is not free
and there is an associated cost. The mobile needs two decoders to monitor and decode the two
signals and this increases the complexity of the mobile. On the network side it means that two
channels are used instead of one and this reduces the overall capacity. Some estimate this could
be as high as 40%. This is dependent upon the speed of handover and the degree of overlap in the
cells. The figure given is obviously a worst case scenario, but despite this the advantages are
deemed to outweigh the reduction in capacity and increased mobile complexity.

IS-95 has been successfully installed in many areas of the world, chiefly in North America. IS 95
also has the advantage that it has an evolutionary migration path to 3G with CDMA2000 to give
the higher data rates that are needed for video streaming and data transfer whilst retaining
compatibility with the existing networks.

IS-95 Channels
- the channels used within IS-95 - IS95A and IS-95B to carry the different forms
of data within the overall cdmaOne system

As with any cellular telecommunications system, within IS-95 different channels are used to
carry the different forms of data.

The IS-95 channels can be split into those for the forward link and those for the reverse link. The
IS-95 channels differ between the forward and reverse links as a result of the different
requirements and the different way in which the links operate. Also Walsh codes need to be
synchronised if they are to remain orthogonal. As the signals transmitted from the mobile
stations travel over different distances because of the variety of locations of the mobiles they will
all arrive at slightly different times, and hence they will not be synchronised to one another. The
addition of the PN code overcomes this problem, even though Walsh codes have been used for
part of the spreading process in the mobile.

Structure of IS-95 channels in the forward link

This is a total of 64 IS-95 code channels that can be accommodated on each RF channel. The IS-
95 channels in the forward link are arranged in the following fashion:

 Pilot channel
 Paging channels (up to seven)
 Sync channel
 Traffic channels

The IS-95 channels are associated with different Walsh codes - particular codes being used to
support different functions as outlined below:

IS-95 channels in the forward link with associated Walsh codes

To generate the final signal, the data from the individual channels is multiplied with the Walsh
codes to provide the individual IS-95 forward link channels. The output from this process is then
further multiplied with the short PN codes. This provides a means of identifying the sector / cell
from which the signal is coming for the handset / mobile
 IS-95 channels forward link spreading

IS-95 channels in the forward link

The IS-95 forward link channels and their functions and make-up are summarized below:

 Pilot channel (PC):   The pilot channel is transmitted as a reference by the base station to
provide timing and phase reference for the mobiles, and carries no real data. The "data" carried
by the channel is a continuous stream of zeros which is spread by Walsh code zero, which itself a
stream of zeros. This is further spread by a pair of quadrature PN sequences. This means that
the pilot channel is effectively the PN sequence with its associated offset. A measurement of the
signal-to-noise ratio of the pilot channel also gives the mobile an indication of which is the
strongest serving sector.
 Paging channels (PCH):   This IS-95 channel is used to carry information to enable mobiles to be
paged. Data carried by this IS-95 channel includes system parameters, voice pages, SMS and
other broadcast messages. It occupies Walsh codes 1 - 7 dependent upon the system
requirements. The PCH carries data at either 4.8 or 9.6 kbps - a field in the Sync Channel
indicates the data rate being transmitted.

As with other channels there are a number of stages taken to produce the final channel. First
the baseband information is error protected. After this the data is repeated if it is at a rate of 4.8
kbps, otherwise it is left as it is. Following this the data is interleaved and then scrambled by the
decimated long PN sequence, and finally spread by the Walsh code for the particular channel
assignment. In this process the long PN code is itself masked with a code which is specific to the
channel being used. In this way the long PN code for Paging Channel 1 (using Walsh Code 1) is
different to Paging Channel 4 (using Walsh Code 4).
 Synchronisation channel (SC):   This IS-95 channel is used to provide the timing reference to
access the cell . This IS-95 channel always uses Walsh code 32. Each base station has a fixed
timing offset to reduce the interference between adjacent base-stations.

The Sync channel incorporates an 80 mS superframe structure. This is divided into three 26.667
mS frames which correspond to the same length as the short PN sequences. This means that
they align with the timing on the Pilot channel.

This IS-95 channel is allocated the least power of the overhead channels in the overall CDMA
transmission. The data that is transmitted on this channel includes the system time, pilot PN of
the base station, long code state, system ID, and the network ID.
  Forward Traffic Channel (FTC):   As the name implies, the Forward Traffic Channel is used to
carry voice, user data, and also signalling information.

When carrying voice, the coded voice data does not require a constant bit rate and IS-95 allows
the rate of the frames to change dynamically (every 20 ms). When the rate is reduced it reduces
the level of interference to other users. The original vocoder specification used a set of rates
based on divisions of 9.6 kbps. This is reflected in IS-95A. Later the vocoder was improved to
give better voice quality and in IS-95B a vocoder was introduced with a rate set based on 14.4
kbps. The 9.6 kbps rate set was termed RS1 and the second based on 14.4 kbps was termed RS2.
However data is always carried at full rate.

Forward channel modulation

The forward data appearing on the various IS-95 channels is brought together so that it can be
summed and modulated onto the radio frequency carrier. The individual gains of each IS-95
channel are adjusted to provide the correct relative power for each channel - this is undertaken
because the levels of traffic on each channel are always changing.

Once the channel gains have been set the signals are added coherently to form the spread
spectrum signal. Then the I and Q components are each modulated onto a carrier and summed to
give the final transmitted QPSK signal.

Structure of IS-95 channels in the reverse link

The IS-95 channels for the reverse link are quite different to those in the forward link. There are
only two basic channels:

 Access channel
 Reverse traffic channel

The way in which these IS-95 channels are structured and assembled is also different. This is
because they are generated within the mobile rather than the base station. In terms of the
modulation, OQPSK is used where a half chip delay is introduced onto the Q channel of the
modulation.

However orthogonal modulation schemes are used. The different mobiles are individually
identified by a mask on the long PN code which is based on the Equipment Serial Number
(ESN). The long PN code is used to give the final spreading of the data to 1.228 Mcps.
IS-95 channels in the reverse link

The two IS-95 channels in the reverse link are summarized below:

 Access channel (AC):   This IS-95 channel is used by the mobile to communicate with the base
station when no traffic channel has been set up. This IS-95 channel is therefore used for gaining
acess toth e network, call origination requests and also for sending responses to paging
commands that might be sent bythe network.

There can be up to 32 Access Channels on the IS-95 reverse link for each Paging Channel on
forward link. Each AC uses the same PN but they are time shifted to enable the mobile to be
uniquely identified. Data is sent at 4800 bps in a 20 mS time frame so that each frame contains
96 bits.
 Reverse traffic channel (RTC):   Like the Forward Traffic Channel, this reverse link IS-95 channel
is used to carry variable rate voice data, user data and signaling.

The structure of the reverse traffic channel is similar to that of the access channel. However this
IS-95 also includes a data burst randomizer into which the orthogonally modulated data is fed.
The data burst randomizer is the technique used to account for the variable rate voice data is
accommodated - it is not possible to use the same techniques used on the forward link because
they affect the channel power. This in turn would upset the power control adjustments that
need to be made to ensure that all the mobiles are received as close to the same strength as
possible.

Although there are only two IS-95 channels on the reverse link, these are all that are needed to
carry the required amount of data from the mobile to the base station.

CDMA2000 1X / 1XRTT basics tutorial

- a tutorial and overview of the basics of cdma20001x sometimes referred to as
1xRTT, giving details of the operation and evolution.

CDMA2000 is the evolution of the original IS-95 cdmaOne system. CDMA2000 has a number
of evolutions of which the first was CDMA2000 1X, sometimes also called CDMA2000
1XRTT.

CDMA2000 1X which is also standardised as IS-2000 supports circuit-switched voice, and has
the capability to provide up and sometimes beyond 35 simultaneous call per sector and as such it
doubles the capacity of the original IS-95 networks. It also enables the transmission and
reception of data at rates up to 153 kbps in both directions. It was recognized by the International
Telecommunications Union (ITU) as an IMT-2000 standard in November 1999.
CDMA2000 evolution

The aim of the CDMA2000 is to provide a migration path from the original cdmaOne / IS-95
system through the CDMA2000 1X format to further high speed formats. These different
standards have all been standardised under the IS-format and a diagram of the migration path is
given below:

CDMA2000 Evolution

The CDMA2000 1X format is the basic 3G standard, but in what is termed CDMA2000 1xEv,
there are further developments. There are basically two routes for the evolution that were
initially proposed, only one of which was deployed:

 CDMA2000 1X EV-DO:   The first of these known as CDMA2000 1xEV-DO (EVolution Data Only or
as is becoming more widely known Evolution Data Optimised) is something of a sideline from
the main evolutionary development of the standard. It is defined under IS-856 rather than IS-
2000, and as the name indicates it only carries data, but at speeds up to 3.1Mbps in the forward
direction and 1.8 Mbps in the reverse direction, the speed in the reverse link being upgraded as
part of Release A of the standard. The first commercial CDMA2000 1xEV-DO network was
deployed by SK Telecom (Korea) in January 2002.
 CDMA2000 1X EV-DV:   The second is CDMA2000 1X EV-DV (Evolution Data and Voice). The idea
was that this system would carry both data and voice services. It was never deployed as the EV-
DO system was deployed in preference and there was no requirement for a data and voice
service as voice could be carried on DO as either VoIP or by falling back to the CDMA2000 1X
format.

CDMA2000 1XRTT and 3XRTT

The CDMA2000 1XRTT and 3XRTT terms refer to what are termed "Radio Transmission
Technologies". The original IS-95 and deployments of CDMA2000 utilised the 1.25 MHz
channel spacing. This provided what is effectively the first phase of the 3G development and roll
out. However to enhance the performance beyond that possible using the technologies such as
1xEV-DO and 1xEV-DV, the channel bandwidth of 1.25 MHz was deemed insufficient for even
higher data rates. Accordingly by increasing the bandwidth, higher data rates were possible. The
further evolution of the CDMA2000 system involves utilising channel bandwidths of 3 times the
standard 1.25 MHz bandwidth under what was termed 3XRTT. Further bandwidth increases to
5X, 7X and so forth could in theory be contemplated.

For CDMA2000 1XRTT technology, a Spreading Rate 1 (SR1) was used where the signal was
spread to occupy a bandwidth of 1.25 MHz. Here the spread rate was the same as that used for
IS-95, i.e. 1.2288 Mcps. For 3XRTT technology, Spreading Rate 3 (SR3) was used. Here the
spreading rate was 3.6864 Mcps. It was found that if the spreading rate remained the same but
the data rate increased, as happens with video downloads and other 3G applications, the
processing gain decreased. Accordingly the coverage and signal strength needed to be improved
to match the new conditions. By increasing the spreading rate, the performance could be boosted
without the need for improvements in coverage.

CDMA2000 1X overview

There are a number of updates and changes that were introduced to improve the performance of
CDMA2000 1X, IS2000 over cdmaOne IS-95. However in all cases backward compatibility is
maintained, allowing both IS-95 and CDMA2000 mobiles to access the same base stations. This
provided a cost effective upgrade path for both users and operators.

For CDMA2000 1X, several new methods of coding and spreading were used and these enabled
much higher capacities to be achieved.

 Walsh Codes:   The first major change in CDMA2000 1X was that the Walsh Codes used were
increased from 64 bits for IS-95 to 128 bits for CDMA2000 1X. In addition to this, CDMA2000 1X
used more error coding functions as well and used turbo codes rather than the convolutional
codes used for IS-95. This enabled higher speed data to be sent. In addition to this interleaving
and symbol repetition were used to provide the various data rates.
 Turbo codes:   Turbo codes were introduced into CDMA2000 1X. They were a new class of error
correction codes that enabled transfer rates over a noisy channel to approach the "Shannon"
limit. The turbo coding principle was first proposed in 1993 by Professors Claude Berrou and
Alain Glaxieux. Originally their claims that the codes could double throughput for a given power
were treated with scepticism, but their findings were eventually proved to be true. Turbo coders
use powerful interleavers that reduce the susceptibility of a data stream to random and
impulsive noise. By working on "soft" bits from a radio receiver, the Turbo codes enable the
decoder to extract the maximum level of data from the noisy signals. Turbo codes require two
encoders and two decoders per link. These blocks operate in parallel and work synergistically.
They also used an iterative process to reduce the amount of processing required, but despite
this they still require more processing power than previous coding systems such as
convolutional codes.
 Spectrum efficiency:   Apart from the improvements in the spreading and channel generation,
there were also changes in the air interface itself. The IS-95 forward link used a form of QPSK
where the data on both the I and Q channels are the same. However for CDMA2000 1X the I and
Q channels were different, and this gave the advantage that half the bandwidth could be used
for the same number of chips, or twice the number of chips can be sent in the same bandwidth.
 While this did make the reception more sensitive to phase errors, other improvements included
an improved system of forward power control and forward transmit diversity.
 Reverse link upgrades:   Similarly there were significant changes on the reverse link where
several new channels were added. These included a pilot channel as well as supplemental data
channels and a control channel for signalling. Additionally, similar to the forward link the reverse
link used Walsh Codes to differentiate between the different channels. A further change was
that the format of the carrier modulation was changed. With the reverse link now transmitting
multiple channels the use of OQPSK would not prevent zero crossings. To achieve this, the
modulation format was changed to a scheme known as Orthogonal Complex Quadrature Phase
Shift Keying (OCQPSK). This form of modulation required a number of stages. First the channels
to be transmitted were split so that some take the I path and others take the Q path. Next they
were scrambled along with the Walsh code spreading. In the scrambling process the probability
of zero crossings was identified and using a scheme known as Orthogonal Variable Spreading
Function (OVSF) the probability of zero crossings was reduced. Accordingly the channels were
spread with a Walsh Code sequence and summed with the correct gain to produce the I and Q
sequences. These were then further spread by a long PN code with its mobile specific long mask
to identify the mobile and these I and Q sequences were modulated onto the carrier. Although
particularly complicated, this form of modulation did have fewer zero crossings and the power
amplifier in the mobile did not have to be run in a linear mode, thereby saving battery power.

Summary

The CDMA2000 1X system gave many significant advantages over the original IS-95 scheme.
Enabling higher data rates it also allowed improvements in performance as well as improvements
in spectrum efficiency that enabled operators to gain a higher return on the spectrum. Also users
saw improvements in performance.

CDMA2000 1X Channels
- details and essential information about the CDMA2000 1X channels detailing
the CDMA2000 channels in the forward and reverse links.

There is several new CDMA2000 channels that are used within the CDMA2000 1X system.
CDMA2000 builds on IS-95 cdmaOne, and as a result it utilises many of the channels that were
found on the original system. However to provide the additional functionality and performance a
number of new CDMA2000 channels have been incorporated.

As with IS-95, the CDMA2000 channels are different between the forward and reverse links.
CDMA2000 channels in the forward link

The new CDMA2000 channels used iont he system are outlined below.

 Forward pilot channel (F-PICH :   This CDMA2000 channel is the same as it was on IS-95. It
carries no data, and uses Walsh Code 0. As the Walsh code 0 is used, this is all zeros and
therefore its length is immaterial and it therefore retains compatibility with IS-95.
 Forward Transmit Diversity Pilot Channel (F-TDPICH):   While the F-PICH channel remains the
primary pilot channel, this CDMA2000 channel is used to provide a pilot for transmit diversity
when two antennas are used. It provides a timing reference for the second antenna diversity
signals. As F-PICH is the primary channel, this one is normally set at a power level below it.
 Forward Dedicated Auxiliary Pilot Channel (F-APICH):   This channel is used when smart
antennas are used. Under these circumstances a sector can be further divided into smaller
sector beams and this can be used to reduce the levels of interference. When this is
implemented, each of these beams forms a new sector and needs its own pilot channel.
 Forward Auxiliary Transmit Diversity Pilot Channel (F-ATDPICH):   This CDMA2000 channel is
required when transmitting diversity in each beam when using a smart antenna system.
 Forward Sync Channel (F-SYNCH):   This channel provides the same functionality and operates in
the same fashion as for IS-95. The timing of this CDMA2000 channel is also aligned with that of
the pilot channel and as a result the mobile is able to easily decode the sync channel messages.
Some additional information does need to be transmitted on this channel. For example it is
necessary to inform the mobile whether the base station is 1X or 3X compatible.
 Forward Paging Channel (F-PCH):   This paging channel retains the same structure as that used
for IS-95, but a number of enhancements have been introduced for CDMA2000.
 Forward Quick Paging Channel (F-QPCH):   This channel provides information to the mobile so
that it can use slotted reception for its sleep mode. For IS-95 the mobile awoke at specific times
to check the paging channel which also carried other information. The Forward Quick Paging
Channel is dedicated to this function and is able to perform it more effectively. Using the Paging
Channel in IS-95 the receiver had to wake up and receive a 96 mS slot, whereas using the F-
QPCH it only needs to wake up and receive a 5 mS slot. This gives a significant reduction in the
time the receiver needs to be awake, and considerably extends the standby battery life.
 Forward Common Control Channel (F-CCCH):   The F-CCCH is a forward link CDMA2000 channel
that transmits control information to a specific mobile. The frame sizes for this channel may be
one of the following lengths: 5, 10, or 20 mS which provide data rates of 9.6, 19.2, and 38.4 kbps
respectively. When not on a call, mobile specific messages can be sent on the F-CCCH.
 Forward Broadcast Control Channel (F-BCCH):   This CDMA2000 channel is used to broadcast
messages to all mobiles within the coverage area of the cell. These messages may include
advertisements of news as well as static paging messages. The channel transmits data at 4.8,
9.6, or 19.2 kbps.
 Forward Common Power Control Channel (F-CPCCH):   Power control is an important element
for any CDMA system as all mobiles should be received at around the same strength by the base
station. To achieve this, the base station regulates the power of each mobile. Even when it is not
involved in a call the mobile still needs to receive bits for its power control. Each mobile
therefore monitors a particular bit in this CDMA2000 channel to enable it to adjust its power up
or down by one increment. To ensure the maximum speed, this information is not encoded. If
any data errors are introduced, the error is quickly corrected by the next bit.
  Forward Fundamental Channel (F-FCH):   This CDMA2000 1X channel is still the main channel to
carry the voice and data payload. The Forward Fundamental Channel uses a fixed amount of
spreading and the variable data rates are achieved by using symbol repetition.
 Forward Supplemental Code Channel (F-SCCH):   The Forward Supplemental Code Channels are
retained from IS-95 and contained within a traffic channel, and they are used to carry voice or
data, but may only be used with RC1 and RC2. For RC1 the frame size is 20 mS and the data rate
is 9.6 kbps, whereas for RC2 the data rate is 14.4 kbps.
 Forward Supplemental Channel (F-SCH):   This CDMA2000 channel is contained within the traffic
channel and can only be used with Radio Configurations 3 to 5 for 1X and 6 to 9 for 3X. The
channel can use variable length Walsh Codes to provide a constant spreading rate. It provides
for a wide range of data rates from 1200 bps right up to 1036800 bps.
 Forward Dedicated Control Channel (F-DCCH):   This channel carries information from the base
station to the mobile. For IS-95 systems the control information was sent on the forward traffic
channel along with the voice data during a call. The introduction of this CDMA2000 channel
removes the requirement for the traffic channel to carry control information. This frees the
traffic channel to carry the payload data for which it was primarily intended and this improves
the efficiency of this CDMA2000 channel.

CDMA2000 reverse channels

Similar to the forward link there are many changes to the reverse link and the CDMA channels
that are used to provide the improved performance and capabilities.

 Reverse Pilot Channel (R-PICH):   This new channel for CDMA2000 provides a reference for base
stations to gain initial access to a system and channel recovery. The channel also carries power
control information for the forward link. Although the addition of this channel results in
increased battery consumption, it provides significant advantages and has therefore been
incorporated into the system.
 Reverse Access Channel (R-ACH):   This channel operates in the same manner as that used for IS-
95 and it provides backward compatibility. It is used by the mobile to transmit random bursts
when it attempts to access the system.
 Reverse Enhanced Access Channel (R-EACH):   The Reverse Enhanced Access Channel performs
the same functions as R-ACH does in IS-95. It has been enhanced to provide improved access.
There are two modes in which it can operate:

o The first is a basic access mode where the channel carries access messages in a similar
manner to that used on IS-95.
o The second mode is termed a reservation access mode and it is used to reserve radio
resources like Internet access etc.

In both of these modes the CDMA2000 channel is only used to establish the communications
access. It can have frame sizes of 5, 10, and 20 mS and it provides data transmission at speeds of
9.6, 19.2, and 38.4 kbps.
  Reverse Common Control Channel (R-CCCH):   This CDMA2000 channel is an access channel that
enables CDMA2000 to provide improved packet access. It provides much faster access and the
lower latency times required for packet access. It offers a 20 mS 9.6 kbps channel and in
addition to this there are new 5 and 10mS frames that offer data rates of 19.2 and 38.4 kbps. As
power levels are important, this CDMA2000 channel is controlled by a closed loop power control
system.
 Reverse Dedicated Control Channel (R-DCCH):   This CDMA2000 channel is similar to the F-
DCCH. It is used to carry signalling and user information in a call for data traffic and as a result it
is only present if there is data to be transmitted.
 Reverse Fundamental Channel (R-FCH):   This is the channel in the reverse link that is used to
carry the voice and data payload. It allows for either 5 or 20 mS frames, the shorter frames are
used to give lower latency, i.e. the phone gets the data it needs in 5 ms rather than 20 ms.
 Reverse Supplemental Code Channel (R-SCCH):   This channel is the equivalent of the F-SCCH
and it is used with Radio Configurations 1 and 2. Again the timing of this channel is offset from
the fundamental channel by 1.25 mS. There can be up to seven used per traffic channel.
 Reverse Supplemental Channel (R-SCH):   The reverse supplemental channel provides user data
rates that vary from as low as 1200 bps, up to 230.4 kbps (and 103.68 kbps for 3X). To
accomplish this, the channel uses variable length Walsh codes. This channel only applies to
Radio Configurations 3 and 4 for 1X and 5 and 6 for 3X.

Summary

It can be seen that there are many more CDMA2000 1X channels that channels included in IS-
95. However these CDMA2000 channels assist in enabling CDMA2000 to provide much greater
levels of flexibility, higher data rates, improved spectral efficiency and an overall better level of
performance.

CDMA2000 1X Advanced
- overview and tutorial about the CDMA2000 1X Advanced, the system
providing a fourfold increase in capacity over standard 1X.

CDMA2000 1X Advanced provides operators with a simple incremental upgrade that provides a
fourfold increase in capacity increase over the standard CDMA 2000 1X networks.

The CDMA2000 1X Advanced is provided by a software/channel card upgrade. Techniques

including interference cancellation and radio link enhancements are used to increase voice
capacity on existing or new CDMA2000 1X networks.

The CDMA2000 1X advanced system has been adopted by a number of carriers to provide a cost
effective method of increasing capacity and also prolonging the life of existing CDMA2000 1X
networks.
In addition to this, a further upgrade known as SVDO has been introduced at the same time.
Although standard independent, it provides additional flexibility for users of 1X / EV-DO
capability.

CDMA2000 1X Advanced techniques

The CDMA2000 1X Advanced system utilizes some simple upgrades to enable a significant
increase in capacity to be provided.

The full improvement is gained when both cellular base-station and the handset are compatible
with the new standard, but significant improvements can still be made when only the base station
has been upgraded. Even this upgrade is straightforward and does not entail significant cost to
the operator.

The improvements for CDMA2000 1X Advanced are gained primarily by adopting some new
techniques:

 Utilisation of a new codec

 New interference cancellation techniques
 Mobile receiver diversity
 More efficient power control
 Smart Blanking of 1/8th rate frames
 Early Termination
 Quasi Orthogonal Function

These techniques are detailed more fully below:

Interference cancellation for CDMA2000 1X Advanced

One of the key limiting factors in any cellular telecommunications system is the attainable signal
to noise ratio. As interference levels rise, so power levels have to increase and modulation
formats, change (if adaptive modulation is available). Also higher levels of error coding are
required which puts a further load on the air interface for the network. Additionally an increased
number of re-sends may be required. As a result the lower the signal to noise ratio, the lower the
data throughput.

The methodology for the interference cancellation has been understood for many years, but it has
not been able to implemented because of the high levels of processing and memory needed. Now
developments in semiconductor technology have enabled it to be implemented.

The interference cancellation can be utilised in both the reverse link and the forward link of the
CDMA2000 1X Advanced system. The interference cancellation is performed at the base-
station, BTS for the reverse link where it is sometimes referred to as RLIC (Reverse Link
Interference cancellation), and within the handset or user equipment for the forward link.

Mobile receive diversity

Mobile receiver diversity, MRD used within CDMA2000 1X Advanced provides increased
capacity through the use of two receiver chains and two antennas.

Power control

Power control is an essential element of any cellular system these days. It is particularly needed
for CDMA systems to reduce the near-far problem where mobiles close to the base station could
mask mobiles further away because signal strength reduces the greater the distance from the base
station.

In order to overcome this the base station controls the power of the mobile or handset. However
this requires signalling over the link and can reduce the capacity. By improving the efficiency of
the power control, data required for this control can be reduced thereby reducing the data being
carried over the link.

Smart blanking

Smart blanking of 1/8th rate frames provides advantages reduces resource utilization during quiet
periods in speech .

Early termination

The use early termination within CDMA2000 1X Advanced exploits the times when the device
is in good RF conditions.

Quasi orthogonal function

The quasi-orthogonal function is used to increase the number of simultaneous calls supported.
SVDO

SVDO, Simultaneous active 1X Voice and EV-DO data, is a new device feature, in addition to
IX Advanced that significantly enhances the performance without affecting the infrastructure
side. Current systems allow, a handset or mobile to be paged to receive 1X voice calls while in
an EV-DO data session. However no data connectivity is possible while the mobile remains in
the voice call because separate receivers and transmitters are needed, i.e. two receivers and
transmitters would be needed within the mobile.

The new SVDO feature allows separate voice and data sessions to be established using separate
transmit and receive chain

The SVDO feature provides greater flexibility for the user allowing scenarios such as sending
emails or accessing the Internet while voice calls are onging.

Summary

The introduction of CDMA2000 1X Advanced provides significant advantages over the original
CDMA2000 1X system. Operators who have deployed 1X systems, will see CDMA2000 1X
Advanced as a cost effective means of improving performance and capacity as well as extending
the life of their networks.

CDMA2000 1xEV-DO Basics

- basics of CDMA2000 1xEV-DO - EV-DO or EVDO for data only or data
optimised cellular telecommunications standard as defined in IS-856 (TIA-856).

CDMA2000 1xEV-DO cell phone system is a standard that has evolved from the CDMA2000
mobile phone system and it is now firmly established in many areas of the world. The letters EV-
DO sometimes referred to as EVDO stand for Evolution Data Only or Data Optimised. From the
1xEV-DO title it can be seen that it is a data only mobile telecommunications standard that can
be run on CDMA2000 networks.

The concept of CDMA2000 1xEV-DO is that is a packet data only carrier - voice can be carried
either by using Voice over IP, VoIP, or by using a fall-back to a CDMA2000 1X carrier. The
fall-back mode is the one that tends to be used more widely as most operators have a
CDMA2000 1X system in place.
CDMA2000 1xEV-DO Basics

The CDMA2000 1x EV-DO cell phone system is defined under IS-856 (TIA-856) rather than IS-
2000 (TIA-2000) that defines the other CDMA2000 standards.

The EV-DO, IS-856 standard has undergone several revisions since it was first launched:

 EV-DO Release 0 (Rel. 0):   This was the first release of the EV-DO standard.
 EV-DO Revision A (Rev. A):   This revision of the standard introduced a significant increase in
data rates.
 EV-DO Revision B (Rev. B):   The EV-DO Rev. B version of the standard introduced a number of
updates including multicarrier operation as a software upgrade and higher order modulation
with the introduction of new hardware. These two upgrades can be undertaken separately.
 EV-DO Advanced:   This software only upgrade introduced a number of smart features into the
EV-DO standard.
 EV-DO Revision C (Rev.C):   This is the Ultra-Mobile Broadband standard. This is not now being
pursued as the evolution from EV-DO is now to LTE for 4G services.

It can be seen that the data rates have risen considerable with successive releases and revisions of
the EV-DO standard.
 Data rates for CDMA2000 1xEV-DO

The CDMA2000 1xEV-DO forward channel forms a dedicated variable-rate, packet data channel
with signalling and control time multiplexed into it. The channel is itself time-divided and
allocated to each user on a demand and opportunity driven basis. A data only format was adopted
to enable the standard to be optimised for data applications. If voice is required then a dual mode
phone using separate 1X channel for the voice call is needed. In fact the "phones" used for data
only applications are referred to as Access Terminals or ATs.

EV-DO tabular summary

The table below gives an overview of the capabilities of the different releases and revisions of
the CDMA2000 1x EV-DO standard.

CDMA2000 Max Downlink Max Uplink

1xEV-DO Data Rate Data Rate
Comments
Release / (average (average
Revision throughput) throughput)

2.4 Mbps 153.4 kbps The first release of CDMA2000 1x EV-DO. 1.25 MHz FDD
Rel. 0
(300-600 kbps) (70-90 kbps) channels.

3.1 Mbps
1.8 Mbps Backwards compatible with EV-DO Rel. 0. 1.25 MHz FDD
Rev. A (600-
(500-800kbps) channels.
1400kbps)

These figures are for operation in a 5 MHz FDD channel

Rev. B and for the EV-DO Rev. B software upgrade. The
9.3 Mbps 5.4 Mbps
software software upgrade provides the multi-carrier facility.
Figures are for the software upgrade only.

These figures are for operation in a 5 MHz FDD channel

DO Rev. B and for the EV-DO Rev. B hardware upgrade as well as
14.7 Mbps 5.4 Mbps
hardware the software upgrade. The hardware upgrade allows
higher order modulation (up to 64QAM) to be used.

DO Advanced 19.6 Mbps 7.2 Mbps Figures for 4 x 1.25 MHz FDD channels

While many of the upgrades are implemented by software upgrades at the base station, new
handsets, or Access Terminals, ATs are required to be able to utilise the features and data rates
available. However ATs are normally replaced relatively frequently and as a result the new
features are steadily taken up over time.

CDMA2000 1xEV-DO Air Interface

- details of the CDMA2000 1xEV-DO air interface or radio interface with details
of the forward link and reverse link.

The CDMA2000 1x EV-DO air interface obviously has many similarities with other systems in
the CDMA2000 family.

However CDMA2000 1x EV-DO has been optimised for data transmission. It utilises the
spectrum more efficiently and also allows high speed data to be transmitted, making it fully
competitive with other 3G cellular systems.

The EV-DO RF transmission is very similar to that of a CDMA2000 1X transmission. It has the
same final spread rate of 1.228 Mcps and it has the same modulation bandwidth because the
same digital filter is used. Although 1xEV-DO has many similarities with 1X transmissions, it
cannot occupy the same channels simultaneously, and therefore requires dedicated paired
channels for its operation. Accordingly new bands, often in the new 3G allocations are being
dedicated for EV-DO in some areas.

As with all other CDMA2000 systems, CDMA technology forms the basis of CDMA2000 1x
EV-DO.

Note on CDMA:

CDMA, Code Division Multiple Access, is a multiple access scheme used by many 3G cellular
technologies, and other forms of wireless technology. It uses a process called Direct Sequence
Spread Spectrum where spreading codes are used to spread a signal out over a given bandwidth
and then reconstituting the data in the receiver by using the same spreading code. By supplying
different spreading codes to different users, several users are able to utilises the same frequency
without mutual interference.

Click on the link for a CDMA tutorial

EV-DO forward link

The forward link possesses many features that are specific to EV-DO, having been optimised for
data transmission, particularly in the downlink direction. Average continuous rates of 600 kbps
per sector are possible. This is a six fold increase over CDMA2000 1X and is provided largely
by the ability of 1xEV-DO to negotiate increased data rates for individual ATs because only one
user is served at a time.

The forward link is always transmitted at full power and uses a data rate control scheme rather
than the power control scheme used with 1X, and the data is time division multiplexed so that
only one AT is served at a time.

In order to be able to receive data, each EV-DO AT measures signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) on the
forward link pilot every slot, i.e. 1.667 ms. Based on the information this provides the AT sends
a data rate request to the base station. The AN receives requests from a variety of ATs, and
decisions have to be made regarding which ATs are to be served next. The AN endeavours to
achieve the best data transfer, and this is done by serving those ATs offering a good signal to
noise ratio. This is achieved at the expense of users at some distance from the AN's antenna.

Accurate time synchronisation is required between the EV-DO Access Nodes. To achieve this
time information is taken from the Global Positioning System as this is able to provide an
exceedingly accurate time signal.

CDMA2000 1x EV-DO reverse link

The reverse link for 1xEV-DO has a structure similar to that for CDMA2000. In EV-DO all
signalling is performed on the data channel and this means that there is no Dedicated Control
Channel. The data channel can support 5 data rates which are separated in powers of 2 from 9.6
to 153.6 kbps. These rates are achieved by varying the repeat factor. The highest rate uses a
Turbo coder with lower gain.

CDMA2000 1xEV-DO Channels

- summary of the CDMA2000 1xEV-DO channels, their structure in the forward
and reverse links and the CDMA2000 1x EVDO channel functions.

The channel structure within CDMA2000 1xEV-DO has been optimised to allow high speed data
transmission. Accordingly the EVDO channel structure is different to that of other CDMA2000
systems.
Forward link EVDO channels

A number of EVDO channels are transmitted in the forward direction to enable signalling, data
and other capabilities to be handled. These channels include the Traffic channel, MAC channel,
Control channel and Pilot. These are time division multiplexed.

 Traffic Channel:   This channels uses Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK) modulation for data
rates up to 1.2288 Mbps. For higher data rates, higher order modulation techniques are used in
the form of 8PSK with 3 bits per symbol or 16QAM with 4 bits per symbol. The levels of the I and
Q symbols are chosen so that the average power becomes 1.

The Incoming data to be used as the modulation comes from the from the turbo coder and is
scrambled by mixing it with a Pseudo Random Number (PN) sequence. The initial state of the PN
is derived from known parameters, and is unique for each user. Every packet starts at the same
initial value of the PN sequence.

At the beginning of the transmission to each user, there is a preamble that contains the user ID
for the data. Its repeat rate is determined by the data rate because lower data rates require
higher repeat values. However even at its largest, the preamble will fill no more than half the
first slot.
 Control Channel:   This channel carries the signalling and overhead messages.
 Pilot:   The differentiator between the cell and the sector is still the PN offset of the pilot
channel and the pilot signal is only gated on for 192 chips per slot.
 Medium Access Control (MAC) Channel:   This channel carries a number of controls including
the Reverse Power Control (RPC), the Data Rate Control (DRC) Lock, and the reverse activity (RA)
channels.

EV-DO reverse Link

The EVDO channels for the reverse link have a structure similar to that for CDMA2000. The
following channels are transmitted in addition to those used with 1X:

 Reverse Rate Indicator (RRI) Channel:   This indicates the data rate of the Reverse Data Channel.
 Acknowledgement (Ack) Channel:   This channel is transmitted after the AT detects a frame with
the preamble detailing it to be the recipient of the data.
 Data Rate Control (DRC) Channel:   This channel contains a four bit word in each slot to allow
the choice of 12 different transmission rates.

EV-DO Rev. B
- CDMA2000 1xEV-DO Rev. B overview detailing the technology behind the
scheme and the advantages it offers.
CDMA2000 1xEV-DO Rev. B is an enhanced for of the CDMA2000 1xEV-DO standard that
provides much high data download rates than the previous forms of EV-DO, as well as
enhancing efficiency of the system for operators.

The EV-DO Rev B enhancements have been launched on a number of networks, although users
need the Rev B handsets or dongles to be able to take advantage of the improvements.

Although there are a number of changes that are included in the EV-DO Rev B updates, speeds
up to 14.7 Mbps can be achieved in the downlink

EV-DO Rev B basics

The EV-DO Rev B upgrade to the standard CDMA2000 EV-DO scheme incorporates a number
of changes over the Rev A system. These enable the system to provide a much higher level of
performance, allowing more effective operation for video streaming, gaming and other high data
applications.

The main updates to the system to achieve the required EV-DO Rev B performance are:

 Carrier aggregation / carrier bundling:   the specification for EV-DO Rev B enables carriers to be
aggregated to enable higher data rates to be carried. Typically it is envisaged that two or three
carriers will be aggregated in view of the spectrum limitations, but more can be added if
required. Carrier aggregation improves the peak data rates for individual users to be increased
along with the average throughput rates. This is because of the statistical nature of the data
capacity usage and the creation of a larger data pipe.
 Higher order modulation:   The EV-DO Rev B standard allows the use of higher order modulation
- up to 64QAM - this enables higher data rates to be achieved.. This can be used where the link
quality is sufficiently good to allow the use of this modulation, otherwise lower order
modulation schemes are used.
 Reduced latency:   Using a technique called Statistical Multiplexing across the aggregated
carriers the level of latency is reduced. The technique uses the multiple carriers and resulting
additional capacity to reduce packet wait times. This improves the level of latency for sensitive
services such as gaming, video telephony, remote console sessions and web browsing.
 Hybrid frequency re-use:   EV-DO Rev B utilises a system known as hybrid frequency re-use. This
provides a reduction in levels of interference from the adjacent sectors especially to users at the
edge of the cell. It has the effect of increasing the data rates that can be provided.
 Improved support for asymmetric data flow:   One of the major issues with any system using
paired frequency spectrum is the asymmetric data flow - more data flows in the downlink than
in the uplink. The EV-DO Rev B has additional support to enable more efficient utilisation of the
resources.
EV-DO Rev B performance

CDMA2000 EV-DO Rev B provides some significant increases in performance over the
previous versions of EV-DO.

EV-DO Release / Downlink data rate Uplink data rate Channel

Revision (peak) (peak) configuration

Rel. 0 2.4 Mbps 153 kbps 1.25 MHz FDD

Rev. A 3.1 Mbps 1.8 Mbps 1.25 MHz FDD

Rev. B (Multi-Carrier
9.3 Mbps 5.4 Mbps 5 MHz FDD
only)

Rev. B (MC + H/W

14.7 Mbps 5.4 Mbps 5 MHz FDD
upgrade)

EV-DO Rev B migration

The migration from Rev A to EV-DO Rev. B can be undertaken in two stages. This approach
was adopted to provide operators with the most effective upgrade path for their individual
requirements. These two stages or phases are outlined below:

 Rev. B software upgrade:   The main upgrade in this section is the multi-carrier facility.
 Rev. B hardware upgrade:   The main upgrade in this section is the move to 64QAM to provide
higher data rates on each channel when link conditions are suitable.

EV-DO Advanced
- CDMA2000 1xEV-DO Advanced overview detailing the technology behind the
scheme and the advantages DO Advanced offers.

DO Advanced is the next state in the evolution of CDMA2000 1xEV-DO beyond the Rev. B.
DO Advanced brings a number of new features that not only improve the performance as seen by
the user, but also improve the efficiency of the network for the operator, and allow
improvements that bring in additional revenue.

The upgrade required for DO Advanced is simply a software upgrade, making the change
exceptionally easy for the operator. While new devices will be able to take full advantage of the
improvements brought about by the introduction of DO Advanced, existing devices will also see
an improvement.
Overcoming network loading problems with DO Advanced

One of the key issues with any cellular network is that of load balancing - the loading is
inherently uneven and it changes according to the time of day. It is often found that a fully
loaded sector is surrounded by lightly loaded ones.

CDMA2000 EV-DO Advanced incorporates a number of measures to ensure that the load is
evened out across the network. This will not only improve the situation for the operator, but also
for the user.

To allow the improvement of the network performance DO Advanced incorporates three main
techniques, referred to as Smart Network techniques:

 Network Load Balancing:   This feature of DO Advanced off-loads users on the edge of heavily
loaded sectors to any lightly loaded neighbouring sectors. This will only be achieved if the
performance can either be maintained or improved. Off-loading not only alleviates congestion
over the radio access network, but also within the backhaul elements of the network. In this way
it improves the overall network capacity.
 Demand Matched Configuration :   This DO Advanced feature controls the power levels of the
different sectors and also the different carriers. The power level is based upon the amount of
load they carry. In scenarios where the loading is uneven, the transmit power of the second and
third carriers of lightly loaded sectors is reduced to minimize interference, and this in turn
increases the capacity of highly loaded neighbouring sectors as a result of the lower interference
levels.
 Distributed Network Scheduler:   This DO Advanced feature increases data rates for users,
especially at the edge of the cell in "hot-spot" deployment situations, by assigning the most
suitable carriers to them, without sacrificing the gains achieved through Multicarrier. In such
scenarios, the secondary carriers will most likely be the appropriate carriers to assign as they
will have larger coverage area because of lower interference.

DO Advanced - Enhanced Connection Management

Enhanced Connection Management, ECM, is another key feature within ED-DO Advanced.
ECM manages bursty applications such as push/pull mobile email, as well as device
enhancements to improve performance without impacting infrastructure or standards.

ECM optimizes the process of allocation and de-allocation of resources to such applications and
improves the usage of access and paging channels, resulting in support for a large number of
simultaneous connected devices.
DO Advanced summary

The transition to EV-DO Advanced is a very simple implementation for the operator. It simply
consists of a software upgrade. As many software upgrades can be implemented remotely, the
DO Advanced upgrade can be a very cost effective way of improving the performance of the
network without major investment in new hardware.

UMB Ultra-Mobile Broadband

- key points, overview or tutorial about the basics of UMB, Ultra-Mobile
Broadband, the next generation evolution for CDMA2000 providing high data
transfer speeds and using both OFDM and MIMO.

Ultra-Mobile Broadband, UMB is the name for the next evolution for the cdma2000 cellular
telecommunications system which is run under the auspices of 3GPP2. The UMB cellular system
promises to provide very much faster data transfer speeds, and enables the system to compete
with other mobile broadband systems including WiMAX and Wi-Fi.

The aims for UMB, Ultra-Mobile Broadband include making significant increases to the user
data rates when compared to the existing cdma2000 cellular technologies, there will be increases
to the system capacity, a lowering the cost per bit of data transfer, enhancements to the existing
services, possibility of new applications, and the ability to use new spectrum opportunities.While
UMB was viewed as the major evolution for cdma2000, Qualcomm, a major supporter withdrew
their support in November 2008 as few operators were planning to utilise the system. Instead
Qualcomm put their efforts behind the 3GPP based LTE - Long Term Evolution format that was
being proposed as the global standard by many. Although some companies did continue their
development for a while, the UMB standard is not expected to be deployed, at least in any large
scale manner.

UMB salient features

The UMB, Ultra-Mobile Broadband cellular telecommunications system offers has many new
features and techniques that enable it to fulfil the high expectations for it, and to enable it to
compete with other new and emerging technologies.

 Data rates of over 275 Mbit/s in the downlink (base station to mobile) and over 75 Mbit/s in the
uplink (mobile to base station).
 Uses an OFDM / OFDMA air interface
 Uses frequency division duplex (FDD).
 Possesses an IP network architecture
 Has a scalable bandwidth between 1.25 - 20 MHz (NB - OFDM / OFDMA systems are well suited
for wide and scalable bandwidths)
 Supports flat, mixed and distributed network architectures
It can be seen from the features and salient points, that the UMB cellular system will provide a
significant leap in terms of capability when compared to the existing cdma2000 based systems.
However UMB will operate alongside cdam2000 1X and cdma2000 1X-EVDO, and it will offer
seamless handoff to and from these services. In this way a phased roll-out of the new UMB
service can be offered.

UMB air interface

There are a number of new technologies being used within the air interface of UMB. One of the
key technologies is OFDM, Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplex. The use of OFDM offers
UMB the ability to carry high data rates as well as providing the ability to use wide and variable
bandwidths according to the requirements of the link.

Note on OFDM:

Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplex (OFDM) is a form of transmission that uses a large
number of close spaced carriers that are modulated with low rate data. Normally these signals
would be expected to interfere with each other, but by making the signals orthogonal to each
other there is no mutual interference. The data to be transmitted is split across all the carriers to
give resilience against selective fading from multi-path effects..

Click on the link for an OFDM tutorial

OFDMA, or orthogonal frequency division multiple access uses OFDM as the basis of the
modulation scheme, but it has been modified for cellular telecommunications systems including
UMB to provide a means of multiple access. In this way it is possible for UMB to benefit from
the advantages of UMB in terms of its resilience to multipath effects while still being able to
provide a means of access to multiple users.

MIMO for UMB

In addition to introducing the use of OFDM for UMB, the system also uses MIMO, Multiple
Input Multiple Output (MIMO) as well as SDMA, Space Division Multiple Access. These are
advanced antenna techniques to provide even greater capacity, coverage, and quality in
deployments with multiple antennas. By using the multiple paths present in any real radio path,
they effectively enable the channel capacity to be increased way beyond that predicted for the
use of a single path for that channel.
Note on MIMO:

Two major limitations in communications channels can be multipath interference, and the data
throughput limitations as a result of Shannon's Law. MIMO provides a way of utilising the
multiple signal paths that exist between a transmitter and receiver to significantly improve the
data throughput available on a given channel with its defined bandwidth. By using multiple
antennas at the transmitter and receiver along with some complex digital signal processing,
MIMO technology enables the system to set up multiple data streams on the same channel,
thereby increasing the data capacity of a channel.

Click on the link for a MIMO tutorial

UMB Higher layers

The new UMB standard utilises sophisticated control mechanisms along with MIMO, and
SDMA to allow the transmission of variable length packets for each application based upon the
end-to-end system capabilities and the quality of service (QoS). In this way the system can be
optimised according to the prevailing conditions and the requirements of each user.

To ease the introduction and roll-out of UMB, the system inter-technology hand-offs to and from
existing CDMA2000 1X and 1xEV-DO systems.

UMB IP based structure

In line with the move packet based data and IP (Internet Protocol), UMB is following this trend.
Its architecture has been drawn up to be able to support a large variety of services that require
extremely low latencies, low jitter and increased spectral efficiencies. As a result, UMB is able to
support a large cross-section of advanced mobile broadband services by delivering low rate, low
latency, voice traffic at one end of the spectrum, and ultra-high-speed, latency insensitive,
broadband data traffic at the other. In this way it is able to offer a better performance for many of
the new services being conceived.

UMB summary

With UMB developments now moving ahead apace, news of the new technology will start to
appear increasingly within the literature. Although UMB, Ultra-Mobile Broadband services are
now due to be deployed until 2009, many preparations will need to be made for UMB before
this.