296 Int. J. Energy Technology and Policy, Vol. 5, No.

3, 2007

Adiabatic compressed air energy storage plants for

efficient peak load power supply from wind energy:
the European project AA-CAES

Christoph Jakiel*
MAN TURBO AG, Technology Compressors,
Steinbrinkstrasse 1, D-46145 Oberhausen, Germany
Fax: +49-208-692-9063
E-mail: christoph.jakiel@de.manturbo.com
*Corresponding author

Stefan Zunft
German Aerospace Center (DLR),
Institute of Technical Thermodynamics,
Pfaffenwaldring 38-40, D-70569 Stuttgart, Germany
Fax: +49-711-6862-747
E-mail: stefan.zunft@dlr.de

Andreas Nowi
ALSTOM (Switzerland) Ltd,
Large Steam Turbine R&D,
Brown Boveri Strasse 10, CH-5401 Baden, Switzerland
Fax: +41-56-205-5662
E-mail: andreas.nowi@power.alstom.com

Abstract: With the continuing expansion of electricity generation from

fluctuating wind power the grid-compatible integration of renewable energy
sources is becoming an increasingly important aspect. Adiabatic compressed air
energy storage power plants have the potential to make a substantial
contribution here. The present article describes activities and first results
relating to this technology that are being conducted within the European
‘AA-CAES’ Project. These interim results indicate not only the demanding
design requirements for system components, but also the technical and
economic feasibility of the concept.

Keywords: adiabatic compressed air energy storage; CAES; cavern;

compressor; economic analysis; electricity markets; power plant; renewables;
thermal energy store; turbine; wind energy.

Reference to this paper should be made as follows: Jakiel, C., Zunft, S. and
Nowi, A. (2007) ‘Adiabatic compressed air energy storage plants for efficient
peak load power supply from wind energy: The European Project AA-CAES’,
Int. J. Energy Technology and Policy, Vol. 5, No. 3, pp.296–306.

Copyright © 2007 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.

 The European project AA-CAES 297

Biographical notes: Dr. Ch. Jakiel is Development Engineer and R&D Project
Manager at MAN TURBO AG. He received his PhD in mechanical engineering
from the University of Federal Armed Forces in Hamburg (Germany). His
current work focuses on the development of radial compressors and turbines.

Dr. S. Zunft is a Project Manager at the Division of Thermal Process

Technology of the Institute of Technical Thermodynamics at the German
Aerospace Centre (DLR). He graduated as a Mechanical Engineer from the
University of Stuttgart and completed his PhD thesis on the collector field
control of solar thermal power plants. His research interests and his previous
work in numerous international projects have been focussed on solar thermal
energy and thermal processes in rational energy use.

A. Nowi completed his studies of Mechanical Engineering from the Technical

University of Braunschweig (Germany). He is currently Project Manager Steam
Turbine R&D at ALSTOM (Switzerland) Ltd. His main focus lies on
thermodynamic turbine design, performance modelling, feedback analysis and
cycle tool platform development.

1 Introduction

Increasing coverage of energy requirements from sustainable sources is the stated aim of
national and European energy policy. The European Commission’s target figure for this
contribution is 20% by 2020, with the most probable growth lying in wind energy at
offshore locations (The European Communities, 1999; European Renewable Energy
Council, 2004).
There are, however, obstacles in the way of this target expansion in terms of grid
compatibility requirements. With a significantly greater proportion of electricity being
generated from fluctuating energy sources, it may be expected that the supply of grid
transmission capacity and control energy will increasingly be coming up against its
limitations – being visible on the electricity markets in terms of greater price volatility
(Der Großhandelsmarkt für Strom im August, 2003).
In this situation the operation of storage power plants can help reduce the effects of
such limitations. Although pumped hydro storage plants are particularly suitable for the
supply of regulating and reserve power, their current capacity (approx. 50 GW in the
UCTE Association) cannot readily be expanded significantly because of geographic
restrictions.
Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES) power plants are a possible alternative here
for which operational experience exists in hybrid operation with gas turbines: The first
plants were built in 1978 (290 MW in Huntorf, Germany) and 1991 (110 MW in
McIntosh, Alabama) and are still in operation today. In periods of low grid load they
store electrical energy from base-load power plants or wind farms by means of
compressed air. In this process electrically powered turbo-compressors fill subterranean
caverns with compressed atmospheric air. The compression heat is rejected by inter-
cooling and after-cooling. At times of peak load, compressed air is drawn from the
cavern, then heated and expanded in a modified gas turbine driving a generator. In some
ways, the cycle is similar to that of a gas turbine, with the main difference of heating and
expansion process being separated temporarily from the compression. With that, the
298 C. Jakiel, S. Zunft and A. Nowi

amount of actual electric output arises not only from the combustion process, but is also
increased by the energy from the compressed air (see Figure 1).

Figure 1 Huntorf (Germany) CAES power plant (Picture, 2001)

Unfortunately, the storage efficiency of these diabatic CEAS plants is inherently limited
by the fact that the compression heat is rejected during the charge period and must be
replaced by combustion heat during generating period. Because of this, and as a response
to developments in terms of fuel prices and CO2 certification, the CAES process was
further developed to an adiabatic compressed air energy storage concept, representing a
locally emission-free, pure storage technology. As task of the EU-funded AA-CAES
Project (Advanced Adiabatic Compressed Air Energy Storage) the technical and
economic feasibility of this technology is investigated and concept studies are prepared
(Contract ENK6-CT-2002-000611).

2 Adiabatic compressed air energy storage process: usage, structure and

design requirements

There is a broad range of potential applications for this technology. Central plants with
large capacities can be used for peak-power production and the supply of positive and
negative regulating power. A decentral plant next to a wind park acts as a buffer that
decouples power supply from production and supplies regulating power, thereby
maximising sales revenue and minimising grid connection costs. For geographically
remote areas, autonomous island solutions can assure power supply from intermittent
energy sources and provide system services.
Despite the large number of usage options, the fundamental structure of the basic
model is limited to four main components – compressor, thermal energy store, cavern and
air turbine (see Figure 2).
In the adiabatic process the heat energy required for the expansion must have been
removed previously from the compression process at high temperature level and stored in
a separate Thermal Energy Store (TES) for the duration of an operating cycle. Therefore,
the pressurised air is cooled during charging in the downstream heat store to a sufficiently
 The European project AA-CAES 299

low cavern intake temperature. During discharge the cavern air to be expanded is brought
to the required turbine intake temperatures by the TES. Modifications to the plant layout
by means of additional components and/or multi-stage structures allow additional
flexibility in terms of the temperature and pressure levels for compressed air. Table 1
shows the basic data for two investigated applications.

Figure 2 Function diagram of an adiabatic compressed air energy storage power plant in
single-stage configuration (basic layout)

Table 1 Basic data for two investigated processes

Two-stage 10 MW
Configuration Single-stage 300 MW (Island grid)
Capacity (MWh) 1200 120
Output (MW) 300 10
Pressure level (bar a) 100 15/150
Mass flow rate (charging) (kg/s) 220 20
Mass flow rate (discharging) (kg/s) 550 20
Intake temp. TES (charging) (°C) 620 450/450
Intake temp. TES (discharging) (°C) 20 20
Outlet temp. TES (discharging) (°C) 600 420/420

Although these adiabatic compressed air energy storage processes were being discussed
as early as the beginning of the 1980’s, the technical barriers were seen as too high for
implementation in the near future. In today’s environment of deregulated electricity
markets with increasing penetration of intermittent energy from renewable sources, the
interest in this topical technology is increasing, particularly in view of the increased cost
of primary fuels and penalties for emissions.
Although the technologies for the individual system components are available in
principle, there are demanding requirements in terms of the actual design. Just as
demanding is the optimisation of the free parameters for the overall system in terms of
cost and efficiency aspects.
The design of the compressor train must therefore be based on adiabatic compression
rather than the usual process approaching isothermal compression by intercooling and
aftercooling. The combination of high pressures and temperatures in the last stages
300 C. Jakiel, S. Zunft and A. Nowi

together with the demand for high levels of efficiency and short start-up times requires
solutions that are not covered by conventional compressor design.
The difficult design requirements for air turbines that are derived from steam turbines
are high levels of efficiency over the entire operating range and quick start-up times to be
significantly shorter than with current machines.
For the TES – a central element of the system – there are almost no comparable
models with the required operating conditions. This makes it necessary to undertake
fundamental considerations in terms of choosing the storage technology. High pressures
and temperatures, large heat outputs and temperature differences and the capacity to meet
the operating conditions of compressor and turbine are – together with cost aspects – the
determining specifications.
The storage of compressed air in subterranean caverns represents the state of the art.
The various AA-CAES concepts require maximum flexibility in terms of storage
volumes, pressure fluctuations and storage rates. In order to achieve maximum overall
efficiency levels, it is necessary to minimise the pressure losses during storage and
release from storage. However, for the central device a large underground cavity of
150,000–500,000 m3 is needed. Often CAES plants are considered where an existing
cavern is available, but solution mining of salt caverns remains an attractive possibility,
not at least because suitable salt formations are found in a broad band over much of
northern Europe and locally in other areas of Europe. Where preparation of a salt cavern
is impractical, the use of existing rock caverns, aquifiers, depleted gas fields and
abandoned mines offer an alternative. Detailed studies of the geographical and technical
constraints for preparing new caverns have been performed and suitable caverns designs
and locations elaborated.

3 Compressor train

The conceptual design of the compressor train and the layout of the individual machines
are closely linked to the boundary conditions and the design of a compressed air storage
power plant, for example, it’s pressure levels, storage rates and operating mode. Because
of their modular and flexible structure, industrial compressors here offer the possibility of
optimally meeting these individual requirements (see Figure 3). Therefore both existing,
conventional compressed air energy storage power plants were fitted with industrial
compressors. Sulzer Turbo – today part of the MAN TURBO Group – in fact supplied the
compressor train for the power plant in Huntorf.
Industrial compressors are likely to feature in adiabatic CAES, too. But with the
definition of the adiabatic air energy storage power plant, some fundamentally different
requirements are placed on the compressors. In conventional CAES processes and, often
too, in industrial applications, the machines are designed for a process approaching
isothermal compression. Although multiple intercooling becomes necessary there, the
advantages provided by significantly reduced drive power and a lower number of stages
as well as a lack of temperature-related problems in design and operation are considered
to be more important in these cases. Therefore a demand for high outlet temperatures has
scarcely been formulated for industrial compressors. Although the required capacity and
pressure ranges are within the range of experience, this situation demands the
development of design solutions for high-temperature compressors within the AA-CAES
 The European project AA-CAES 301

project. Here, the high-temperature technologies of gas turbines, steam turbines and
turbochargers can only be partially used as design basis.

Figure 3 Axial compressor (left) and single-shaft centrifugal compressor (right) for industrial
applications

An important requirement to be considered at compressor development is the realisation

of short start-up times in order to expand the usage possibilities of such a power plant in
the control energy market. This however means a conflict of objectives with the
requirements for high temperatures and pressures, as a result of which considerable effort
and expense is needed in order to develop adequate solutions.
In the first phase of project work various train concepts were designed and analysed
for different power plant basic concepts and sizes, based on the economic scenarios
described earlier. The partitioning of the casing and the arrangement of intercoolers and
thermal storage devices as well as the number and size of the stages are significantly
affected by the power plant process and need to be re-determined for each individual
scenario. Amongst other aspects, the use of low-pressure intercooling was identified as
additional degree of freedom in the optimisation of the overall process. Different machine
types and operating concepts for the multi-casing train structure were considered. The
most promising layout so far includes an intercooled low pressure compressor of axial
type, whose output is led to single-shaft centrifugal machines with high temperature
design (see Figure 4). Multi-shaft centrifugal compressors are envisaged as an alternative,
especially for small plant scaling.

Figure 4 Compressor train for large scale quasi-adiabatic, single-stage process concept (sketch)
302 C. Jakiel, S. Zunft and A. Nowi

With the start of the second development phase, the available centrifugal compressor
design principles are now being developed further considering the requirements
formulated here. Several new design solutions are being worked out and investigated,
allied to high temperature technologies, for example, of the steam turbines and gas
turbines. In this development process a number of aspects, including materials, strength
issues, shaft-hub connections and thermal expansions of the overall machine, are being
investigated, and in all areas the extremely transient operation is taken into account. Here,
extensive transient thermal and mechanical simulations, performed with a sophisticated
virtual model of a completed machine, play a crucial role.

4 Thermal energy store

The Thermal Energy Store (TES) is a central element in the design of the power plant and
its performance is of decisive importance for the level of efficiency of the overall
process. In the application under consideration a thermal storage capacity of
120–1200 MWhth at high heat extraction rates and high uniformity of outlet temperature
is required in order to enable a discharge cycle time of 4–12 hours. At the same time the
temperature losses in charging and discharging need to be kept low to achieve high
process efficiency levels.
In principle all heat storage technologies that allow minimal losses (in terms of
exergy) during heat transmission come into consideration. Since, however, the
temperatures at the hot and cold ends of the store are largely determined by the overall
process, only stores based on sensible media can meet the requirements efficiently.
Phase-change media and thermo-chemical storage devices are only to a limited extent
compatible with the process requirements because of their fixed temperature
characteristics. However, some types of hybrid store based on a combined use of sensible
media and phase-change media could allow to increase efficiency of the store.
The basic design concepts of the store allow free scope that needs to be investigated,
particularly in terms of costs and technical risks: With direct storage media that have
direct contact between airflow and storage material, a large heat transfer surface can be
provided particularly economically and therefore low heat transfer losses can be
achieved. On the other hand this scenario requires a pressurised storage concept, which
involves significantly increased costs for the container and requires innovative concepts
for this component. Here, too, the choice of storage material is restricted by additional
requirements.
An indirectly acting heat store uses a heat exchanger to feed in the heat and
subsequently remove it from store. Although this does not have the disadvantages
previously mentioned, it is less favourable in terms of the heat transfer effectiveness and
the heat exchanger itself is a cost-intensive component. Furthermore, no suitable storage
fluid is available that could cover the entire temperature range from 50 and 620qC. The
use of two media, however, again leads to a considerable increase in investment costs.
Table 2 lists the storage concepts investigated.
Solid stores or ‘regenerators’ can be used with a large number of storage materials,
for example, natural stone, concrete, fire-resistant material and metal. These materials
span a wide range of parameters in terms of thermo-physical characteristics and costs and
thereby open up attractively priced design options. One of the few industrial technical
models for such a storage option are wind heaters or ‘Cowper stores’, which are used in
 The European project AA-CAES 303

the glass and metallurgical industries for preheating air in ovens to temperatures of up to
1500°C.
Table 2 Shortlist of considered thermal energy store concepts

Solid TES Liquid TES

Concept Rock Cowper- Concrete Cast Iron ‘Hybrid’- Two tank 1-Tank Air-
bed derivate walls slabs PCM Thermo- liquid
cline
direct direct direct direct direct indirect indirect direct

Storage Natural Ceramics Concrete Cast Iron Ceramics, Nitrate Nitrate Nitrate
material(s) stone salt salt, salt, salt,
mineral mineral mineral
oil oil oil

For liquid stores, oil and liquid salts (in separate units for the lower and upper sections of
the required temperature range) are suitable media. There are a few examples in existence
in applications for pre-heating in steam power plants and solar-thermal power plants. The
design is either a ‘thermocline’, that is, a single tank with a temperature gradient in the
fluid, or a ‘two-tank’ system with varying liquid levels.
Following an initial selection procedure, these storage options are the object of
concept studies and investment cost analyses. One of the project aims is to identify the
most cost-effective storage option for the various process options and to describe these in
more detail in conceptual designs.

5 Turbine train

The task of the air turbine is to expand the compressed cavern air to ambient conditions
for the purpose of power generation and provision of ancillary services. As supplier of
the world’s first CAES air turbine for the Huntorf power plant, ALSTOM has more than
25 years of experience in the area of compressed air energy storage power plants. An
enhancement of the diabatic power plant concept for capacities up to 300 MW by means
of development of a powerful gas turbine derivative and an efficient recuperator was
recently completed and is about to be launched into the market.
The load range specified for the AA-CAES project and the related intake mass/volume
flow varies between approx. 40 and 100%. The cavern pressure variation over time
entails a further inlet volume flow variation of up to a factor of 2. The resultant
requirement for extreme volume flow adaptation over load and time is economically
unattractive with existing turbine control concepts using valve throttling and control
wheel due to a unfavourable loss characteristic. An adaptive turbine stage is to be
developed for this on the basis of adjustable blades that satisfy the high pressure and
temperature requirements. The significant variation in volume flow results in high exit
swirls at the air turbine last stage outlet which leads to a poor diffuser performance. This
effect is to be minimised by means of adjustable diffuser guide vanes and optimised
diffuser design.
304 C. Jakiel, S. Zunft and A. Nowi

The air turbine design is based on the ALSTOM modular turbine concept (see
Figure 5) and can be adapted to the relevant cycle concept, location and customer
requirements.

Figure 5 Typical standard turbine modules for small (left) and medium (right) volume flows

The specified fast start-up capability in the order of a few minutes represents a further
special requirement and is an order of magnitude shorter than for conventional steam
turbines. A special warm-keeping and design concept is to be developed for this.

6 Optimisation of the overall system

The aim of the AA-CAES Project is to identify and work out in detail the economically
most efficient plant concept and the related component concepts. These results should
allow the core components to be constructed for a demonstration plant and tested in
operation in an independent follow-up project.
The economic incentive for plant operation is to make use of electricity price
variations between peak and off-peak load periods. The constantly growing peak load and
control energy requirements resulting from the expected expansion of wind energy will
mean that these variations will become more pronounced. This fact, together with the
large number of suitable locations for this emission-free power plant concept, makes a
rapid market introduction very probable.
In order to ensure the marketability of the system under development during this
project, the technical investigation work is continuously accompanied by economic
analyses. The individual technical options are evaluated not just in terms of their effects
on efficiency and costs but also on their influence in respect of expected electricity sale
revenues. This additional feedback accelerates the development process of market-ready
total systems, which because of the large number of degrees of technical freedom is a
complex task.
Qualitative descriptions of the potential markets for the usage profiles given in
Section 2 are the basis of such considerations. Here, the existing and projected generation
 The European project AA-CAES 305

and storage technologies in the target markets, their grid infrastructure, load profiles and
size are significant factors. According to these, the Netherlands is particularly promising,
with Germany, Belgium, Spain and Great Britain representing other promising locations
(Gatzen, 2004).
Preliminary specifications for the design and interaction of the basic components
(compressor, thermal store, cavern and air turbine) and the concept-specific components
(e.g. intercooler, after-cooler) as well as the required operational strategy of the plant are
therefore worked out in accordance with the most favourable sales revenues in which
target market requirements and electricity trading prices are set and the investment costs
are determined in a techno-economical iteration.
The envisaged capacities are between 30 MW (island solution) and 300 MW (central
solution). The key thermodynamic parameters of pressure and temperature for component
design are limited to approx. 200 bar/620°C. The areas of application for this type of
power plant, all including the provision of tertiary regulation services, require a
completely new fast start-up concept that allows the turbine/compressor train to be
brought to full load within a few minutes. These additional operational requirements are
also part of the optimisation and design process.

7 Summary and outlook

The grid-compatible expansion of renewable, fluctuating energy sources makes it

necessary to provide sufficient electricity storage capacity. Adiabatic compressed air
energy storage power plants are a promising option here with high expansion potential.
There exists over 25 years of experience in the operation of conventional, diabatic
compressed air energy storage power plants, although only in hybrid operation with gas
turbines. Adiabatic process control on the other hand allows locally emission-free pure
storage technology with significantly higher efficiency. Because it is not affected by price
developments in fuel and emission certificates, this concept is extremely attractive both
economically and in terms of energy policies.
With manageable development costs the realisation of such plants can be achieved
relatively quickly. The underlying technology for the basic components (compressor,
turbine, cavern and heat store) is already in existence. The technical challenge lies in the
ability to meet the specifications, some of which are quite demanding. The current status
of development work gives good prospects for the technical feasibility of all components,
also in a cost-effective manner.
Quantitative market analyses and preliminary investment cost estimates have led to
the identification of promising target markets. With that the operation of adiabatic
compressed air energy storage power plants is strongly expected to be economically
feasible at a multitude of locations. The progressive expansion of wind energy will
further improve market conditions.

Acknowledgements

The AA-CAES Project is comprised of 20 different partners, and the authors wish to
express thanks for their cooperation and contributions to the Project, which this paper
306 C. Jakiel, S. Zunft and A. Nowi

summarises. They are also pleased to acknowledge the support and involvement of the
European Commission DGXII through the research contract ENK6-CT-2002-000611.

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